ALBEDO
ALBEDO (late lat. albedo, from lat. albus - white), a value that characterizes the ratio between the flux of solar radiation falling on various objects, soil or snow cover, and the amount of such radiation absorbed or reflected by them; reflect. body surface ability. The highest albedo (0.8-0.4) has dry snow, salt deposits, the average - vegetation, the smallest - water bodies (0.1-0.2).
Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau: Main edition of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Grandpa. 1989
Albedo (from lat. albedo - whiteness) - the ratio of the amount of reflected radiation energy to the energy incident on the surface of the body. The albedo (of the entire spectrum as a whole) of forest communities varies, for example, within 10-15%. Wed light mode.
Ecological dictionary. - Alma-Ata: "Science". B.A. Bykov. 1983
ALBEDO [from lat. albus - light] - a value characterizing the reflectivity of any surface; It is expressed as the ratio of the radiation reflected by the surface to the solar radiation arriving at the surface. For example, A. chernozem - 0.15; sand 0.3-0.4; average A. of the Earth - 0.39; Moons - 0.07.
Ecological dictionary, 2001
Synonyms:
- ALLELOGEN
See what "ALBEDO" is in other dictionaries:
Planets and some dwarf planets of the solar system Planet Geometric albedo Spherical albedo Mercury 0.106 0.119 Venus 0.65 0.76 Earth 0.367 0.39 Mars 0.15 0.16 Jupiter 0.52 0.343 Saturn 0.47 0.342 Uranus 0.51 0, 3 ... Wikipedia
ALBEDO is the proportion of light or other radiation reflected from a surface. An ideal reflector has an albedo of 1, while a real reflector has a smaller number. Snow albedo ranges from 0.45 to 0.90; albedo of the Earth, from artificial satellites, ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
- (arab.). A term in photometry indicating how much of the light rays a given surface reflects. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. albedo (lat. albus light) value characterizing ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
- (from late Latin albedo whiteness) a value that characterizes the ability of a surface to reflect the flow of electromagnetic radiation or particles incident on it. The albedo is equal to the ratio of the reflected flux to the incident one. In astronomy, an important characteristic ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
albedo- non-cl. albedo m. lat. albedo. white. 1906. Lexis. Inner white layer of citrus peel. Food industry. Lex. Brogg: albedo; SIS 1937: albe/before … Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
albedo- Characteristic of the reflectivity of the body surface; is determined by the ratio of the luminous flux reflected (scattered) by this surface to the luminous flux incident on it [Terminological dictionary for construction in 12 languages ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook
albedo- The ratio of solar radiation reflected from the surface of the earth to the intensity of radiation falling on it, expressed as a percentage or decimal fractions (the average albedo of the Earth is 33%, or 0.33). → Fig. 5 … Geography Dictionary
- (from late lat. albedo whiteness), a value characterizing the ability of the surface to. l. body to reflect (scatter) the radiation incident on it. There are true, or Lambertian, A., coinciding with the coefficient. diffuse (scattered) reflection, and ... ... Physical Encyclopedia
Exist., number of synonyms: 1 characteristic (9) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary
A value characterizing the reflectivity of any surface; expressed by the ratio of the radiation reflected by the surface to the solar radiation that arrived at the surface (for chernozem 0.15; sand 0.3 0.4; average A. Earth 0.39; Moon 0.07) ... ... Glossary of business terms
Books
- Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Schoolchild,. What is the Earth's albedo? Does evolution continue today? Can you see the solar corona? When were the first ships created? How is the human brain arranged? Which train has a speed of...
When astronomers talk about the reflective properties of the surface of planets and moons, they often use the term albedo. However, turning to reference books and encyclopedias for an explanation of this concept, we learn that there are many different types of albedo: true, visible, normal, flat, monochromatic, spherical, and so on. There is something to be sad about. So let's try to understand this cycle of terms.
The word "albedo" itself comes from the Latin albedo - whiteness. In the most general form, this is the name given to the fraction of incident radiation reflected by a solid surface or scattered by a translucent body. Since the value of the reflected radiation cannot exceed the value of the incident radiation, this ratio, that is, the albedo, is always in the range from 0 to 1. The higher its value, the greater the proportion of the incident light will be reflected.
The visibility of all non-luminous bodies is completely determined by their albedo, that is, their reflectivity. It can even be said that we simply would not see non-self-luminous objects if they could not reflect light. Thanks to this property, we "by eye" determine the shape of the body, the nature of the material, its hardness and other characteristics. However, a skillfully selected albedo can also hide an object from us - remember military camouflage or a Stealth stealth aircraft. When studying the bodies of the solar system, the measurement of albedo helps to find out the nature of the material on the surface of a celestial body, its structure and even its chemical composition.
We can easily tell snow from asphalt because snow almost completely reflects light, while asphalt absorbs it almost completely. However, we can also easily distinguish snow from a sheet of polished aluminum, although both of them almost completely reflect light. This means that only knowing the fraction of reflected light is not enough to judge the nature of the material. Snow scatters light diffusely, in all directions, while aluminum reflects specularly. To take into account these and other features of reflection, several types of albedo are distinguished.
True (absolute) albedo coincides with the so-called diffuse reflection coefficient: this is the ratio of the flux scattered by a flat surface element in all directions to the flux incident on it.
To measure the true albedo, laboratory conditions are required, because it is necessary to take into account the light scattered by the body in all directions. For "field" conditions, it is more natural to apparent albedo- the ratio of the brightness of a flat surface element illuminated by a parallel beam of rays to the brightness of an absolutely white surface located perpendicular to the rays and having a true albedo equal to one.
If a surface is illuminated and observed at an angle of 90 degrees, then its apparent albedo is called normal. The normal albedo of pure snow approaches 1.0, and that of charcoal is about 0.04.
Often used in astronomy geometric (flat) albedo- the ratio of the illumination on Earth, created by the planet in the full phase, to the illumination that would be created by a flat absolutely white screen of the same size as the planet, referred to its place and located perpendicular to the line of sight and the sun's rays. Astronomers usually express the physical concept of "illuminance" with their own word "brilliance" and measure it in stellar magnitudes.
It is clear that the value of albedo affects the brightness of celestial objects as much as their size and position in the solar system. For example, if the asteroids Ceres and Vesta were placed side by side, then their brightness would be almost the same, although the diameter of Ceres is twice that of Vesta. The fact is that the surface of Ceres reflects light much worse: Vesta's albedo is about 0.35, while Ceres's is only 0.09.
The albedo value depends both on the properties of the surface and on the spectrum of the incident radiation. Therefore, the albedo is measured separately for different spectral ranges (optical, ultraviolet, infrared, and so on) or even for individual wavelengths (monochromatic albedo). By studying the change in albedo with wavelength and comparing the obtained curves with the same curves for terrestrial minerals, soil samples, and various rocks, one can draw some conclusions about the composition and structure of the surface of the planets and their satellites.
To calculate the energy balance of the planets is used spherical albedo (Bond's albedo) introduced by the American astronomer George Bond in 1861. This is the ratio of the radiation flux reflected by the entire planet to the flux incident on it. In order to accurately calculate the spherical albedo, generally speaking, it is necessary to observe the planet at all possible phase angles (Sun-planet-Earth angle). Previously, this was only possible for the inner planets and the Moon. With the advent of artificial satellites, astronomers were able to calculate the spherical albedo near the Earth, and interplanetary spacecraft made it possible to do this for the outer planets as well. The Bond albedo of the Earth is about 0.33, and the reflection of light from clouds plays a very important role in it. It is equal to 0.12 for the moon without an atmosphere, and 0.76 for Venus, covered with a powerful cloudy atmosphere.
Naturally, different parts of the surface of celestial bodies, having different structure, composition and origin, have different albedo. You can verify this for yourself by looking at least at the moon. The seas on its surface have an extremely low albedo, unlike, say, the ray structures of some craters. By the way, when observing ray structures, you can easily notice that their appearance strongly depends on the angle at which the Sun illuminates them. This is precisely due to a change in their albedo, which takes on a maximum value when the rays fall perpendicular to the surface of the Moon, where these formations are located.
And one more experiment. Look at the moon through a telescope (or at any planet, Mars or Jupiter is best) with various filters. And you will see that, for example, in red rays, the surface of the moon looks a little different than in blue. This suggests that radiation of different wavelengths is reflected from its surface in different ways.
But what kind of albedo you need to talk about in the examples described above, try to guess for yourself.
Albedo of the Earth. Living matter increases the absorption of solar radiation by the earth's surface, reducing the albedo not only of the land, but also of the ocean. Land vegetation, as is known, significantly reduces the reflection of short-wave solar radiation into space. The albedo of forests, meadows, fields does not exceed 25%, but is more often determined by figures from 10% to 20%. Only a smooth water surface with direct radiation and moist chernozem (about 5%) has less albedo. However, bare dried soil or snow-covered land always reflects much more solar radiation than when they are protected by vegetation. The difference can reach several tens of percent. So dry snow reflects 85-95% of solar radiation, and the forest in the presence of a stable snow cover - only 40-45%.[ ...]
A dimensionless quantity that characterizes the reflectivity of a body or system of bodies. A. reflective surface element - the ratio (in percent) of the intensity (flux density) of radiation reflected by this element to the intensity (flux density) of radiation incident on it. This refers to diffuse reflection; in the case of directional reflection, one speaks not of A., but of the reflection coefficient. A distinction is made between integral A - for radiation over the entire range of its wavelengths, and spectral A - for individual parts of the spectrum. See also the albedo of the natural surface, the albedo of the Earth.[ ...]
EARTH ALBEDO. Percentage of solar radiation given off by the globe (together with the atmosphere) back into world space, to solar radiation entering the boundary of the atmosphere. The return of solar radiation by the Earth is composed of reflection from the earth's surface, scattering of direct radiation by the atmosphere into the world space (backscattering) and reflection from the upper surface of the clouds. A. 3. in the visible part of the spectrum (visual) - about 40%. For the integral flux of solar radiation, the integral (energy) A. 3. is about 35%. In the absence of clouds, visual A. 3. would be about 15%.[ ...]
Albedo is a value that characterizes the reflectivity of the surface of a body; the ratio (in %) of the reflected solar radiation flux to the incident radiation flux.[ ...]
The albedo of a surface depends on its color, roughness, humidity, and other properties. The albedo of water surfaces at a solar altitude above 60 ° is less than the albedo of land, since the sun's rays, penetrating into the water, are largely absorbed and scattered in it.[ ...]
The albedo of all surfaces, and especially water ones, depends on the height of the Sun: the smallest albedo occurs at noon, the largest - in the morning and evening. This is due to the fact that at a low altitude of the Sun, the proportion of scattered radiation in the composition of the total radiation increases, which is reflected from the rough underlying surface to a greater extent than direct radiation.[ ...]
ALBEDO is a value that characterizes the reflectivity of any surface. A. is expressed as the ratio of the radiation reflected by the surface to the solar radiation arriving at the surface. For example, A. chernozem - 0.15; sand - 0.3-0.4; average A. Earth - 0.39, Moon - 0.07.[ ...]
Here is the albedo (%) of various soils, rocks and vegetation cover (Chudnovsky, 1959): dry chernozem -14, wet chernozem - 8, dry sierozem - 25-30, wet sierozem 10-12, dry clay -23, wet clay - 16 , white and yellow sand - 30-40, spring wheat - 10-25, winter wheat - 16-23, green grass -26, dried grass -19, cotton -20-22, rice - 12, potatoes - 19.[ . ..]
Careful calculations of the land albedo of the early Pliocene epoch (6 million years ago) showed that at that time the albedo of the land surface of the Northern Hemisphere was 0.060 less than the modern one and, as evidenced by paleoclimatic data, the climate of this epoch was warmer and more humid; in the middle and high latitudes of Eurasia and North America, the vegetation cover was richer in species composition, forests occupied vast territories, in the north they reached the coasts of continents, in the south their border passed south of the border of the modern forest zone.[ ...]
Measurements using albedo meters located at a height of 1-2 m above the earth's surface make it possible to determine the albedo of small areas. The albedo values of long sections used in the calculations of the radiation balance are determined from an aircraft or from a satellite. Typical albedo values: wet soil 5-10%, chernozem 15%, dry clay soil 30%, light sand 35-40%, field crops 10-25%, grass cover 20-25%, forest - 5-20%, freshly fallen snow 70-90%; water surface for direct radiation from 70-80% with the sun near the horizon to 5% with high sun, for diffuse radiation about 10%; upper surface of clouds 50-65%.[ ...]
The maximum dependence of the albedo is observed on natural surfaces, on which, along with diffuse reflection, total or partial specular reflection is observed. These are smooth and slightly agitated water surface, ice, snow covered with infusion.[ ...]
Obviously, for a given single scattering albedo, the absorption will increase with an increase in the fraction of diffuse radiation and the average scattering multiplicity. For stratus clouds, with an increase in the zenith angle of the Sun, the absorption decreases (Table 9.1), since the albedo of the cloud layer increases and, due to the strong forward extension of the scattering indicatrix, apparently, the average multiplicity of scattering of the reflected radiation decreases. This result is consistent with calculations. For cumulus clouds, the inverse relationship is true, which is explained by the fact that at large clouds the proportion of diffuse radiation increases sharply. For Q=0°, the inequality Pst (¿1, zw+1) > РСu, r/+1) is valid, which is due to the fact that the radiation emerging through the sides of cumulus clouds has, on average, a lower scattering multiplicity. At = 60°, the effect associated with an increase in the average fraction of diffuse radiation is stronger than the effect due to a decrease in the average scattering multiplicity, so the reverse inequality is true.[ ...]
The independent pixel approximation (IPP) is used to calculate the spatially averaged albedo. The meaning of the approximation is that the radiation properties of each pixel depend only on its vertical optical thickness and do not depend on the optical thickness of neighboring regions. This means that we neglect the effects associated with finite pixel dimensions and horizontal radiation transfer.[ ...]
A distinction is made between integral (energy) albedo for the entire radiation flux and spectral albedo for individual spectral regions of radiation, including visual albedo for radiation in the visible region of the spectrum. Since the spectral albedo is different for different wavelengths, A.E.P. changes with the height of the sun due to a change in the radiation spectrum. The annual course of A.E.P. depends on changes in the nature of the underlying surface.[ ...]
The derivative 911/ dC is the difference between the average albedo of stratus and cumulus clouds, which can be either positive or negative (see Fig. 9.5, a).[ ...]
We emphasize that at low humidity values, the land albedo changes most sharply, and small fluctuations in the moisture content of the continents should lead to significant fluctuations in the albedo, and, consequently, in temperature. An increase in global air temperature leads to an increase in its moisture content (a warm atmosphere contains more water vapor) and to an increase in the evaporation of the oceans, which, in turn, contributes to precipitation on land. A further increase in the temperature and humidity of the continents ensures the enhanced development of natural vegetation cover (for example, the productivity of tropical rainforests in Thailand is 320 centners of dry weight per 1 ha, and the desert steppes of Mongolia - 24 centners). This contributes to an even greater decrease in the albedo of the land, the amount of absorbed solar energy increases, as a result, there is a further increase in temperature and humidity.[ ...]
Using a pyranometer, you can also easily determine the albedo of the earth's surface, the amount of radiation leaving the cabin, etc. Of the instruments manufactured by the industry, it is recommended to use the M-80 pyranometer paired with the GSA-1 pointer galvanometer.[ ...]
The impact of cloud cover on the biosphere is diverse. It affects the Earth's albedo, transfers water from the surface of the seas and oceans to land in the form of rain, snow, hail, and also covers the Earth at night like a blanket, reducing its radiative cooling.[ ...]
The radiation balance can vary significantly depending on the albedo of the earth's surface, that is, on the ratio of reflected to incoming solar light energy, expressed in fractions of a unit. Dry snow and salt deposits have the highest albedo (0.8-0.9); average albedo values - vegetation; the smallest - water bodies (reservoirs and water-saturated surfaces) - 0.1-0.2. Albedo affects the unequal supply of solar energy to different-quality surfaces of the Earth and the air adjacent to it: the poles and the equator, land and ocean, various parts of the land, depending on the nature of the surface, etc.[ ...]
After all, it is necessary to take into account such important climatic parameters as albedo - a function of humidity. The albedo of marshes, for example, is several times smaller than the albedo of deserts. And this is clearly visible from satellite data, according to which the Sahara desert has a very high albedo. So, it turned out that as the land gets wet, a positive feedback also occurs. Humidity is rising, the planet is warming up more, the oceans are evaporating more, more moisture is falling on land, humidity is rising again. This positive relationship is known in climatology. And I already mentioned the second positive connection when analyzing the dynamics of fluctuations in the level of the Caspian Sea.[ ...]
In the second version of the calculation, it was assumed that the degree of dependence of the albedo on the moisture reserves of the land decreased by 4 times, and the degree of dependence of the amount of precipitation on temperature decreased by a factor of two. It turned out that in this case the system of equations (4.4.1) also has chaotic solutions. In other words, the effect of chaos is significant and persists over a wide range of changes in the parameters of the hydroclimatic system.[ ...]
Let us consider further the influence of the ice cover. After the introduction of empirical data on albedo, Budyko added to the equation relating temperature to radiation a term that takes into account the nonlinear dependence of the influence of the ice cover, which is the cause of the self-amplification effect.[ ...]
Multiple scattering plays a significant role in the formation of the radiation field in clouds, therefore, the albedo L and the transmission of diffuse radiation (reach large values even in those pixels that are located outside the clouds (Fig. 9.4, b, d). Clouds have different thicknesses, which in a given cloud field implementation varies from 0.033 to 1.174 km The radiation field reflected by a single cloud spreads out in space and overlaps with the radiation fields of other clouds before it reaches the r-AH plane, where the albedo is determined The spreading and overlapping effects smooth out the albedo dependence so much from horizontal coordinates, that many details are masked and it is difficult to visually restore the real picture of the distribution of clouds in space using known albedo values (Fig. 9.4, a, b).The tops of the most powerful clouds are clearly visible, since in this case the influence of the above effects is not sufficient strong Albedo varies in the range from 0.24 to 0.65, and its average value is 0.33.[ ...]
Due to multiple scattering in the "atmosphere-underlying surface" system, at high albedo values, the scattered radiation increases. In table. 2.9, compiled according to the data of K. Ya. Kondratiev, shows the values of the diffuse radiation flux And for a cloudless sky and various values of the albedo of the underlying surface (/ha = 30 °).[ ...]
The second explanation relates to reservoirs. They are included in the energy balance as complexes that change the albedo of the natural surface. And this is true, given the large areas of reservoirs that continue to grow.[ ...]
The radiation reflected from the earth's surface is the most important component of its radiation balance. The integral albedo of natural surfaces varies from 4-5% for deep water bodies at solar altitudes over 50° to 70-90% for pure dry snow. All natural surfaces are characterized by the dependence of the albedo on the height of the Sun. The greatest changes in albedo are observed from sunrise to its height above the horizon of about 30%.[ ...]
A completely different picture is observed in those spectral intervals where the cloud particles themselves absorb intensely and the single-scattering albedo is small (0.5 - 0.7). Since a significant part of the radiation is absorbed during each scattering event, the cloud albedo will be formed mainly due to the first few scattering multiplicities and, therefore, will be very sensitive to changes in the scattering indicatrix. The presence of a condensation nucleus is no longer capable of significantly changing the single-scattering albedo. For this reason, at a wavelength of 3.75 μm, the indicatrix effect of aerosol dominates and the spectral albedo of clouds increases by about 2 times (Table 5.2). For some wavelengths, the effect due to absorption by smoke aerosol can exactly compensate for the effect due to reduction in the size of cloud droplets, and the albedo will not change.[ ...]
The RPMS method, as we have seen, has a number of disadvantages associated with the effect of aerosol and the need to introduce corrections for the albedo of the troposphere and the underlying surface. One of the fundamental limitations of the method is the impossibility of obtaining information from parts of the atmosphere that are not illuminated by the Sun. The method for observing the intrinsic emission of ozone in the 9.6 μm band is deprived of this shortcoming. Technically, the method is simpler and allows remote measurements in the daytime and nighttime hemispheres, in any geographical area. The interpretation of the results is simpler in the sense that in the region of the spectrum under consideration, scattering processes and the influence of direct solar radiation can be neglected. Ideologically, this method belongs to the classical methods of inverse problems of satellite meteorology in the IR range. The basis for solving such problems is the radiative transfer equation, previously used in astrophysics. The formulation and general characteristics of the problems of meteorological sounding and the mathematical aspects of the solution are contained in the fundamental monograph by K. Ya. Kondratiev and Yu. M. Timofeev.[ ...]
U.K.R. for the Earth as a whole, expressed as a percentage of the influx of solar radiation to the upper boundary of the atmosphere, is called the Earth's albedo or the planetary albedo (of the Earth).[ ...]
[ ...]
True, a decrease in the content of water vapor also means a decrease in cloudiness, and clouds act as the main factor that increases the Earth's albedo or reduces it if the cloudiness becomes less.[ ...]
More accurate data are also needed on photodissociation processes (02, NO2, H2O2, etc.), i.e., on absorption cross sections and quantum yields, as well as on the role of aerosol light scattering and albedo in the dissociation process. The variability of the short-wave part of the solar spectrum over time is also of great interest.[ ...]
It is important to note that phytoplankton has a higher reflectivity (Lx 0.5) at solar radiation wavelengths L > 0.7 µm than at shorter X (Lx 0.1). Such a spectral course of albedo is associated with the need of algae, on the one hand, to absorb photosynthetically active radiation (Fig. 2.29), and on the other hand, to reduce overheating. The latter is achieved as a result of reflection by phytoplankton of longer wavelength radiation. It can be assumed that the formulas given in Section 2.2 are also suitable for calculating such parameters of heat flows as incoming and outgoing radiation, emissivity and albedo, provided that data on Ha and other meteorological elements also have the necessary higher temporal resolution (i.e. obtained with a shorter time step).[ ...]
From a physically reasonable assumption that the concentration of water vapor increases with increasing temperature, it follows that one can expect an increase in water content, the increase of which leads to an increase in the albedo of clouds, but has little effect on their long-wave radiation, with the exception of cirrus clouds, which are not absolutely black. This reduces the heating of the atmosphere and surface by solar radiation, and hence the temperature, and provides an example of a negative cloud-radiation feedback. Estimates of the value of the parameter X of this feedback vary over a wide range from 0 to 1.9 W-m 2-K 1 . It should be noted that an insufficiently detailed description of the physical, optical and radiative properties of clouds, as well as a disregard for their spatial heterogeneity, is one of the main sources of uncertainty in studies on the problem of global climate change.[ ...]
Another factor, which has also been neglected, is that the aerosol emitted can significantly attenuate solar radiation, under the influence of which ozone is restored in the atmosphere. An increase in albedo due to an increase in aerosol content in the stratosphere should lead to a decrease in temperature, which slows down the recovery of ozone. Here, however, it is necessary to perform detailed calculations with various aerosol models, since many aerosols noticeably absorb solar radiation, and this leads to some heating of the atmosphere.[ ...]
It is predicted that an increase in the content of CO2 in the atmosphere by 60% of the current level can cause an increase in the temperature of the earth's surface by 1.2 - 2.0 °C. The existence of a feedback between snow cover, albedo and surface temperature should lead to the fact that temperature changes can be even greater and cause a radical climate change on the planet with unpredictable consequences.[ ...]
Let a single flux of solar radiation fall on the upper boundary of the cloud layer in the X01 plane: and ср0 = 0 are the zenith and azimuth angles of the Sun. In the visible region of the spectrum, Rayleigh and aerosol light scattering can be neglected; Let us set the albedo of the underlying surface equal to zero, which approximately corresponds to the albedo of the ocean. Calculations of the statistical characteristics of the field of visible solar radiation, performed at non-zero albedo of the Lambertian underlying surface, are specially noted in the text. The scattering indicatrix is calculated according to the Mie theory for a model cloud Cx [1] and a wavelength of 0.69 μm. The cloud field is generated by a Poisso ensemble of points in space.[ ...]
The physical mechanism of instability is that the rate of accumulation of land moisture reserves due to precipitation exceeds the rate of their decrease due to river runoff, and an increase in land moisture, as shown above, causes a decrease in the Earth's albedo and then a positive feedback is realized, which leads to climate instability. In essence, this means that the Earth is constantly supercooled (glacial epochs, climate cooling) or overheated (warming and moistening of the climate, increased development of vegetation cover - the mode of "wet and green" Earth) ..[ ...]
It should be borne in mind that the accuracy of estimates of both the greenhouse effect as a whole and its components is still not absolute. It is not clear, for example, how one can accurately take into account the greenhouse role of water vapor, which, when clouds form, becomes a powerful factor in increasing the Earth's albedo. Stratospheric ozone is not so much a greenhouse gas as an anti-greenhouse gas, as it reflects approximately 3% of incoming solar radiation. Dust and other aerosols, especially sulfur compounds, weaken the heating of the earth's surface and the lower atmosphere, although they act in the opposite role for the heat balance of desert areas.[ ...]
So, the absorption and reflection of solar radiation by aerosol particles will lead to a change in the radiation characteristics of the atmosphere, a general cooling of the earth's surface; will affect the macro- and meso-scale circulation of the atmosphere. The appearance of numerous condensation nuclei will affect the formation of clouds and precipitation; there will be a change in the albedo of the earth's surface. The evaporation of water from the oceans, in the presence of an influx of cold air from the continents, will cause heavy precipitation in coastal areas and on continents; the source of energy capable of causing a storm will be the heat of evaporation.[ ...]
When solving the three-dimensional transport equation, periodic boundary conditions were used, which assume that the layer 0[ ...]
The surface layer of the troposphere experiences anthropogenic impact to the greatest extent, the main type of which is chemical and thermal air pollution. The air temperature is most strongly influenced by the urbanization of the territory. Temperature differences between the urbanized area and the surrounding areas undeveloped by man are associated with the size of the city, building density, and synoptic conditions. There is an upward trend in temperature in every town and city. For large cities of the temperate zone, the temperature contrast between the city and the suburbs is 1-3 ° C. In cities, the albedo of the underlying surface decreases (the ratio of reflected radiation to the total) as a result of the appearance of buildings, structures, artificial coatings, solar radiation is more intensively absorbed here, accumulated by structures buildings absorbed heat during the day with its return to the atmosphere in the evening and at night. The heat consumption for evaporation decreases, as the areas with open soil cover occupied by green plantations are reduced, and the rapid removal of precipitation by rainwater sewer systems does not allow creating a moisture reserve in soils and surface water bodies. Urban development leads to the formation of air stagnation zones, which leads to its overheating; the transparency of the air also changes in the city due to the increased content of impurities from industrial enterprises and transport. The total solar radiation decreases in the city, as well as the oncoming infrared radiation of the earth's surface, which, together with the heat transfer of buildings, leads to the appearance of a local "greenhouse effect", i.e. the city is "covered" with a blanket of greenhouse gases and aerosol particles. Under the influence of urban development, the amount of precipitation is changing. The main factor in this is a radical decrease in the permeability for precipitation of the underlying surface and the creation of networks to divert surface runoff from the city. The importance of the huge amount of hydrocarbon fuel burned is great. On the territory of the city in the warm season, there is a decrease in the values of absolute humidity and the opposite picture in the cold season - in the city, the humidity is higher than outside the city.[ ...]
Let us consider some basic properties of complex systems, bearing in mind the conventionality of the term "complex". One of the main features of a system, which makes us consider it as an independent object, is that the system is always something more than the sum of its constituent elements. This is explained by the fact that the most important properties of the system depend on the nature and number of links between the elements, which gives the system the ability to change its state over time, to have quite diverse reactions to external influences. A variety of connections means that there are connections of different "weights or "strengths"; in addition, feedbacks with different signs of action arise in the system - positive and negative. Elements or subsystems connected by positive feedback tend, if they are not limited by other connections, to mutually reinforce each other, creating instability in the system. For example, an increase in the average temperature on Earth leads to the melting of polar and mountain ice, a decrease in albedo and the absorption of more energy from the Sun. This causes a further increase in temperature, an accelerated reduction in the area of glaciers - reflectors of the radiant energy of the Sun, etc. If it were not for numerous other factors affecting the average temperature of the planet's surface, the Earth could exist only either as "ice", reflecting almost all solar radiation , or as a red-hot, like Venus, lifeless planet.
The vocabulary of people varies greatly. A student, a scientist or a handyman differs from each other in erudition like Ellochka the cannibal from a modern person. And it doesn't matter whether we are talking about scientific terminology, youth slang or ordinary Russian obscenities. Today we will tell you about what "albedo" is and what role it plays in various situations.
Physics
If we talk about the true meaning of the word "albedo", this is a physical quantity that characterizes the reflective properties of a surface. The surface albedo will differ for different wavelength ranges of light and spectral characteristics of the body. In more detail, this value can be broken down into three different types.
normal albedo
True (normal) albedo is a factor that indicates how much incident light scatters due to reflection from a surface. It can be calculated through the ratio of the incident light flux to the reflected one. Despite the fact that there is a formula and tasks for calculating this coefficient, in a normal situation this value is determined either using an instrument (albedometer) or using a ready-made table with the most common substances.
Geometric
When it comes to astronomy, magnitudes of this magnitude, it is very difficult to say anything. Speaking of astronomical values, albedo is the ratio of illumination near the Earth's surface and the amount of illumination that could be obtained by placing an absolutely white screen of the same size and in the same phase instead of the planet. In most cases, the albedo has already been calculated and can be taken from ready-made tables.
Bondovskoe
Spherical albedo is a value determined by the ratio of scattered light to the flux incident on a body. It can be calculated both for a certain range and for the entire spectrum. These values have also been calculated for a long time. For example, the spherical albedo of the Earth is approximately 0.29.
Detail
At first glance, it may seem that now we are talking about some kind of mechanism or device, but this is not so. All the same astronomy. An albedo detail is an area on a celestial body that stands out brightly against the surrounding background, regardless of whether it is darker or brighter. Usually this term is applied to formations that cannot be explained in terms of the geology and topography of the planet.
This concept is gradually becoming obsolete. With the development of telescopes and other equipment that helps to study celestial bodies, temporarily unexplored areas of the surface began to be called a detail, and the term remained only in the use of amateur astronomers.
In The Witcher 3
The beauty of the word, its pronunciation and "mysteriousness" often influence the developers of games and entertainment applications. This fate did not bypass the word "albedo". The game "The Witcher 3" also uses this concept, but far from its original meaning. And not even in a metaphorical way, to point to something significant, stand out.
In Witcher 3, the word in question is used to refer to an alchemical mixture that is needed to create various potions, bombs, and equipment. Even the dirty gray powder itself looks more like gunpowder than the dust of distant planets.
How to get in the game?
This important question worries many gamers, because without this material it is almost impossible to play the game normally - without good armor you will be constantly killed, without strong explosives it is difficult to destroy groups of monsters, and without potions the sword will cause little damage to bosses. There are two ways to solve this problem.
- Buy an ingredient. Advanced herbalists and innkeepers have impressive reserves of this substance. In addition, you can get material from an old friend Keira Metz.
- Do it yourself. The albedo recipe can be found in the starting location "White Orchard". It is located in the eastern part of the map, a little west of the house, with two soldiers on a secondary quest, in which you have to look for soldiers missing on the battlefield with a dog.
However, the preparation of the powder is not so simple. You will need many different ingredients. Which ones?
- Elixir "White Seagull". Its creation will also require an incredible amount of reagents from the player and, first of all, alcohol.
- Raven eye.
- Lightning root.
- Mistletoe.
- Double arrow flower.
- Senzhigron.
As a result, by the end of the game you will be able to cook only a few handfuls, but this will be enough to meet all the necessary needs.
The medicine
It is unlikely that a person who manufactures medical equipment or medicines actually knew the meaning of the word "albedo", but its euphonious pronunciation did not escape the attention of one advertising department, as a result of which we have a company engaged in the production and sale of medical equipment.
Ultrasonic inhaler "Albedo" - a device that allows you to make an aerosol from a liquid medicine. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to find true reviews about this device, so we will limit ourselves to a general description.
Albedo inhalers perform the functions of a stationary device for both home use and medical institutions. With the use of special accessories, you can even make your own halochamber or a room for group therapy. Naturally, such a multifunctional device cannot be too cheap. The price range fluctuates around 20,000 rubles, which can be a problem for the usual consumer, but quite budgetary for medical organizations.
Board game
Fans of games in reality also have something to profit from. Albedo is a comic book series about furry worlds that ran from 1983 to 2005. This is a sci-fi story about a remote area of space inhabited by amazing anthropomorphic animals. The main events unfold around the political situation.
The board game "Albedo" has rather complicated rules, for which separate magazines and books were published. There are three editions in total, the latest of which dates back to 2005. Despite the fact that the games belong to the same series, they focus on different components. For example, the first edition from 1988 stands out for its random character generation. The second part is more like classic computer RPGs like Fallout 1. As for the third edition, it focuses on the interaction of tactical groups. One of the main "chips" of the series was the mortality of the characters. In addition, it uses not only the physical parameters of the characters, but also such qualities as stress resistance and motivation. At one time, this was a whole breakthrough in the industry of board games.
Unfortunately, this game has not been released for a long time. You can only find it at private auctions or in resale on sites like Ebay.
The total radiation that has reached the earth's surface is partially absorbed by soil and water bodies and converted into heat; it is spent on the oceans and seas for evaporation, and is partially reflected into the atmosphere (reflected radiation). The ratio of absorbed and reflected radiant energy depends on the nature of the land, on the angle of incidence of the rays on the water surface. Since it is practically impossible to measure the absorbed energy, the value of the reflected energy is determined.
The reflectivity of land and water surfaces is called their albedo. It is calculated as a percentage of the reflected radiation from the incident on a given surface, along with the angle (more precisely, the sine of the angle) of incidence of the rays and the amount of optical masses of the atmosphere they pass through, is one of the most important planetary factors of climate formation.
On land, albedo is determined by the color of natural surfaces. All radiation is able to assimilate a completely black body. The mirror surface reflects 100% of the rays and is not able to heat up. Of real surfaces, pure snow has the highest albedo. Below are the albedo of land surfaces by natural zones.
The climate-forming value of the reflectivity of different surfaces is extremely high. In ice zones at high latitudes, solar radiation, already weakened by the passage of a large number of optical masses of the atmosphere and falling on the surface at an acute angle, is reflected by eternal snow.
The albedo of a water surface for direct radiation depends on the angle at which the sun's rays fall on it. Vertical rays penetrate deep into the water, and it assimilates their heat. Inclined rays from the water are reflected as from a mirror, and it is not heated: the albedo of the water surface at a Sun height of 90 "is 2%, at a Sun height of 20 ° - 78%.
Surface views and zonal landscapes Albedo
Fresh dry snow…………………………………………… 80-95
Wet snow………………………………………………….. 60-70
Sea ice…………………………………………………….. 30-40
Tundra without snow cover………………………….. 18
Stable snow cover in temperate latitudes 70
The same unstable……………………………………….. 38
Coniferous forest in summer…………………………………………. 10-15
The same, with stable snow cover……….. 45
Deciduous forest in summer……………………………………. 15-20
The same, with yellow leaves in autumn……………….. 30-40
Meadow…………………………………………………………………… 15-25
Steppe in summer…………………………………………………….. 18
Sand of different colors…………………………………….. 25-35
Desert………………………………………………………….. 28
Savannah in dry season……………………………………… 24
The same, in the rainy season………………………………………. eighteen
The entire troposphere………………………………………………… 33
Earth as a whole (planet)…………………………………….. 45
For scattered radiation, the albedo is somewhat less.
Since 2/3 of the area of the globe is occupied by the ocean, the assimilation of solar energy by the water surface acts as an important climate-forming factor.
Oceans in subpolar latitudes assimilate only a small fraction of the heat of the Sun that reaches them. Tropical seas, on the contrary, absorb almost all solar energy. The albedo of the water surface, like the snow cover of the polar countries, deepens the zonal differentiation of climates.
In the temperate zone, the reflectivity of surfaces enhances the difference between the seasons of the year. In September and March, the Sun is at the same height above the horizon, but March is colder than September, as the sun's rays are reflected from the snow cover. The appearance of first yellow leaves in autumn, and then hoarfrost and temporary snow, increases the albedo and reduces the air temperature. The stable snow cover caused by low temperatures accelerates the cooling and further decrease in winter temperatures.