What does an electron consist of? Mass and charge of an electron. What is the mass of an electron? Electron constant

Based on the laws of electrolysis established by M. Faraday, the Irish scientist D. Stoney put forward the hypothesis that there is an elementary charge inside the atom. And in 1891, Stoney proposed calling this charge an electron. The amount of charge on an electron is often denoted e or .

The laws of electrolysis are not yet proof of the existence of the electron as an elementary electric charge. Thus, there was an opinion that all monovalent ions can have different charges, and their average value is equal to the charge of the electron. To prove the existence of an elementary charge in nature, it was necessary to measure the charges of individual ions, and not the total amount of electricity. In addition, the question remained open as to whether the charge was associated with any particle of matter. A significant contribution to solving these issues was made by J. Perrin and J. Thomson. They studied the laws of motion of cathode ray particles in electric and magnetic fields. Perrin showed that cathode rays are a stream of particles that carry a negative charge. Thomson established that all these particles have equal charge-to-mass ratios:

In addition, Thomson showed that for different gases the ratio of cathode ray particles is the same, and does not depend on the material from which the cathode was made. From this we could conclude that the particles that make up the atoms of different elements are the same. Thomson himself concluded that atoms are divisible. Particles with a negative charge and very small mass can be torn out of an atom of any substance. All these particles have the same mass and the same charge. Such particles were called electrons.

Experiments of Millikan and Ioffe

The American scientist R. Millikan experimentally proved that an elementary charge exists. In his experiments, he measured the speed of movement of oil droplets in a uniform electric field, which was created between two electric plates. The drop became charged when it collided with the ion. The speeds of movement of a drop without a charge and the same drop after a collision with an ion (which acquired a charge) were compared. Knowing the field strength between the plates, the charge of the drop was calculated.

Millikan's experiments were repeated by A.F. Ioffe. He used metal specks instead of oil droplets. By changing the field strength between the plates, Ioffe achieved equality between the gravity force and the Coulomb force, while the dust particle remained motionless. The speck of dust was illuminated with ultraviolet light. At the same time, its charge changed; to balance the force of gravity, it was necessary to change the field strength. Based on the obtained intensity values, the scientist judged the ratio of the electrical charges of the dust particle.

In the experiments of Millikan and Ioffe it was shown that the charges of dust particles and drops always changed abruptly. The minimum change in charge was equal to:

The electric charge of any charged body is equal to an integer and is a multiple of the charge of the electron. Now there is an opinion that there are elementary particles - quarks, which have a fractional charge ().

Thus, the electron charge is considered equal to:

Examples of problem solving

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

It is known that electrons have a negative charge. But how can one be sure that the mass of the electron and its charge are constant for all these particles? You can check this only by catching it on the fly. Having stopped, he will get lost among the molecules and atoms that make up the laboratory equipment. The process of understanding the microcosm and its particles has come a long way: from the first primitive experiments to the latest developments in the field of experimental atomic physics.

First information about electrons

One hundred and fifty years ago electrons were not known. The first signal indicating the existence of the “building blocks” of electricity were experiments in electrolysis. In all cases, each charged particle of matter carried a standard electric charge, which had the same value. In some cases the amount of charge doubled or tripled, but always remained a multiple of one minimum charge amount.

Experiments by J. Thompson

In Cavendish's laboratory, J. Thomson conducted an experiment that actually proved the existence of particles of electricity. To do this, the scientist examined the radiation emanating from the cathode tubes. In the experiment, the rays were repelled from a negatively charged plate and attracted to a positively charged one. The hypothesis about the constant presence of certain electrical particles in the electric field was confirmed. Their speed of movement was comparable to the speed of light. The electric charge in terms of the mass of the particle turned out to be incredibly large. From his observations, Thompson drew several conclusions that were subsequently confirmed by other studies.

Thompson's conclusions

1. Atoms can be broken apart when bombarded by faster particles. At the same time, negatively charged corpuscles escape from the middle of the atoms.
2. All charged particles have the same mass and charge, regardless of the substance from which they were derived.
3. The mass of these particles is much less than the mass of the lightest atom.
4. Each particle of a substance carries the smallest possible fraction of an electric charge, less than which does not exist in nature. Any charged body carries a whole number of electrons.

Detailed experiments made it possible to calculate the parameters of mysterious microparticles. As a result, it was found that open charged corpuscles are indivisible atoms of electricity. Subsequently, they were given the name electrons. It came from Ancient Greece and turned out to be appropriate to describe the newly discovered particle.

Direct measurement of electron velocity

Since there is no way to see the electron, the experiments necessary to measure the basic quantities of this elementary particle are carried out using fields - electromagnetic and gravitational. If the first affects only the charge of the electron, then with the help of subtle experiments, taking into account the gravitational effect, it was possible to approximately calculate the mass of the electron.

Electron gun

The very first measurements of electron masses and charges were made using an electron gun. The deep vacuum in the gun body allows electrons to rush in a narrow beam from one cathode to another.

Electrons are forced to pass through narrow holes twice at a constant speed v. A process occurs similar to how a stream from a garden hose enters a hole in a fence. Portions of electrons fly along the tube at a constant speed. It has been experimentally proven that if the voltage applied to the electron gun is 100 V, then the speed of the electron will be calculated as 6 million m/s.

Experimental findings

Direct measurement of the electron velocity shows that, regardless of what materials the gun is made of and what the potential difference is, the relation e/m = const holds.

This conclusion was made already at the beginning of the 20th century. At that time they did not yet know how to create homogeneous beams of charged particles; other devices were used for experiments, but the result remained the same. The experiment allowed us to draw several conclusions. The ratio of the charge of an electron to its mass has the same value for electrons. This makes it possible to draw a conclusion about the universality of the electron as a component of any matter in our world. At very high speeds, the value of e/m turns out to be less than expected. This paradox is fully explained by the fact that at high speeds comparable to the speed of light, the mass of the particle increases. The boundary conditions of the Lorentz transformations indicate that when the speed of a body is equal to the speed of light, the mass of this body becomes infinite. A noticeable increase in the electron mass occurs in full agreement with the theory of relativity.

Electron and its rest mass

The paradoxical conclusion that the mass of the electron is not constant leads to several interesting conclusions. In the normal state, the rest mass of the electron does not change. It can be measured based on various experiments. Currently, the mass of the electron has been repeatedly measured and is 9.10938291(40)·10⁻³¹ kg. Electrons with such a mass enter into chemical reactions, form the movement of electric current, and are captured by the most precise instruments that record nuclear reactions. A noticeable increase in this value is possible only at speeds close to the speed of light.

Electrons in crystals

Solid state physics is the science that makes observations of the behavior of charged particles in crystals. The result of numerous experiments was the creation of a special quantity that characterizes the behavior of an electron in the force fields of crystalline substances. This is the so-called effective mass of the electron. Its value is calculated based on the fact that the movement of an electron in a crystal is subject to additional forces, the source of which is the crystal lattice itself. Such motion can be described as standard for a free electron, but when calculating the momentum and energy of such a particle, one should take into account not the rest mass of the electron, but the effective one, the value of which will be different.

Momentum of an electron in a crystal

The state of any free particle can be characterized by the magnitude of its momentum. Since the value of the momentum has already been determined, then, according to the uncertainty principle, the coordinates of the particle seem to be blurred throughout the crystal. The probability of encountering an electron at any point in the crystal lattice is almost the same. The momentum of an electron characterizes its state in any coordinate of the energy field. Calculations show that the dependence of the energy of an electron on its momentum is the same as that of a free particle, but at the same time the mass of the electron can take on a value different from the usual one. In general, the electron energy, expressed in terms of momentum, will have the form E(p)=p 2 /2m*. In this case, m* is the effective mass of the electron. The practical application of the effective electron mass is extremely important in the development and study of new semiconductor materials used in electronics and microtechnology.

The mass of an electron, like any other quasiparticle, cannot be characterized by standard characteristics suitable in our Universe. Any characteristic of a microparticle can surprise and question all our ideas about the world around us.

Structure of matter.

The structure of the atom.

An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element, the bearer of all its chemical properties. An atom is chemically indivisible. Atoms can exist either in a free state or in combination with atoms of the same element or another element.
The unit of atomic and molecular masses is currently taken to be 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom with an atomic mass of 12 (isotope). This unit is called a carbon unit.

Mass and size of atoms. Avogadro's number.

A gram atom, just like a gram molecule of any substance, contains 6.023 10^23 atoms or molecules, respectively. This number is called Avogadro's number (N0). So, in 55.85 g of iron, 63.54 g of copper, 29.98 g of aluminum, etc., there is a number of atoms equal to Avogadro’s number.
Knowing Avogadro's number, it is not difficult to calculate the mass of one atom of any element. To do this, the gram-atomic mass of one atom must be divided by 6.023 10^23. Thus, the mass of the hydrogen atom (1) and the mass of the carbon atom (2) are respectively equal:

Based on Avogadro's number, the volume of an atom can be estimated. For example, the density of copper is 8.92 g/cm^3, and the gram-atomic mass is 63.54 g. This means that one gram-atom of copper occupies the volume , and per one copper atom there is a volume .

Atomic structure.

An atom is a complex formation and consists of a number of smaller particles. The atoms of all elements consist of a positively charged nucleus and electrons - negatively charged particles of very low mass. The nucleus occupies a negligible part of the total volume of the atom. The diameter of an atom is cm, and the diameter of the nucleus is cm.
Although the diameter of the nucleus of an atom is 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom itself, almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus. It follows that the density of atomic nuclei is very high. If it were possible to collect 1 cm3 of atomic nuclei, then its mass would be about 116 million tons.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. These particles have a common name - nucleons.
Proton- - stable elementary particle with a mass close to a carbon unit. The proton charge is equal to the electrode charge, but with the opposite sign. If the charge of an electron is taken to be -1, then the charge of a proton is +1. A proton is a hydrogen atom missing an electron.
Neutron– an atomic shell, the negative charge of which compensates for the positive charge of the nucleus due to the presence of protons in it.
Thus, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus.
The relationship between the number of protons, the number of neutrons and the mass number of an atom is expressed by the equation: N=A-Z
Hence, the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of any element is equal to the difference between its mass number and the number of protons.
So the number of neutrons in the nucleus of a radium atom with a mass of 226 N=A-Z=226-88=138

Mass and charge of an electron.

All chemical processes of formation and destruction of chemical compounds occur without changing the nuclei of the atoms of the elements that make up these compounds. Only the electronic shells undergo changes. Chemical energy is thus related to the energy of electrons. To understand the processes of formation and destruction of chemical compounds, one should have an idea about the properties of the electron in general and especially about the properties and behavior of the electron in the atom.
Electron is an elementary particle that has an elementary negative electrical charge, i.e., the smallest amount of electricity that can exist. The charge of an electron is equal to el. Art. units or pendant. The rest mass of an electron is equal to g, i.e. 1837.14 times less than the mass of a hydrogen atom. The mass of an electron is a carbon unit.

Bohr's model of the atom.

At the beginning of the 20th century, M. Planck A. Einstein created the quantum theory of light, according to which light is a flow of individual quanta of energy carried by particles of light - photons.
Magnitude of energy quantum(E) is different for different radiations and is proportional to the oscillation frequency:
,
where h is Planck's constant.
M. Planck showed that atoms absorb or emit radiant energy only in separate, well-defined portions - quanta.
Trying to link the law of classical mechanics with quantum theory, the Danish scientist N. Bohr believed that an electron in a hydrogen atom can only be in certain - constant orbits, the radii of which are related to each other as the squares of integers These orbits were called stationary by N. Bohr.
Energy is emitted only when an electron moves from a more distant orbit to an orbit closer to the nucleus. When an electron moves from a close orbit to a more distant one, energy is absorbed by the atom.
, where are the energies of electrons in stationary states.
When Ei > Ek, energy is released.
When Ei< Ек энергия поглощается.
The solution to the problem of the distribution of electrons in an atom is based on the study of the line spectra of elements and their chemical properties. The spectrum of the hydrogen atom almost completely confirmed N. Bohr's theory. However, N. Bohr's theory could not explain the observed splitting of spectral lines in multielectron atoms and the intensification of this splitting in magnetic and electric fields.

Wave properties of the electron.

The laws of classical physics contrast the concepts of “particle” and “wave” with each other. Modern physical theory, called quantum, or wave mechanics, showed that the movement and interaction of particles of small mass - microparticles - occur according to laws different from the laws of classical mechanics. A microparticle simultaneously has some properties of corpuscles (particles) and some properties of waves. On the one hand, an electron, proton or other microparticle moves and acts like a corpuscle, for example, when colliding with another microparticle. On the other hand, when a microparticle moves, the phenomena of interference and diffraction typical of electromagnetic waves are revealed.
Thus, in the properties of the electron (as well as other microparticles), in the laws of its motion, the continuity and interconnection of two qualitatively different forms of existence of matter, substance and field are manifested. A microparticle cannot be considered either as an ordinary particle or as an ordinary wave. The microparticle has wave-particle duality.
Speaking about the relationship between matter and field, we can come to the conclusion that if each material particle has a certain mass, then, apparently, this same particle must also have a certain wave length. The question arises about the relationship between mass and wave. In 1924, the French physicist Louis de Broglie suggested that with every moving electron (and in general with every moving material particle) a wave process is associated, the wavelength of which is , where is the wavelength in cm (m), h is Planck’s constant, equal to erg. sec (), m - particle mass in g (kg), - particle speed, in cm/sec.
From this equation it is clear that a particle at rest must have an infinitely long wavelength and that the wavelength decreases as the particle's speed increases. The wavelength of a moving particle of large mass is very small and cannot yet be determined experimentally. That is why we are talking about the wave properties of microparticles only. An electron has wave properties. This means that its movement in an atom can be described by a wave equation.
The planetary model of the structure of the hydrogen atom, created by N. Bohr, who proceeded from the idea of ​​the electron only as a classical particle, cannot explain a number of properties of the electron. Quantum mechanics has shown that the idea of ​​the movement of an electron around a nucleus in certain orbits, similar to the movement of planets around the Sun, should be considered untenable.
An electron, having the properties of a wave, moves throughout the entire volume, forming an electron cloud, which can have a different shape for electrons located in one atom. The density of this electron cloud in one or another part of the atomic volume is not the same.

Characteristics of an electron by four quantum numbers.

The main characteristic that determines the movement of an electron in the field of a nucleus is its energy. The energy of an electron, like the energy of a particle of light flux - a photon, does not take on any, but only certain discrete, discontinuous or, as they say, quantized values.
A moving electron has three degrees of freedom of movement in space (corresponding to three coordinate axes) and one additional degree of freedom due to the presence of the electron’s own mechanical and magnetic moments, which take into account the rotation of the electron around its axis. Consequently, for a complete energy characteristic of the state of an electron in an atom, it is necessary and sufficient to have four parameters. These parameters are called quantum numbers. Quantum numbers, just like the energy of an electron, cannot reach all, but only certain values. Adjacent values ​​of quantum numbers differ by one.

Principal quantum number n characterizes the total energy reserve of an electron or its energy level. The principal quantum number can take values ​​of integers from 1 to . For an electron located in the field of the nucleus, the main quantum number can take values ​​from 1 to 7 (corresponding to the number of the period in the periodic system in which the element is located). Energy levels are designated either by numbers in accordance with the values ​​of the principal quantum number, or by letters:

If, for example, n=4, then the electron is on the fourth energy level, counting from the atomic nucleus, or on the N level.

Orbital quantum number l, which is sometimes called a side quantum number, characterizes the different energy states of an electron at a given level. The fine structure of the spectral lines indicates that the electrons of each energy level are grouped into sublevels. The orbital quantum number is related to the angular momentum of an electron as it moves relative to the atomic nucleus. The orbital quantum number also determines the shape of the electron cloud. The quantum number l can take all integer values ​​from 0 to (n-1). For example, with n=4, l=0, 1, 2, 3. Each value of l corresponds to a specific sublevel. Letter designations are used for sublevels. So, when l=0, 1, 2, 3, electrons are respectively on the s-, p-, d-, f- sublevels. Electrons of different sublevels are respectively called s-, p-, d-, f - electrons. The possible number of sublevels for each energy level is equal to the number of this level, but does not exceed four. The first energy level (n=1) consists of one s-sublevel, the second (n=2), third (n=3) and fourth (n=4) energy levels respectively consist of two (s, p), three (s , p, d) and four (s, p, d, f) sublevels. There cannot be more than four sublevels, since the values ​​l = 0, 1, 2, 3 describe the electrons of the atoms of all 104 currently known elements.
If l=0 (s-electrons), then the angular momentum of the electron relative to the atomic nucleus is zero. This can only happen when the electron moves forward not around the nucleus, but from the nucleus to the periphery and back. The electron cloud of the s-electron has the shape of a sphere.

Magnetic quantum number- The angular momentum of an electron is also associated with its magnetic moment. The magnetic quantum number characterizes the magnetic moment of an electron. The magnetic quantum number characterizes the magnetic moment of the electron and indicates the orientation of the electron cloud relative to the chosen direction or relative to the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic quantum number can take on any positive and negative integer values, including zero, ranging from – l to + l. For example, if l=2, then it has 2 l+1=5 values ​​(-2, -1, 0, +1, +2). When l=3 the number of values ​​is 2 l+1=7 (-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3). The number of values ​​of the magnetic quantum number, which is equal to 2 l+1, is the number of energy states in which electrons of a given sublevel can exist. Thus, s-electrons have only one state (2 l+1=1), p-electrons have 3 states (2 l+1=3), d-, f-electrons have 5 and 7 states, respectively. Energy states are usually denoted schematically by energy cells, depicting them as rectangles, and electrons as arrows in these cells.

Spin quantum number- characterizes the internal motion of the electron - spin. It is associated with the electron’s own magnetic moment, caused by its motion around its axis. This quantum number can take only two values: + 1/2 and -1/2, depending on whether the magnetic field of the electron spin is oriented parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field caused by the motion of the electron around the nucleus.
Two electrons (pairs) with the same values ​​of quantum numbers: n, I, but with oppositely directed spins (↓) are called a paired or lone pair of electrons. Electrons with unsaturated spins () are called unpaired.

Pauli's principle, principle of least energy, Hund's rule.
The distribution of electrons in the atoms of elements is determined by three main principles: the Pauli principle, the principle of least energy and Hund's rule.

Pauli's principle. Studying numerous spectra of atoms, the Swiss physicist W. Pauli in 1925 came to a conclusion that was called the Pauli principle or prohibition: “Two electrons of an atom are prohibited from being similar to each other in all respects” or, what is the same, “in an atom there is no there may even be two electrons with the same values ​​of all four quantum numbers." Energy states of electrons characterized by the same values ​​of three quantum numbers: n, I and m1 are usually denoted by an energy cell.
According to the Pauli principle, an energy cell can only have two electrons, with opposite spins
The presence of a third electron in one energy cell would mean that two of them have all four quantum numbers the same. The number of possible electron states (Fig. 4) at a given sublevel is equal to the number of magnetic quantum number values ​​for this sublevel, i.e. 21+ 1. The maximum number of electrons at this sublevel, according to the Pauli principle, will be 2(21+ 1). Thus, 2 electrons are possible in the s sublevel; the p sublevel has 6 electrons; the d sublevel has 10 electrons; there are 14 electrons in the f sublevel. The number of possible states of electrons at any level is equal to the square of the principal quantum number, and the maximum number of electrons at this level

Principle of least energy.

The sequence of placement of electrons in an atom must correspond to their greatest connection with the nucleus, i.e., the electron must have the lowest energy. Therefore, an electron does not have to occupy a higher energy level if there are places in the lower level where the electron will have less energy if located.

Since the electron energy is mainly determined by the values ​​of the main n and orbital / quantum numbers, those sublevels for which the sum of the values ​​of the quantum numbers n and / are smaller are filled first. For example, the energy reserve at sublevel 4s(n +/ = 4 +0 = 4) is less than at 3d(n + /= 3 + 2 = 5); 5s (n + / = 5 + 0 = 5) less than 4d(n + / = 4 + 2 = 6); 5p(n + / = 5 +1 =6) less than 4f(n + 1 = 4+3 = 7). If for two levels the sums of the values ​​n and / are equal, then the sublevel with the smaller value n is filled first. For example, at sublevels 3d, 4p, 5s the sums of the values ​​n and / are equal to five, in this case the sublevels with smaller values ​​of the principal quantum number are filled first n, i.e. in the following sequence: 3d-4р-5s.
When the energies of close sublevels differ very little from each other, there are some exceptions to this rule. Thus, the 5d sublevel is filled with one electron 5dl before 4f; 6d1-2 before 5f.
Filling out energy levels and hugs is in the following sequence: ls → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3D → 4P → 5s → 4D → 5P → 6S → 4F → 5D → 6P → 7S → (6D1-2--2-2 (6D1-2 )→5f→6d→7p

Hund's rule.
Electrons within a given sublevel are first located, each in a separate cell, in the form of unpaired “idle” electrons. In other words, for a given value of I, the electrons in the atom are located so that their total spin number is maximum. For example, if three p-cells need to be placed three electron, then each of them will be located in a separate cell in this way:

Electronic formulas of atoms and diagrams.

Taking into account the considered provisions, it is easy to imagine the distribution of electrons across energy levels and sublevels in the atoms of any element. This distribution of electrons in an atom is written in the form of so-called electron formulas. In electronic formulas, the letters s, p, d, f denote the energy sublevels of electrons; The numbers in front of the letters indicate the energy level in which a given electron is located, and the index at the top right is the number of electrons in a given sublevel. For example, the notation 5p3 means that 3 electrons are located at the p-sublevel of the fifth energy level.
To compose the electronic formula of an atom of any element, it is enough to know the number of this element in the periodic table and follow the basic principles that govern the distribution of electrons in the atom.
Let, for example, you need to create electronic formulas for the atoms of sulfur, calcium, scandium, iron and lanthanum. From the periodic table we determine the numbers of these elements, which are respectively 16, 20, 21, 26, . This means that the energy levels and sublevels of the atoms of these elements contain 16, 20, 21, 26, 57 electrons, respectively. Observing the Pauli principle and the principle of least energy, i.e. the sequence of filling energy levels and sublevels, it is possible to compose electronic formulas for the atoms of these elements:

The structure of the electron shell of an atom can also be depicted in the form of a diagram of the arrangement of electrons in energy cells.
For iron atoms, this scheme has the following form:

This diagram clearly shows the implementation of Hund's rule. At the 3d sublevel, the maximum number of cells (four) is filled with unpaired electrons. The image of the structure of the electron shell in an atom in the form of electronic formulas and in the form of diagrams does not clearly reflect the wave properties of the electron. However, it should be remembered that each s-, p-, d-, f-electron has its own electron cloud. A different shape of an electron cloud indicates that an electron has a different probability of being in a given region of atomic space. Depending on the value of the magnetic quantum number m1, the orientation of the electron cloud in space will also be different.

V. N. Guskov.

Properties characterize the content of a physical object (FO) in its interactions with the outside world.
It follows from this that properties themselves cannot be considered directly as the material content of an object. The properties are real only because the content of the FO is real. They are completely dependent on the content of objects and are manifested in their interactions with the outside world. Therefore, all kinds of physical constants of specific properties of the FO are essentially indicators of the invariability of the material content of the object.

Electron mass.

Mass, according to Newton, is an internal characteristic of the FO, a measure of its inertia (inertia).
In physics, it is believed that the inertia of an object is manifested in its ability to withstand changes and external influences. However, from the standpoint of the concept of immediate proximity (CNA), the ability to resist changes is possessed by All FOs participating in transformative interactions regardless of whether they have the property of mass.
Any FO will resist changes in its own content, its internal movement. This is also characteristic of energy objects - photons, which do not have mass (at least in the form of a scalar quantity).
From the standpoint of the National Security Committee, the presence of FO mass is determined by its ability not to resist changes in general or to maintain its structure, its internal organization, and resist changing one's connection with a specific material substance in which this structure is implemented as a financial institution.
This ability to have mass is the opposite of the ability of energy FOs maintain one's individuality only through a continuous change of material substrate with which its structure and content are associated.
It is the unification of these opposing abilities in one whole (in the system) that leads the FO with mass to spatial movement, and the FO with energy to braking, slowing down its movement in material space. Such a combined FO (EZSM), consisting of an ESM and a ZSM, can never and under no circumstances be spatially at rest or move in it at the speed of light.

Naturally, both the ability to have mass and the ability to have energy are strictly related to the structural organization of the FO.
As soon as the structure of FOs having mass, for example, an electron and a positron, is destroyed during annihilation, the newly formed structures lose the ability to have mass. They become structurally different objects – photons. Which, losing connection with a specific material substance in their existence, acquire energy characteristics.
It would seem that from this we can conclude that all changes that do not lead to irreversible consequences for an object with mass, and in particular for an electron, are of secondary importance. However, it is not.
Any transformative interactions with the outside world lead to a transformation of charge motion in the electron structure. (As a matter of fact, there is nothing else in the content of an electron other than this movement.).
But the structure of the electron, despite its simplicity, is such that transformations of structure-forming movements are always reversible. As a result of this, the total amount of charge motion in the electron is also conserved.
And this ensures not only the safety of its structure, but also the constancy of its properties, including mass.
On the other hand, the constancy of the content allows the electron, even if it is included in a more complex formation, to retain (partially) its individuality and always become the same FO after leaving the system.

The ability to have mass is possessed exclusively by ZSM (including the electron), as well as by increasingly complex FOs in which they are a part. Matter that is in the ground state or in the energy state does not have this property.

However, the constancy of the mass does not provide the electron with the ability to fully exhibit this property at any moment of its existence.
From the previous article it is clear that the electron content changes from phase to phase the direction of manifestation of its content (its internal momentum). And since the structure-forming interactions occurring in an electron occur at the speed of light, an electron that is in the phase of “converging” half-quanta will represent a kind of “ outgoing" an object.
This means that any attempts to enter into a transformative interaction with him at this moment will lead to nothing. He will be unavailable for interaction, since he will avoid any confrontation with the outside world. (The photon is also inaccessible, but only always(!), for positively accelerating interactions in the plane of propagation.)
Incompatibility of an electron with anything external, and, consequently, transformation, is impossible in this phase of existence. The question arises: can an electron in such a state manifest its property of mass in relations with the surrounding world? Obviously not.
And this is when the electron has a full content, which is quantitatively no different from its content in the phase of “diverging” half-quanta.

Electric charge of an electron.

The external manifestation of the electric charge of an electron is more diverse than the manifestation of its mass property. And indeed, in some interactions with objects of identical charge sign, the electron is “repelled” from them, while in others with objects having the opposite charge sign, it is, on the contrary, “attracted”.
This ambiguity in the external manifestation of the electron charge allows us to assert that the result always depends on the content and properties of both interacting objects.

However, the mere statement of the visual facts of “attraction” or “repulsion” of objects, depending on their sign affiliation, allows us to determine only the external signs of the internal laws of the process and derive the corresponding mathematical laws (Coulomb’s law, for example). But in order to understand Why the manifestation of the charge property of an electron is so different, and what are principles its implementation this will clearly not be enough.

To understand the essence of what is happening in the interactions of objects with electrical charges, we are forced to retreat somewhat from the topic of conversation. The structure of the electron, like the structure of any other FO, exists in the “environment” of the OSM. Therefore, it is very important to know how the OSM element works.
In the previous article it was already noted that the half-quanta of different signs included in the OSM element must compensate for each other’s manifestation in order for the object to acquire true (including electrical) neutrality. This means that not only counter-directed half-quanta of the same type “balance” each other in their opposition, but also unidirectional half-quanta of different types. This means that the connection between half-quanta in the OSM element is diverse and multifaceted.
Essentially, it will not be possible to separate half-quanta in an OSM element according to their sign as we did (significantly simplifying reality) when analyzing the structure of the electron. The real connection between half-quanta in OSM is such that they literally cannot exist without each other. They represent one whole, sides of one reality. Moreover, none of these cumulative interactions in which OSM semi-quanta participate can be unambiguously considered as, of course, internal or external. (Which is quite acceptable in the case of the electron structure.) They are absolutely identical. Therefore, determining their status is absolutely subjective, since the position of the observer (subject) will play a decisive role.
Any interaction can be considered as central and structure-forming and at the same time as external with other elements of OSM.
Therefore, there is every reason to consider the structure of the OSM to be continuous, consisting of a kind of “knots”, which are interactions. These interactions of matter in the ground state are of the same type in terms of the principles of internal organization and material content and therefore do not have distinctive features.

Of course, all of the above about the proposed structure of OSM may be of interest to the reader. But for us now only one detail is important - the dependence of the intensity of the manifestation of one type of OSM semi-quanta on the presence of semi-quanta of another type that neutralize this manifestation and are unidirectional with them. What does all of this mean? There is only one thing - if opposite-signed unidirectional half-quanta are equal, then they completely neutralize each other. If one type of semiquanta begins to dominate, then a charge movement is formed, which is what we observe in the electron.

"Repulsion" of electrons.

The factor of dominance of one type of semiquanta over another is very important for explaining the principle of organizing internal motion in an electron.
It is no less important for explaining mechanism of interaction between SSM. For example, between two electrons. Knowing the organization of internal motion in an electron, it is not difficult to understand what will happen to it when its neutral interaction with the GSM is replaced by interaction with the GSM of identical sign.
Their incompatibility will lead to exactly the same transformative interaction that they had before with OSM. And its result will be the same - transformation of the momentum of interacting semi-quanta.
The only difference will be that this interaction will be “premature” and it will occur at a smaller distance from the location of the previous central interactions in the GSM.
Consequently, in the contact zone of electrons, the transformation of charge motion will occur earlier than on the opposite side (in the zone of their interactions with the OSM). As a result there will be bias subsequent central conversion interaction in each of the electrons.
It is not difficult to guess in what direction this shift will occur - in the direction of each other. from friend. It is also not difficult to understand that this The displacement of the electron centers is equivalent to their displacement from each other in space.
That's how mechanism of “repulsion” of identical GSMs, in this case two electrons. As we can see, it is simple and does not require introducing any additional entities into the content of the AP for its implementation.
Of course, here is a simplified interpretation of the “repulsion” process without taking into account the energy component. But most importantly, without taking into account the interaction with OSM.

"Attraction" of electron and positron.

Let's now see whether electrically opposite-signed ZSMs (electron and positron) need any connecting “ropes” to implement “attraction” or transmit energy impulses.
As already noted, unidirectional half-quanta of different signs in OSM almost completely neutralize each other. The connection between half-quanta is preserved during the transition of the OSM to the charge state.
Only as a result of a violation of the quantitative balance between semiquanta does the neutrality inherent in them in the OSM disappear. One type of semi-quanta becomes dominant, but what happens to the other? Obviously he neutralization even more intensifies.
Naturally, these changes cannot but manifest themselves in the interaction of different-sign GSMs. And if in the interaction of identical SSMs transformation the predominant type of semi-quanta comes earlier than with a similar interaction of these ES with OSM, then with the interaction of ES of different signs one will observe reverse effect.
Transformative interaction in their contact zone will be delayed relatively similar interaction with OSM. Accordingly it will happen bias subsequent central interactions in each of the GSMs in the direction of each other To to a friend. And this means that objects must move spatially towards each other.
Objects will indeed move, but not to each other, but each other! This clarification is based on the NSC provision on the inevitability of direct contact when interaction occurs between financial institutions.
Therefore, if objects that are already interacting move in the opposite direction, then this can only mean one thing - their spatial combination, and not a formal rapprochement.
It would be wrong to assume that as a result of combining objects of different signs, some kind of “doubling” of reality can occur. Nothing of the kind - the combined objects perfectly complement each other, but the material basis of their existence (OSM) will remain the same. The structures of the GSM are spatially compatible, but not matter. And the deeper their interpenetration, the less will be the opposition of structures (until the moment of their possible annihilation).
Thus, we see that for the realization of “attraction” there is no need for connecting threads through which objects could attract each other. There is also no need for the unnatural (the opposite of “repulsion” in its transformative essence) and, therefore, illogical transfer of energy movement through virtual photons. The process of attraction is based on the same mechanism of transformative interaction(or rather a set of interactions) which is the basis of “repulsion”.

However, the explanation of the mechanisms of both “repulsion” and “attraction” will be incomplete without taking into account the interactions of objects not only with each other, but also with the OCM in opposite directions. These interactions are always present, but only in the presence of charge interactions does their role as driving factors begin to emerge.
So, with “repulsion”, the value of opposition in these interactions turns out to be less than the value of opposition of electrons, and with “attraction” this same value will be greater than the opposition of electron and positron. As a result, the FOs begin to shift along the line of least resistance in the first case from each other, in the second - into each other.
Result relative the weakening of the opposition of different sign FOs in their interaction can be clearly represented as a process of “falling” them into each other or “pressing” them into each other by external interaction with the surrounding OSM. But these visual images do not quite accurately reflect the essence of what is happening. They do not reflect the diversity of reasons for what is happening. After all, in fact, the “attraction” of objects (as well as “repulsion”) is the result not of one or even two specific interactions, but of a complex of comprehensive interactions of the FO with the matter surrounding them.

Preliminary results.

Thanks to the almost complete mutual and comprehensive compensation of half-quanta, the OSM environment is electrically neutral. However, it is enough through transformation to strengthen or weaken one of the meaningful components (one type of semi-quanta) of the OSM, and the equilibrium is disturbed, and it passes into the GSM.
Naturally, this is expressed not only in the strengthening of the manifestation of the predominant type of semi-quanta, but also in the weakening of the opposite type of semi-quanta, which is unidirectional with it.
The electric charge of an electron expresses its ability to enter into external transformative interactions with varying degrees of activity.
The manifestation of this property is directly related to the properties of another FO interacting with it. At the same time, the content of the interacting parties can manifest itself in different ways. That's why the charge property can be defined as a mutual change in the intensity of manifestation of individual aspects of the FO content during their interaction.
There is nothing mysterious in the implementation of “repulsion” and “attraction” of electrically charged elementary FOs.
In nature, at an elementary level, these phenomena themselves are absent as such - they are only an external manifestation of deep processes. Which are based on the transformative interaction of incompatible parties. Therefore, in principle, the mechanism for implementing “repulsion” and “attraction” is indistinguishable. The only difference lies in the degree of opposition of objects, in the magnitude of their incompatibility.

"Spin" of the electron.

If we proceed from the position that all electrons are identical, then, reasoning strictly logically, we must admit that there cannot be any property that would allow us to divide all electrons into two types.
And indeed, since properties characterize the content of an object, a difference in some way in the properties of electrons will indicate their difference in content. This contradicts the proposition that all electrons are completely identical.
From the standpoint of CBN, the structure of the electron is absolutely transparent and it will not be possible to detect “something” in it that could serve as a basis for the assumption of a structural or meaningful difference between electrons (at least at this level of development of our ideas about it).
Therefore, there is every reason to assert that electrons do not have properties, which would allow them to be divided into separate groups. Therefore, "spin" as a property all electrons must have the same one.
On the other hand, the identity of the structures of all electrons does not prevent them from interacting with each other while being in different phases of their internal existence. It is the presence of an internal “pulsation” of the ZS content that makes it possible to resolve the seemingly insoluble dilemma with different “spins” of electrons.
The presence of two phases in the internal transformation processes of the Earth brings diversity to their relationships. Summarizing the possible scenarios for the development of events during the interaction of the Earth, we will highlight two opposite situations.
First, the phases of existence of interacting Earth systems coincide.
The second is that the structure-forming movements in the interacting ZS are in antiphase.
Both types of interactions will lead to the same result - “repulsion”, but they will differ in details. The least contradictory (up to a certain point) will be the relationship between the ZS, whose internal charge movements are in antiphase. Therefore, the convergence of such objects will be as close as possible.
When the phases of existence of interacting electrons coincide, their opposition will, on the contrary, be maximum. Therefore, other things being equal, their convergence in comparison with the first situation will be minimal.
Obviously, this difference in the results of interactions between electrons allows us to assert that they have different spins.
Conclusion - “spin” is a comparative characteristic of interacting objects. The spin of an individual electron loses its definition.
It is impossible to say in advance before interaction what specific “spin” an electron has. We can assume that it simply does not exist.
Failure to understand the factor of dependence, the subordination of properties to the material content of an object can lead to serious difficulties in forming ideas about the FO. The presence of any characteristics in the FO (mass, energy, charge), especially if they have a constant value, is often associated in the mind of the subject with the very material content of the object. Allegedly, the properties are present in it.
Properties are perceived as additional entities that an object has except its material content or included in its material content as separate elements.
However, this is not so; properties can manifest themselves with varying intensity (depending on the nature of the interaction), and sometimes completely disappear with the cessation of the corresponding interactions. The content of the object, at least quantitatively, can remain unchanged.
The conclusion is that the “habitat”, the area of ​​existence of properties is always a process of interaction; outside of it, properties cannot manifest themselves in anything or anything. In fact, the properties that we consider to be characteristics of an individual object are an indicator of the process of interaction, and sometimes of a whole set of interactions.

Dualism of electron properties.

Before moving directly to the “dualism” of the properties of the electron, let’s consider some aspects of the relationship between the electron and the photon.
The previous article already noted the absence of energy movement in the structure of the electron. This gives grounds for the statement that the electron does not have the ability to possess energy. (Here energy is considered as property inherent exclusively energy objects – photons).
In general, the concept of energy in physics has a double meaning.
On the one hand, it is identified with energy content the object itself. On the other hand, energy is considered as property the same object.
Without a doubt, such a union cannot be justified in any way. Here it is necessary to determine: either energy is the content of the FO, or its property - there is no third option.
From the author's point of view energy is a property of an energy object, not its content. That's why FO cannot emit or absorb directly energy. He can only manifest your energy.
Of course, energy, like any other property, can be lost or gained, but only through the transformation of the material content of the object, its quantitative change.
Without a physical process, movement of the “energy” property is impossible. Therefore, when they talk about radiation or absorption of energy, they usually mean a quantitative change in the material content of an object, which is characterized by energy movement.
Essentially There is no need for energy to organize the internal movement of an electron. But for manifestations properties of the electron, energetic movement and, therefore, energy are necessary.
This is not difficult to achieve – all it takes is for an electron to unite with a photon. However, there is one subtlety here - by “acquiring” energetic movement, the electron ceases to be itself and, therefore, loses its original properties.
Despite the fact that in physics a spatially moving electron is considered as an electron “possessing” energy, in fact it is not an electron, but a new FO.
The electron is included in this object as an element. Therefore, in fact an electron, having united with a photon, not only does not acquire new properties, but also loses the properties inherent in it initially. This always happens with all FOs, which through interaction form a new whole - a system. Neither the content of the system elements nor their properties retain autonomy.
It means that the combined properties are not summed up, but are transformed into new cumulative properties inherent in the system as a whole. Thus, the new FO acquires not only the energy inherent in a photon, but also the mass and charge of an electron. A new FO is formed, which can be conditionally called a “photo-electron” or an energy-charge state (ECS). This FO will have the combined properties corresponding to it (and only to it!), including "energy mass".

Conclusion - when a system is formed: electron + photon, the previous properties of the elements of the system are not preserved. Therefore, the expression “moving electron” is as illiterate as the expression “photon at rest.”
Such objects do not exist in nature, unless we understand by them a system (ECS) with the property “energy mass” inherent in this system.

Analyzing the structure and properties of the electron, we considered the electron, so to speak, in its “pure” form. An electron as a FO that participates in external interactions (without this it cannot exist!), but is not part of a larger physical organization or system.
This approach is caused by the need to consider not the properties of some system, but the properties of a specific elementary object - the electron. It is clear that for the interaction of an electron to occur with any object (except for the OSM) and, therefore, for the manifestation of properties, spatial movement of at least one of them is necessary. This means that the presence of energy movement in interacting objects is mandatory. However, by simplifying the situation, we ignore this fact and abstract from it.

Let us move on to directly consider the “dualism” of the properties of the electron.
An analysis of the organization of intra-charge motion of an electron has shown that during one period of its existence it experiences amazing metamorphoses. It would seem that the properties of the electron should change accordingly.
However, despite the peculiar “two-facedness” of the electron content, it does not possess any mutually exclusive properties. The contrast between the electron as a “particle” and as a “wave” is purely arbitrary. At least because its content qualitatively and quantitatively at the moments of manifestation of these “properties” remains unchanged, and the changes in the electron content themselves are consistent in time.
Therefore, in the future we will only talk about variability properties of an electron during its existence, and not about their duality.

As noted in the previous article, an electron by its nature is not a wave - it is a natural harmonic oscillator. Therefore, the “wave” property observed in experiments on “diffraction” and “interference” of an electron is actually manifested not by an electron, but by a system: electron + photon. Only thanks to the constant connection with the photon is the electron contained in new FO acquires wave properties. So, if we think strictly, we must admit that “particle-wave dualism” of properties as such is not inherent in the electron.
In what follows we will talk about “ photono-electron» - a system consisting of energy and charge states of matter, i.e. O energy-charged state of matter (ECSM).

Of course, when analyzing experiments with EZSM confirming their “wave” character, it would be necessary to take into account all the real circumstances of what is happening. In particular, the process involves not a “single-phase” abstract copy of an electron, but an objectively existing “two-phase” electron. It would not hurt to have a real idea of ​​the structure of the photon with which the electron forms a system, as well as to have a clearer idea of ​​the structure of the target. But, unfortunately, it will not be possible to fully imagine what is happening in experiments based on existing knowledge. Therefore, we will limit ourselves to general considerations based on elementary logic.

Let's start by passing the EZSM through two slits. Since no mysticism is inappropriate in science, we immediately admit this fact. It certainly does not follow from this that the EZS at this moment consists of two halves. Both the electron and the photon as part of this system always retain their integrity.
So, at the initial moment of passage of the EZSM in the form of a moving electron through the target, obviously the FO is in the phase of external charge-forming interaction.
This, by the way, allows us to draw certain conclusions about the size of the EZ at the moment of the greatest “expansion” of the electron. They will be comparable to the distance between the holes in the target. As the object moves further through the target, their structures must be in a state of antiphase. This will allow the EZ to reach the other edge of the target with the least changes.

The result that will be observed on the screen depends entirely on the distance from the target to the screen. If the FO interacts with the screen in a state of coinciding phases, then a peak in the manifestation of the “energy-mass” properties of a moving electron will be observed precisely in the center of the screen relative to the location of the holes in the target. The ECD will be reflected from the screen.
If they come into contact in a state of antiphase, then the FO will penetrate deep into the screen and we will not see anything.
If the direction of movement of the FO deviates from straight-line, the distance to the screen will change. The result of interactions will also change, because The FO will reach the screen in different phases.
Thus, a picture similar to that observed during wave interference will be created. However, let the reader think for himself whether this effect from the interactions of a moving electron with the screen can be considered as interference of it with itself.
In other words, we need to find out whether a single wave can interfere? Considering that, according to the provisions of classical physics, to obtain this effect it is necessary to superimpose waves on each other.

To explain the “diffraction” of a moving electron as it passes through one hole, there is little that can be added to what has been said.
Reasoning logically, it should be assumed that at the initial moment of passing the target, the FO should be in the “particle” state, or simply in antiphase with the target state.
When leaving the target in the event of movement deviating from a rectilinear FO, it is not at all necessary to have the ability to “go around” the obstacle. It is enough for it to be in antiphase with the content of the target in order to pass through it almost unhindered. Of course, the structure and size of the obstacle must correspond to the frequency of oscillations in the FO structure.

Results.

The mass and charge of an electron, observed over a period of time significantly exceeding the frequency of its own oscillations, appear as conserved, constant values. But during one period of oscillatory movements in the structure of the star structure, the intensity of the manifestation of properties can change from a maximum, almost to zero.
An electron in the phase of “converging” half-quanta is practically not observable and does not exhibit any properties (with the possible exception of charge).
All properties of an electron known to physics can be attributed to the phase of “divergent” half-quanta. As a result a separate phase of the electron's existence period is perceived by the subject as a full-fledged physical object. Therefore, when analyzing the properties of an electron, we are forced to divide its existence in the phase of “diverging” half-quanta into two “subphases” of a kind. In one of them (at the initial stage of expansion) the electron will have an almost “monolithic” structure, representing a “particle”. In another (at the maximum stage of expansion), due to the uncertainty of size and “dispersion” of the content in the OSM space, the electron will appear in the form of a “wave”.
In other words electron in the initial stage of expansion appears for an outside observer in the form of a point emitter of moving matter, which produces “divergent” half-quanta of the same type.
Due to the practical unobservability of external transformative interaction The boundaries of the electron at the stage of maximum “expansion” become illusory.
The differences between the electron and the field of spatial deformation of the OSM, as well as with the actual content of the OSM, are erased. As a result, it becomes absolutely unclear where a “single-phase” electron “derives” its charge motion to implement the process of “radiation” of its material content.
All the more inexplicable is the appearance of energy, which a “resting” electron does not have (and cannot have in principle), but which, according to the existing physical theory, the electron must irrevocably radiate into the surrounding space. (Here, “energy” refers to the energy content of the photon.)

In connection with such a one-sided perception of the electron structure, a number of problems arise in modern theoretical physics.
In particular, ideas about the nature of the electron based on mathematical models that appear as a result of a generalization of just a visual, external manifestation of one side of the electron content are illogical in nature.
They demand that we abandon the norms of formal logic and think not just original, but “unconventionally.”
This cannot lead to anything other than an increase in the number of patients in psychiatric clinics. Because no sane subject is able to imagine a FO that is both a wave and a particle.

In the mathematical models themselves, designed to describe natural phenomena in accordance with the original, incommensurability and infinity appear in a number of quantities (including mass, charge, size and energy). In the fight against these “divergences”, ingenious methods are used (in particular, the theory of renormalizations), designed to fit the theory to experimental data.
This is somewhat reminiscent of a junior high school student trying to solve a math problem. in any way after he found out the answer at the end of the textbook.
All these “difficulties” are quite understandable because... theoretical physics is forced to explain phenomena that, in principle, cannot be explained from the standpoint of modern theory.

Most likely, physical reality is richer and more diverse than our wildest fantasies, and the properties of matter even at the elementary level (especially OSM) are multifaceted and inexhaustible.
Probably not only the electron in its entirety of its structural content, but also much else from the realities of the physical world eludes our attention. But we can already say that there is nothing mystical or exclusively unknowable in the phenomena of the microworld.

In solid state physics, the effective mass of a particle is the dynamic mass that appears when the particle moves in the periodic potential of a crystal. It can be shown that electrons and holes in a crystal respond to an electric field as if they were moving freely in a vacuum, but with a certain effective mass, which is usually defined in terms of the rest mass of the electron me (9.11 × 10−31 kg). It is different from the rest mass of the electron. The effective mass is determined by analogy with Newton’s second law, using quantum mechanics it can be shown that for an electron in an external electric field E: where a is the acceleration, is Planck’s constant, k is the wave vector, which is determined from the momentum as k =, ε(k) is the dispersion law that relates energy to the wave vector k. In the presence of an electric field, a force is exerted on the electron, where the charge is denoted by q. From here we can obtain an expression for the effective mass m *:

For a free particle, the dispersion law is quadratic, and thus the effective mass is constant and equal to the rest mass. In a crystal the situation is more complicated and the dispersion law differs from the quadratic one. In this case, only at the extrema of the dispersion law curve, where it can be approximated by a parabola, can the concept of mass be used. The effective mass depends on the direction in the crystal and is, in general, a tensor. Effective mass tensor is a term in solid state physics that characterizes the complex nature of the effective mass of a quasiparticle (electron, hole) in a solid. The tensor nature of the effective mass is illustrated by the fact that in a crystal lattice an electron moves not as a particle with a rest mass, but as a quasiparticle whose mass depends on the direction of movement relative to the crystallographic axes of the crystal. The effective mass is introduced when there is a parabolic dispersion law, otherwise the mass begins to depend on energy. In this regard, a negative effective mass is possible. By definition, the effective mass is found from the dispersion law. Where is the wave vector, is the Kronecker symbol, and is Planck’s constant. Electron. An electron is a stable, negatively charged elementary particle, one of the basic structural units of matter. It is a fermion (i.e. it has a half-integer spin). Refers to leptons (the only stable particle among charged leptons). Electrons make up the electronic shells of atoms, where their number and position determine almost all the chemical properties of substances. The movement of free electrons causes phenomena such as electric current in conductors and vacuum. Electron as a quasiparticle. If an electron is in a periodic potential, its motion is considered as the motion of a quasiparticle. Its states are described by a quasi-wave vector. The main dynamic characteristic in the case of a quadratic dispersion law is the effective mass, which can differ significantly from the mass of a free electron and in the general case is a tensor. Properties The charge of an electron is indivisible and equal to −1.602176487(40)×10−19 Klkg is the mass of the electron. Kl is the charge of the electron. C/kg is the specific charge of an electron. electron spin in units According to modern concepts of elementary particle physics, the electron is indivisible and structureless (at least up to distances of 10−17 cm). The electron participates in weak, electromagnetic and gravitational interactions. It belongs to the group of leptons and is (together with its antiparticle, the positron) the lightest of the charged leptons. Before the discovery of the neutrino mass, the electron was considered the lightest of the massive particles - its mass is approximately 1836 times less than the mass of the proton. The electron spin is 1/2, and thus the electron is a fermion. Like any charged particle with spin, an electron has a magnetic moment, and the magnetic moment is divided into a normal part and an anomalous magnetic moment. Sometimes both electrons themselves and positrons are considered electrons (for example, considering them as a general electron-positron field, a solution to the Dirac equation). In this case, the negatively charged electron is called a negatron, and the positively charged electron is called a positron. Being in the periodic potential of the crystal, the electron is considered as a quasiparticle, the effective mass of which can differ significantly from the mass of the electron. A free electron cannot absorb a photon, although it can scatter it (see Compton effect). Hole. A hole is a quasiparticle, a carrier of a positive charge equal to the elementary charge in semiconductors. Definition according to GOST 22622-77: An unfilled valence bond, which manifests itself as a positive charge, numerically equal to the charge of an electron. The concept of a hole is introduced in band theory to describe electronic phenomena in the valence band, which is not completely filled with electrons. In the electronic spectrum of the valence band, several zones often appear that differ in effective mass and energy position (zones of light and heavy holes, zone of spin-orbit split holes).