Thirty Years' War(1618-1648) - the first military conflict in European history, which affected almost all European countries (including Russia) to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The last significant religious war in Europe, giving rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.
Since the time of Charles V, the leading role in Europe belonged to the House of Austria - the Habsburg dynasty. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Spanish branch of the house also owned, in addition to Spain, Portugal, the Southern Netherlands, the states of Southern Italy and, in addition to these lands, had at its disposal a huge Spanish-Portuguese colonial empire. The German branch - the Austrian Habsburgs - secured the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor and were kings of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Croatia. Other major European powers tried in every possible way to weaken the Habsburg hegemony. Among the latter, the leading position was occupied by France, which was the largest of the national states.
There were several explosive regions in Europe where the interests of warring parties intersected. The greatest number of contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions was also directly related to the Empire - the Baltic Sea. Protestant Sweden (and also partly Denmark) sought to turn it into its inland lake and fortify itself on its southern coast, while Catholic Poland actively resisted Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated free Baltic trade.
The third disputed region was the fragmented Italy, over which France and Spain fought. Spain had its opponents - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland), which defended its independence in the war of 1568-1648, and England, which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.
War is brewing
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) temporarily ended the open rivalry between Lutherans and Catholics in Germany. Under the terms of the peace, the German princes could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) for their principalities at their discretion. At the same time, the Catholic Church wanted to regain lost influence. The Vatican in every possible way pushed the remaining Catholic rulers to eradicate Protestantism in their domains. The Habsburgs were ardent Catholics, but their imperial status obliged them to adhere to the principles of religious tolerance. Religious tensions grew. In an organized response to the growing pressure, the Protestant princes of South and West Germany united in the Evangelical Union, created in 1608. In response, Catholics united in the Catholic League (1609). Both unions were immediately supported by foreign countries. The reigning Holy Roman Emperor and King Matthias of the Czech Republic had no direct heirs, and in 1617 he forced the Czech Diet to recognize his nephew Ferdinand of Styria, an ardent Catholic and student of the Jesuits, as his successor. He was extremely unpopular in the predominantly Protestant Czech Republic, which was the reason for the uprising, which developed into a long conflict.
The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. On the side of the Habsburgs were: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain united with Portugal, the Papal Throne, and Poland. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition were France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, and England, Scotland and Russia provided support. The Ottoman Empire (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) in the first half of the 17th century was busy with wars with Persia, in which the Turks suffered several serious defeats. Overall, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with the strengthening national states.
Periodization:
Czech period (1618-1623). Uprisings in the Czech Republic against the Habsburgs. The Jesuits and a number of senior figures of the Catholic Church in the Czech Republic were expelled from the country. The Czech Republic emerged from Habsburg rule for the second time. When Ferdinand 2 replaced Matthew on the throne in 1619, the Czech Sejm, in opposition to him, chose Frederick of the Palatinate, the leader of the Evangelical Union, as king of the Czech Republic. Ferdinand was deposed shortly before his coronation. At the beginning, the uprising developed successfully, but in 1621 Spanish troops, helping the emperor, invaded the Palatinate and brutally suppressed the uprising. Frederick fled from the Czech Republic, and then from Germany. The war continued in Germany, but in 1624 the final victory of the Catholics seemed inevitable.
Danish period (1624-1629). The troops of the emperor and the Catholic League were opposed by the North German princes and the Danish king, who relied on the help of Sweden, Holland, England and France. The Danish period ended with the occupation of Northern Germany by the troops of the Emperor and the Catholic League, and the withdrawal of Transylvania and Denmark from the war.
Swedish (1630-1634). During these years, Swedish troops, together with the Protestant princes who joined them and with the support of France, occupied most of Germany, but were still defeated by the combined forces of the Emperor and the Catholic League.
Franco - Swedish period 1635-1648. France enters into open struggle against the Habsburgs. The war becomes protracted and lasts until the participants are completely exhausted. France opposed Germany and Spain, having numerous allies on its side. On her side were Holland, Savoy, Venice, Hungary (Transylvania). Poland declared its neutrality, friendly to France. Military operations took place not only in Germany, but also in Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Italy, and on both banks of the Rhine. The Allies were initially unsuccessful. The composition of the coalition was not strong enough. The Allies' actions were poorly coordinated. Only in the early 40s. the preponderance of forces was clearly on the side of France and Sweden. In 1646 The French-Swedish army invaded Bavaria. It became increasingly clear to the Viennese court that the war was lost. The imperial government of Ferdinand 3 was forced to enter into peace negotiations.
Results:
over 300 small German states received actual sovereignty, while nominally submitting to the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806.
The war did not automatically lead to the collapse of the Habsburgs, but it changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became obvious.
Sweden became a great power for about half a century, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. However, by the end of the 17th century, the Swedes lost a number of wars to Poland and Prussia, and the Northern War of 1700-1721. finally broke Swedish power.
Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests.
One of the most important events of the 17th century was the 30 Years' War of 1618-1648. Almost all European countries took part in it, and it left behind millions of human victims. The decisive point in this war was set by a treaty called the Peace of Westphalia. Its results were of utmost importance for all subsequent European history. It was concluded on October 15 and 24, 1648, after lengthy negotiations that lasted since 1644 and could not satisfy the conditions of all participants.
1648
He united the Munster and Osnabrück peace treaties, concluded that year in Westphalia. Negotiations were held in the city of Münster with representatives of Catholicism, and in Osnabrück with the Protestant side. Sometimes the treaty concluded on January 30 of the same year by Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which ended the Eighty Years' War, is also included in the Peace of Westphalia, since researchers consider the struggle between these states to be part of the Thirty Years' War.
What were the combined treaties?
The Treaty of Osnabrück was an agreement made between Sweden and its allies.
The Roman Empire signed the Munster agreement with France and those countries that supported it (these included Holland, Venice, Savoy, Hungary). It was these two states that took such an active part in the fate of a large part of Europe because in the third and most important, turning point period of the Thirty Years' War, they contributed to the weakening of the strength of the Romans, which contributed to their fragmentation in the future. The Peace of Westphalia mainly denoted provisions that determined territorial changes, political structure and religious characteristics in the Holy Roman Empire.
Results of the 30 Years' War
How did the confrontation between the countries end? Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Also, according to this document, the countries that won the Thirty Years' War - France and Sweden - were appointed guarantors of peace. These powerful powers controlled the validity of the signed treaty, and without their consent they could not change a single article in it. Thus, all of Europe was reliably protected from any global changes, which could entail a threat to the security of many countries. And since, thanks to the German emperor, he was powerless, the rest of the strong powers could not be afraid of his influence. The Peace of Westphalia contributed to significant territorial redrawings, primarily in favor of the victorious powers of France and Sweden.
One of these dramatic changes on the map was that, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This state, having begun its war of liberation against Catholic Spain as a rebellion, received international recognition in 1648.
What did the countries that won the war get?
According to the decision taken at the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the empire paid Sweden an indemnity amounting to 5 million thalers. In addition, it received the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania (together with Stettin), the city of Wismar, the Bishopric of Verden and the Archbishopric of Bremen (the city of Bremen itself was not included there).
Sweden also inherited the mouths of many navigable rivers in Northern Germany. Having received the German principalities at his disposal, the King of Sweden had the opportunity to send deputies to the Imperial Diet.
The signing of the Peace of Westphalia made it possible for France to receive the Habsburg possessions located in Alsace, although without the city of Strasbourg, as well as sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. New possessions after the signing of the treaty and the increased influence of the country helped it subsequently take the position of hegemon in Europe.
The German principalities of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Brunswick-Lüneburg and Brandenburg, which supported the victorious countries, also received benefits - they were able to expand their possessions as a result of the annexation of secularized bishoprics and monasteries. As a result of this treaty, Lusatia was annexed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate became part of Bavaria. The Elector of Brandegburg also received vast lands into his possession, on which Prussia was later formed.
What did this world bring to the Germans?
The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia were such that the German emperor lost a significant amount of his former rights. At the same time, the German princes became independent from the Roman ruler and were able to pursue independent foreign and domestic policies. For example, they could participate in making decisions regarding the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace, their department was responsible for determining the amount of taxes, and the adoption of laws in the Roman Empire largely depended on them.
Appanage princes could also enter into treaties with other states. The only thing that was not available to them was concluding alliances with other powers against the ruler of the Roman Empire. In modern terms, after the signing of this treaty, the appanage German princes became subjects of international law and could take an active part in the political life of Europe. The strengthening of their positions contributed to the formation of the federal structure of modern Germany.
Religious life after 1648
As for the religious sphere, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans were equal in rights, and it was also legalized in the 20s of the 17th century. From now on, the electors could not determine their religious affiliation for their subjects. In addition, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of Holland. Let us remember that the liberation movement in this country began with a protest against Catholic Spain. In essence, this treaty legitimized the political fragmentation of Germany, ending the imperial history of this power.
Thus, the Peace of Westphalia significantly strengthened the power of France, ridding it of its main rival, Spain, which claimed the first role among all European states.
Another important function of this treaty, which historians talk about: it was the basis for all subsequent European agreements until the 18th century, when the French Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Northern Netherlands. The Swiss Union has also received international legal recognition.
Significance of the Peace of Westphalia
Thus, this treaty is called the event that marked the beginning of the modern world order, which provides for the presence of nation-states in the world and the operation of certain principles of international law. The principle of political balance probably developed precisely as a result of the emergence of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. The tradition of solving complex territorial, legal, religious problems in relations between two or more states with the help of the intervention of other strong and influential European powers has appeared since then.
The significance of the 30 Years' War for the formation of the current legal system
The concept of “Westphalian system”, which refers to the field of world law and appeared after 1648, means ensuring the sovereignty of any state on its legal territory. Until the 19th century, the norms of the treaty and the conditions of the Peace of Westphalia largely determined the laws
After the appearance of the agreement, the rights of reformed Christianity with traditional Roman Catholic Christianity were especially strengthened, which is important from the point of view of cultural studies. True, many scientists find certain shortcomings in the provisions under which the inhabitants of Germany were supposed to live after the signing of the treaty. Thus, they were forced to profess the religion chosen by the ruler, that is, in essence, there was no freedom of religion yet. But, despite all the shortcomings, the Peace of Westphalia was indeed the first (and successful) attempt to create a system of international law.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Europe underwent a painful “reformatting”. The transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age could not be carried out easily and smoothly - any breakdown of traditional foundations is accompanied by a social storm. In Europe, this was accompanied by religious unrest: the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The religious Thirty Years' War began, in which almost all countries in the region were drawn into.
Europe entered the 17th century, carrying with it from the previous century the burden of unresolved religious disputes, which also aggravated political contradictions. Mutual claims and grievances resulted in a war that lasted from 1618 to 1648 and was called “ Thirty Years' War" It is generally considered to be the last European religious war, after which international relations took on a secular character.
Reasons for the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War
- Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
- The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
- Concerns of France, which saw in the Habsburg policies an infringement of its national interests
- The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopolize control of the Baltic sea trade routes
- The selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs who hoped to snatch something for themselves in the general chaos
The protracted conflict between Catholics and Protestants, the collapse of the feudal system and the emergence of the concept of a nation state coincided with the unprecedented strengthening of the Habsburg imperial dynasty.
The Austrian ruling house in the 16th century extended its influence to Spain, Portugal, Italian states, Bohemia, Croatia, Hungary; If we add to this the vast Spanish and Portuguese colonies, the Habsburgs could claim to be the absolute leaders of the then “civilized world.” This could not but cause discontent among the “neighbors in Europe.”
Religious problems were added to everything. The fact is that the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 resolved the issue of religion with a simple postulate: “Whose power, his faith.” The Habsburgs were zealous Catholics, and yet their possessions also extended to “Protestant” territories. The conflict was inevitable. His name is Thirty Years' War 1618-1648.
Stages of the Thirty Years' War
Results of the Thirty Years' War
- The Peace of Westphalia established the boundaries of European states, becoming the source document for all treaties until the end of the 18th century.
- German princes received the right to conduct a policy independent of Vienna
- Sweden has achieved dominance in the Baltic and North Sea
- France received Alsace and the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun
- Holland is recognized as an independent state
- Switzerland gained independence from the Empire
- It is customary to count the modern era in international relations with the Peace of Westphalia
The main thing is that the old hierarchy that had developed under the dictation of the Holy Roman Empire was destroyed. From now on, the heads of independent European states had equal rights with the emperor, which means that international relations reached a qualitatively new level.
The Westphalian system recognized the main principle of state sovereignty; Foreign policy was based on the idea of a balance of power, which does not allow any one state to strengthen at the expense of (or against) others. Finally, having formally confirmed the Peace of Augsburg, the parties gave guarantees of freedom of religion to those whose religion differed from the official one.
Thirty Years' War 1618-1648 The reasons that caused this war were both religious and political. The Catholic reaction, which established itself in Europe from the second half of the 16th century, set as its task the eradication of Protestantism and, together with the latter, the entire modern individualistic culture and the restoration of Catholicism and Romanism. The Jesuit Order, the Council of Trent and the Inquisition were three powerful weapons through which reaction took hold in Germany. The Augsburg religious peace of 1555 was only a truce and contained a number of decrees that constrained the individual freedom of Protestants. Misunderstandings between Catholics and Protestants soon resumed, leading to major conflicts in the Reichstag. The reaction goes on the offensive. From the beginning of the 17th century, the idea of Habsburg universalism was combined with a purely ultramontane tendency. Rome remains the ecclesiastical center of Catholic propaganda, Madrid and Vienna its political centers. The Catholic Church has to fight Protestantism, the German emperors have to fight the territorial autonomy of the princes. By the beginning of the 17th century, relations had worsened to the point that two unions were formed, Catholic and Protestant. Each of them had its own adherents outside Germany: the first was patronized by Rome and Spain, the second by France and partly the Netherlands and England. The Protestant League, or Union, was formed in 1608 in Agausen, the Catholic League in 1609 in Munich; the first was headed by the Palatinate, the second by Bavaria. Reign of the Emperor Rudolf II passed through everything in turmoil and movements caused by religious persecution. In 1608, he was forced to limit himself to Bohemia alone, losing to his brother Matthias Hungary, Moravia and Austria. Events in the duchies of Cleve, Berg and Jülich and in Donauwerth (q.v.) strained relations between Protestants and Catholics to the extreme. With the death of Henry IV (1610), the Protestants had no one to rely on, and the slightest spark was enough to cause a fierce war. It broke out in Bohemia. In July 1609, Rudolf granted religious freedom to the evangelical Czech Republic and guaranteed the rights of Protestants (the so-called charter of majesty). He died in 1612; Matthias became emperor. Protestants had some hopes for him, since he once spoke out against the Spanish course of action in the Netherlands. At the Imperial Diet of Regensburg in 1613, heated debates took place between Protestants and Catholics, with Matthias doing nothing for the Protestants. The situation worsened when the childless Matthias had to appoint his cousin, the fanatic Ferdinand of Styria, as his heir in Bohemia and Hungary (see. ). Based on the charter of 1609, Protestants gathered in Prague in 1618 and decided to resort to force. On May 23, the famous “defenestration” of Slavata, Martinitz and Fabricius took place (these advisers to the emperor were thrown out of the window of the Prague castle into the fortress moat). Relations between Bohemia and the House of Habsburg were severed; A provisional government was established, consisting of 30 directors, and an army was formed, the commanders of which were appointed Count Thurn and Count Ernst Mansfeld, a Catholic but an opponent of the Habsburgs. The Czechs also entered into relations with the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor. Matthias died during negotiations with the directors, in March 1619. The throne passed to Ferdinand II. The Czechs refused to recognize him and elected the twenty-three-year-old Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick, as their king. The Czech uprising was the reason for the 30-year war, the theater of which became Central Germany. The first period of the war - the Bohemian-Palatinate - lasted from 1618 to 1623. From the Czech Republic, hostilities spread to Silesia and Moravia. Under the command of Turnus, part of the Czech army moved to Vienna. Frederick hoped for help from his fellow believers in Germany and from his father-in-law, James of England, but in vain: he had to fight alone. At White Mountain, November 8, 1620, the Czechs were completely defeated; Frederick fled. The reprisal against the vanquished was brutal: the Czechs were deprived of religious freedom, Protestantism was eradicated, and the kingdom was closely connected with the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. Now the Protestant troops were led by Ernst Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick and Margrave Georg-Friedrich of Baden-Durlach. At Wiesloch, Mansfeld inflicted a significant defeat on the Ligists (April 27, 1622), while the other two commanders were defeated: Georg Friedrich at Wimpfen, May 6, Christian at Hoechst, June 20, and at Stadtlohn (1623). In all these battles the Catholic troops were commanded by Tilly and Cordoba. However, the conquest of the entire Palatinate was still a long way off. Only by clever deception did Ferdinand II achieve his goal: he convinced Frederick to release the troops of Mansfeld and Christian (both retired to the Netherlands) and promised to begin negotiations to end the war, but in fact he ordered the Ligists and Spaniards to invade Frederick’s possessions from all sides; in March 1623, the last Palatinate fortress, Frankenthal, fell. At a meeting of princes in Regensburg, Frederick was deprived of the title of elector, which was transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria, as a result of which Catholics received a numerical superiority in the college of electors. Although the Upper Palatinate had to swear allegiance to Maximilian from 1621, however, formal annexation took place only in 1629. The second period of the war was Lower Saxon-Danish, from 1625 to 1629. From the very beginning of the war, lively diplomatic relations began between all the Protestant sovereigns of Europe , with the aim of developing some measures against the overwhelming power of the Habsburgs. Constrained by the emperor and the Ligists, the German Protestant princes early entered into relations with the Scandinavian kings. In 1624, negotiations began on an evangelical union, in which, in addition to German Protestants, Sweden, Denmark, England and the Netherlands were to take part. Gustav Adolf, busy at that time with the fight against Poland, could not provide direct assistance to the Protestants; They found the conditions set for them excessive and therefore turned to Christian IV of Denmark. To understand the determination of this king to intervene in the German war, one should bear in mind his claims to dominance in the Baltic Sea and the desire to expand his possessions in the south, concentrating in the hands of his dynasty the bishoprics of Bremen, Verdun, Halberstadt and Osnabrück, i.e. e. lands along the Elbe and Weser. These political motives of Christian IV were also joined by religious ones: the spread of Catholic reaction threatened Schleswig-Holstein as well. On the side of Christian IV were Wolfenbüttel, Weimar, Mecklenburg and Magdeburg. The command of the troops was divided between Christian IV and Mansfeld. The imperial army, under the command of Wallenstein (40,000 people), also joined the Ligist army (Tilly). Mansfeld was defeated on April 25, 1626 at the Dessau Bridge and fled to Bethlen Gabor, and then to Bosnia, where he died; Christian IV was defeated at Lutter on August 27 of that year; Tilly forced the king to retreat beyond the Elbe and, together with Wallenstein, occupied all of Jutland and Mecklenburg, the dukes of which fell into imperial disgrace and were deprived of their possessions. In February 1628, the title of Duke of Mecklenburg was granted to Wallenstein, who in April of the same year was appointed general of the Oceanic and Baltic seas. Ferdinand II had in mind to establish himself on the shores of the Baltic Sea, subjugate the free Hanseatic cities and thus seize dominance at sea, to the detriment of the Netherlands and the Scandinavian kingdoms. The success of Catholic propaganda in the north and east of Europe depended on its establishment in the Baltic Sea. After unsuccessful attempts to peacefully win over the Hanseatic cities to his side, Ferdinand decided to achieve his goal by force and entrusted Wallenstein with the occupation of the most important harbors in the south. coast of the Baltic Sea. Wallenstein began with the siege of Stralsund; it was delayed due to the assistance provided to the city by Gustav Adolf, who was afraid of the establishment of the Habsburgs in northern Germany, mainly because of his relations with Poland. On June 25, 1628, the Treaty of Gustavus Adolphus with Stralsund was concluded; the king was given a protectorate over the city. Ferdinand, in order to further win over the Catholic princes of Germany, issued, in March 1629, an edict of restitution, by virtue of which all the lands taken from them since 1552 were returned to the Catholics. The implementation of the edict began primarily in the imperial cities - Augsburg, Ulm, Regensburg and Kaufbeiern. In 1629, Christian IV, having exhausted all resources, had to conclude a separate peace with the emperor in Lübeck. Wallenstein was also in favor of concluding peace, and not without reason feared the imminent intervention of Sweden. Peace was signed on May 2 (12). All lands occupied by the imperial and Ligist troops were returned to the king. The Danish period of the war was over; the third began - Swedish, from 1630 to 1635. The reasons that led to Sweden's participation in the Thirty Years' War were mainly political - the desire for dominance in the Baltic Sea; the economic well-being of Sweden depended on the latter, according to the king. Protestants at first saw in the Swedish king only a religious fighter; Later, it became clear to them that the struggle was not waged de religione, but de regione. Gustav Adolf landed on the island of Usedom in June 1630. His appearance at the theater of war coincided with a split in the Catholic League. The Catholic princes, true to their principles, willingly supported the emperor against the Protestants; but, noticing in the emperor’s policy a desire for absolute dominance in the empire and fearing for their autonomy, they demanded that the emperor resign Wallenstein. Maximilian of Bavaria became the head of the princely opposition; the demands of the princes were supported by foreign diplomacy, especially. Richelieu. Ferdinand had to give in: in 1630 Wallenstein was dismissed. To please the princes, the emperor restored the Dukes of Mecklenburg to their lands; in gratitude for this, the princes at the Diet of Regensburg agreed to elect the son of the emperor, the future Ferdinand III, as king of Rome. Centrifugal forces again gain predominance in the empire with the resignation of the imperial commander. All this, of course, played into the hands of Gustav Adolf. Due to the reluctance of Saxony and Brandenburg to join Sweden, the king had to move deep into Germany with great caution. He first cleared the Baltic coast and Pomerania of imperial troops, then ascended the Oder to besiege Frankfurt and divert Tilly from Protestant Magdeburg. Frankfurt surrendered to the Swedes almost without resistance. Gustav wanted to immediately go to the aid of Magdeburg, but the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg did not give him passage through their lands. The first to concede was Georg Wilhelm of Brandenburg; John George of Saxony persisted. Negotiations dragged on; Magdeburg fell in May 1631, Tilly betrayed it to fire and robbery and moved against the Swedes. In January 1631, Gustav Adolf concluded an agreement with France (in Berwald), which pledged to support Sweden with money in its fight against the Habsburgs. Having learned of Tilly's movement, the king took refuge in Verbena; all Tilly's attempts to take this fortification were in vain. Having lost many men, he invaded Saxony, hoping to persuade John George to join the league. The Elector of Saxony turned for help to Gustavus Adolphus, who marched into Saxony and utterly defeated Tilly at Breitenfeld, September 7, 1631. The army of the league was destroyed; the king became protector of German Protestants. The Elector's troops, joining the Swedish ones, invaded Bohemia and occupied Prague. Gustav Adolf entered Bavaria in the spring of 1632. Tilly was defeated by the Swedes for the second time at Lech and soon died. Bavaria was entirely in the hands of the Swedes. Ferdinand II was forced to turn to Wallenstein for help a second time; Maximilian of Bavaria himself petitioned for this. Wallenstein was tasked with forming a large army; the emperor appointed him a commander with unlimited power. Wallenstein's first task was to expel the Saxons from Bohemia; he then marched on Nuremberg. Gustav Adolf hastened to the aid of this city. Both troops stood near Nuremberg for several weeks. The Swedes' attack on Wallenstein's fortified camp was repulsed. Gustav Adolf, in order to distract Wallenstein from Nuremberg, returned to Bavaria; Wallenstein moved to Saxony. The king, by virtue of the agreement with the elector, had to rush to his aid. He overtook Wallenstein at Lutzen, where he fought with him in November 1632 and died a heroic death; his place was taken by Bernhard of Weimar and Gustav Horn. The Swedes won, Wallenstein retreated. After the death of the king, management of affairs passed to his chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, “the legate of Sweden in Germany.” At the Heilbronn Convention (1633), Oxenstierna achieved the union of the Protestant districts - Franconian, Swabian and Rhine - with Sweden. An evangelical union was formed; Oxenstierna was appointed its director. Wallenstein, after Lutzen, retreated to Bohemia; Here the idea matured for him to break away from the emperor. The Swedes occupied Regensburg and took winter quarters in the Upper Palatinate. In 1634 Wallenstein was killed in Eger. Imperial High Command. troops passed to Archduke Ferdinand Gallas and Piccolomini. Having recaptured Regensburg from the Swedes, they inflicted a decisive defeat on them at Nerdlingen (September 1634). Horn was captured, Bernhard and a small detachment escaped to Alsace, where he continued the war with the help of French subsidies. The Heilbron Union collapsed. Louis XIII, for the cession of Alsace, promised the Protestants 12,000 troops. The Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg concluded a separate peace with the emperor (Prague Peace of 1635). The example of both electors was soon followed by some less significant principalities. In order to prevent Habsburg policy from reaching complete triumph, France has been actively participating in the war since 1635. The war was waged by her both with Spain and with the emperor. The fourth, French-Swedish period of the war lasted from 1635 to 1648. John Banner commanded the Swedish troops. He attacked the Elector of Saxony, who had betrayed the Protestant cause, defeated him at Wittstock (1636), occupied Erfurt and devastated Saxony. Gallas opposed Banner; Banner locked himself in Torgau and withstood the attack of the imperial troops for 4 months (from March to June 1637). ), but was forced to retreat to Pomerania. Ferdinand II died in February 1637; His son Ferdinand III (1637-57) became emperor. In Sweden, the most energetic measures were taken to continue the war. 1637 and 1638 were the most difficult years for the Swedes. The imperial troops also suffered a lot; Gallas was forced to retreat from Northern Germany. Banner pursued him and at Chemnitz (1639) inflicted a strong defeat on him, after which he launched a devastating raid on Bohemia. Bernhard of Weimar commanded the Western army; he crossed the Rhine several times and in 1638 defeated the imperial troops at Rheinfelden. After a long siege, Breizakh was also captured. After Bernhard's death in 1639, his army transferred to French service and came under the command of Gebrian. Together with him, Banner had in mind to attack Regensburg, where at that time the Reichstag was opened by Ferdinand III; but the ensuing thaw prevented the implementation of this plan. Banner moved through Bohemia to Saxony, where he died in 1641. He was replaced by Torstenson. He invaded Moravia and Silesia, and in 1642 in Saxony he defeated Piccolomini at the Battle of Breitenfeld, again invaded Moravia and threatened to march on Vienna, but in September 1643 he was called to the north, where the struggle between Sweden and Denmark resumed. Gallas followed on Thorstenson's heels. Having cleared Jutland of Danish troops, Thorstenson turned south and defeated Gallas at Jüterbock in 1614, after which he appeared for the third time in the hereditary lands of the emperor and defeated Goetz and Hatzfeld at Jankov in Bohemia (1645). Hoping for Rakoczi's help, Thorstenson had in mind a campaign against Vienna, but since he did not receive help on time, he retreated to the north. Due to illness, he had to hand over the leadership to Wrangel. During this time, France focused all its attention on West Germany. Hebrian defeated the imperial troops at Kempen (1642); Condé defeated the Spaniards at Rocroi in 1643. After Hebriand's death, the French were defeated by the Bavarian general Mercy and von Werth, but with the appointment of Turenne as commander-in-chief, things again took a turn favorable for France. The entire Rhine Palatinate was under the control of the French. After the battles of Mergentheim (1645, French defeated) and Allerheim (Imperial defeated), Turenne allied with Wrangel, and together they decided to invade southern Germany. Bavaria was forced to break its alliance with the emperor and conclude a truce in Ulm (1647), but Maximilian changed his word and the united French and Swedish troops, who had just defeated the emperor. commander Melandrus under Zusmarshausen, carried out devastating invasions into Bavaria, and from here into Württemberg. At the same time, another Swedish army, under the command of Königsmarck and Wittenberg, successfully operated in Bohemia. Prague almost became the prey of Königsmarck. From September 1648, Wrangel's place was taken by Carl Gustav, Count Palatine of the Rhine. The siege of Prague he began was lifted with the news of the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia. The war ended under the walls of the city in which it began. Peace negotiations between the warring powers began as early as 1643, in Münster and Osnabrück; in the first there were negotiations with French diplomats, in the second - with Swedish ones. On October 24, 1648, the peace known as the Treaty of Westphalia (q.v.) was concluded. The economic condition of Germany after the war was the most difficult; the enemies remained in it long after 1648, and the old order of things was restored very slowly. The population of Germany has decreased significantly; in Württemberg, for example, the population from 400,000 reached 48,000; in Bavaria it also decreased by 10 times. Literature 30 sheets each. the war is very extensive. Among contemporaries, Pufendorf and Chemnitz should be noted, from the latest research - the works of Charvériat (French), Gindely (German), Gardiner "a (English), Cronholm"a (Swedish; there is a German translation) and Volume II " The Baltic Question in the 17th Century,” Forsten. G. Forsten. Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron.
1890-1907
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See what the "Thirty Years' War 1618-1648" is. in other dictionaries:
- ... Wikipedia
The first pan-European a war between two large groupings of powers: the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs), which was striving for domination over the entire Christian world, supported by the papacy, Catholic. princes of Germany and Polish Lithuania. gosvom, and... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
The first pan-European war between two large groupings of powers: the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs), which sought to dominate the entire “Christian world”, supported by the papacy, Catholic princes... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Thirty Years' War 1618 48 between the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, supported by the papacy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the anti-Habsburg coalition (German Protestant princes, France, Sweden... Historical Dictionary
THIRTY YEARS' WAR 1618 48, between the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, supported by the papacy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the anti-Habsburg coalition (German Protestant princes, France, Sweden, ... ... Modern encyclopedia
Between the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, supported by the papacy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the anti-Habsburg coalition (German Protestant princes, France, Sweden, Denmark, supported by England,... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary
Albert von Wallenstein - commander of the Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was the first all-European war. One of the most cruel, persistent, bloody and long-lasting in the history of the Old World. It began as a religious one, but gradually turned into a dispute over hegemony in Europe, territories and trade routes. Conducted by the House of Habsburg, the Catholic principalities of Germany on the one hand, Sweden, Denmark, France, and German Protestants on the otherCauses of the Thirty Years' War
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Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
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The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
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Concerns of France, which saw in the Habsburg policies an infringement of its national interests
The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopolize control of the Baltic sea trade routes
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The selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs who hoped to snatch something for themselves in the general chaos
Participants of the Thirty Years' War
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Habsburg bloc - Spain and Portugal, Austria; Catholic League - some Catholic principalities and bishoprics of Germany: Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Würzburg
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Denmark, Sweden; Evangelical or Protestant Union: Electorate of the Palatinate, Württemberg, Baden, Kulmbach, Ansbach, Palatinate-Neuburg, Landgraviate of Hesse, Electorate of Brandenburg and several imperial cities; France
Stages of the Thirty Years' War
- Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624)
- Danish period (1625-1629)
- Swedish period (1630-1635)
- Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)
The course of the Thirty Years' War. Briefly
“There was a mastiff, two collies and a St. Bernard, several bloodhounds and Newfoundlands, a hound, a French poodle, a bulldog, several lap dogs and two mongrels. They sat patiently and thoughtfully. But then a young lady came in, leading a fox terrier on a chain; she left him between the bulldog and the poodle. The dog sat down and looked around for a minute. Then, without a hint of any reason, he grabbed the poodle by the front paw, jumped over the poodle and attacked the collie, (then) grabbed the bulldog by the ear... (Then) all the other dogs opened hostilities. The big dogs fought among themselves; The small dogs also fought with each other, and in their free moments they bit the big dogs on the paws.”(Jerome K. Jerome "Three in a Boat")
Europe 17th century
Something similar happened in Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Thirty Years' War began with a seemingly autonomous Czech uprising. But at the same time, Spain fought with the Netherlands, in Italy the duchies of Mantua, Monferrato and Savoy were sorted out, in 1632-1634 Muscovy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth fought, from 1617 to 1629 there were three major clashes between Poland and Sweden, Poland also fought with Transylvania, and in turn called on Turkey for help. In 1618, an anti-republican conspiracy was discovered in Venice...
- 1618, March - Czech Protestants appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor Matthew demanding an end to the persecution of people on religious grounds
- 1618, May 23 - in Prague, participants in the Protestant congress committed violence against representatives of the emperor (the so-called “Second Prague Defenestration”)
- 1618, summer - palace coup in Vienna. Matthew was replaced on the throne by Ferdinand of Styria, a fanatical Catholic
- 1618, autumn - the imperial army entered the Czech Republic
Movements of Protestant and Imperial armies in the Czech Republic, Moravia, the German states of Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, sieges and capture of cities (Ceske Budejovice, Pilsen, Palatinate, Bautzen, Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Bergen op -Zoom), battles (at the village of Sablat, on White Mountain, at Wimpfen, at Hoechst, at Stadtlohn, at Fleurus) and diplomatic maneuvers characterized the first stage of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1624). It ended in victory for the Habsburgs. The Czech Protestant uprising failed, Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Electoral Palatinate, providing a springboard for another war with the Netherlands
- 1624, June 10 - Treaty at Compiegne between France, England and the Netherlands on an alliance against the imperial house of Habsburg
- 1624, July 9 - Denmark and Sweden joined the Treaty of Compiegne, fearing the growing influence of Catholics in northern Europe
- 1625, spring - Denmark opposed the imperial army
- 1625, April 25 - Emperor Ferdinand appointed Albrech von Wallenstein commander of his army, who invited the emperor to feed his mercenary army at the expense of the population of the theater of operations
- 1826, April 25 - Wallenstein's army defeated the Protestant troops of Mansfeld at the Battle of Dessau
- 1626, August 27 - Tilly's Catholic army defeated the troops of the Danish king Christian IV at the Battle of the village of Lutter
- 1627, spring - Wallenstein's army moved to the north of Germany and captured it, including the Danish peninsula of Jutland
- 1628, September 2 - at the Battle of Wolgast, Wallenstein once again defeated Christian IV, who was forced to withdraw from the war
On May 22, 1629, a peace treaty was signed in Lübeck between Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein returned the occupied lands to Christian, but obtained a promise not to interfere in German affairs. This ended the second stage of the Thirty Years' War
- 1629, March 6 - the emperor issued the Edict of Restitution. fundamentally curtailing the rights of Protestants
- 1630, June 4 - Sweden entered the Thirty Years' War
- 1630, September 13 - Emperor Ferdinand, fearing Wallenstein’s strengthening, dismissed him
- 1631, January 23 - an agreement between Sweden and France, according to which the Swedish king Gustav Adolf pledged to keep a 30,000-strong army in Germany, and France, represented by Cardinal Richelieu, assumed the costs of its maintenance
- 1631, May 31 - The Netherlands entered into an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, pledging to invade Spanish Flanders and subsidize the king's army
- 1532, April - the emperor again called Wallenstein into service
The third, Swedish, stage of the Thirty Years' War was the most fierce. Protestants and Catholics had long been mixed in the armies; no one remembered how it all began. The main driving motive of the soldiers was profit. That's why they killed each other without mercy. Having stormed the Neu-Brandenburg fortress, the emperor's mercenaries completely killed its garrison. In response, the Swedes destroyed all prisoners during the capture of Frankfurt an der Oder. Magdeburg was completely burned, tens of thousands of its inhabitants died. On May 30, 1632, during the battle of the Rhine fortress, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army Tilly was killed, on November 16, in the battle of Lützen, the Swedish king Gustav Adolf was killed, on February 25, 1634, Wallenstein was shot by his own guards. In 1630-1635, the main events of the Thirty Years' War took place in Germany. Swedes' victories alternated with defeats. The princes of Saxony, Brandenburg, and other Protestant principalities supported either the Swedes or the emperor. The conflicting parties did not have the strength to bend fortune to their own benefit. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the emperor and the Protestant princes of Germany in Prague, according to which the execution of the Edict of Restitution was postponed for 40 years, the imperial army was formed by all the rulers of Germany, who were deprived of the right to conclude separate alliances among themselves
- 1635, May 30 - Peace of Prague
- 1635, May 21 - France entered the Thirty Years' War to help Sweden, fearing the strengthening of the House of Habsburg
- 1636, May 4 - victory of Swedish troops over the allied imperial army in the Battle of Wittstock
- 1636, December 22 - the son of Ferdinand II Ferdinand III became emperor
- 1640, December 1 - Coup in Portugal. Portugal regained independence from Spain
- 1642, December 4 - Cardinal Richelieu, the “soul” of French foreign policy, died
- 1643, May 19 - Battle of Rocroi, in which French troops defeated the Spaniards, marking the decline of Spain as a great power
The last, Franco-Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War had the characteristic features of a world war. Military operations took place throughout Europe. The duchies of Savoy, Mantua, the Republic of Venice, and Hungary intervened in the war. The fighting took place in Pomerania, Denmark, Austria, still in the German lands, in the Czech Republic, Burgundy, Moravia, the Netherlands, and in the Baltic Sea. In England, which supports Protestant states financially, an outbreak broke out. A popular uprising raged in Normandy. Under these conditions, peace negotiations began in the cities of Westphalia (a region in northwestern Germany) Osnabrück and Münster in 1644. Representatives of Sweden, German princes and the emperor met in Osanbrück, and ambassadors of the emperor, France, and the Netherlands met in Münster. Negotiations, the course of which was influenced by the results of the ongoing battles, lasted 4 years