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The communicative side of communication
Features of the communicative side of communication
When they talk about communication as the exchange of information, they mean the communicative side of communication. The transmission of any information is carried out through sign systems, i.e. signs. The communicator (transmitting information) consciously orients his actions towards the semantic perception of the encoded information by other people (recipients). Information is transmitted by the communicator using verbal or non-verbal information. The recipient (receiving information) decodes it for meaningful perception of information.
In order to ensure that negotiation partners can understand each other, a unified system of meanings of sign systems must be developed, a thesaurus of concepts must be developed that allows communication individuals to correctly navigate a certain area of knowledge. During the communication process, the communicator and the recipient alternately change places: the communicator becomes the recipient, the recipient becomes the communicator. This is how dialogue communication is organized. It would seem tempting to describe the entire process of human communication in terms of information theory. However, as G. M. Andreeva notes, this approach cannot be called correct, since it omits some important characteristics of human communication. These characteristics boil down to the following. communication paralinguistics verbal
1. In the communication process, there is not just the movement of information, but an active exchange of it, in which the significance of a particular message plays a special role. And this is possible when the information is not just accepted, but also understood and meaningful. Mutual information between two individuals, each of whom acts in dialogue communication as an active subject, presupposes the establishment of joint activities.
2. Information exchange necessarily involves psychological influencing a partner to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact is. For purely informational purposes based on information theory, none of this happens.
3. Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when both participants in communication have a single or similar system of encoding and decoding. In everyday speech, “everyone should speak the same language.” But even knowing the meaning of the same words, people do not always understand them in the same way. The reasons for this are differences in the social, political, age, and professional characteristics of those communicating.
4. In the conditions of human communication, so-called communication barriers periodically arise, which are social and psychological character. The reasons for this are differences in the worldview, attitude and worldview of those communicating, their psychological characteristics (for example, excessive shyness of some, secrecy of others, intransigence of others, etc.).
It was said earlier that any information is transmitted through sign systems. Usually a distinction is made between verbal and non-verbal information. The latter is divided into several more forms: kinesthetics, paralinguistics, proxemics, visual communication. Each of them forms its own sign system.
It should be emphasized once again that speech becomes a universal means of communication provided that it is included in the system of activity, which, in turn, involves the use of other, non-speech sign systems at the same time.
Verbal communication
Human speech, i.e., natural sound language, acts as a sign system in verbal communication.
The system of phonetic signs of a language is built on the basis of vocabulary and syntax. Vocabulary is a collection of words that make up a language. Syntax is the means and rules for creating speech units characteristic of specific languages. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information, the meaning of the message is lost to the least extent compared to other means of transmitting information. Speech, therefore, is language in action, a form of generalized reflection of reality, a form of existence of thinking. Indeed, in thinking, speech manifests itself in the form of internally speaking words to oneself. Thinking and speech are inseparable from each other. The transmission of information through speech occurs according to the following scheme: the communicator (speaker) selects the words necessary to express a thought; connects them according to the rules of grammar, using the principles of vocabulary and syntax; pronounces these words thanks to the articulation of the speech organs. The recipient (listener) perceives speech, decodes speech units for the correct understanding of the thought expressed in it. But this happens when the communicating people use a national language that is understandable to both, developed in the process of verbal communication over many generations of people.
Speech performs two main functions - significative and communicative.
Thanks to significative function for a person (unlike an animal) it becomes possible to voluntarily evoke images of objects and perceive the semantic content of speech. Thanks to the communicative function, speech becomes a means of communication, a means of transmitting information.
The word makes it possible to analyze objects, things, to highlight their essential and secondary features. By mastering the word, a person automatically masters complex systems of connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the objective world. The ability to analyze objects and phenomena of the objective world, to identify the essential, the main and the secondary in them, to classify these objects and phenomena into certain categories (i.e., to classify them) is an indispensable condition when determining the meaning of a word. A dictionary compiled on this basis, covering terms and concepts of any special field of activity, is called thesaurus.
Communicative function of speech manifests itself in means of expression And means of influence. Speech is not limited to just the totality of transmitted messages; it simultaneously expresses both a person’s attitude towards what he is talking about and his attitude towards the person with whom he is communicating. Thus, in the speech of each individual, emotional and expressive components (rhythm, pause, intonation, voice modulation, etc.) are manifested to one degree or another. Expressive components are also present in written speech (in the text of a letter this is manifested in the sweep of handwriting and the force of pressure, the angle of its inclination, the direction of the lines, the shape of capital letters, etc.). The word as a means of influence and its emotional and expressive components are inseparable, acting simultaneously, to a certain extent influencing the behavior of the recipient.
Types of verbal communication. Distinguish external And inner speech. External speech divided by oral And written. Oral speech, in turn - on dialogical And monologue. When preparing for oral speech and especially for written speech, the individual “pronounces” the speech to himself. That's what it is inner speech. In written speech, the conditions of communication are mediated by text. Written speech May be direct (for example, exchanging notes at a meeting, lecture) or delayed (exchange of letters).
A unique form of verbal communication includes dactyl speech. This is a manual alphabet that serves to replace oral speech when deaf and blind people communicate with each other and with persons familiar with dactylology. Dactyl marks replace letters (similar to printed letters).
The accuracy of the listener's understanding of the meaning of the speaker's utterance depends on the feedback. Such feedback is established when the communicator and the recipient alternate places. The recipient, by his statement, makes it clear how he understood the meaning of the received information. Thus, dialogue speech represents a kind of consistent change in the communicative roles of those communicating, during which the meaning of the speech message is revealed. Monologue same speech continues long enough without being interrupted by remarks from others. It requires preliminary preparation. This is usually a detailed, preparatory speech (for example, a report, lecture, etc.).
Constant and effective exchange of information is the key to any organization or company achieving its goals. The importance of communication, for example in management, cannot be overestimated. However, here, as shown above, it is necessary to pursue the goal of ensuring a correct understanding of the transmitted information or semantic messages. The ability to accurately express one’s thoughts and the ability to listen are components of the communicative side of communication. Inept expression of thoughts leads to incorrect interpretation of what was said. Inept listening distorts the meaning of the information being conveyed. Below is a methodology for two main ways of listening: non-reflective and reflective.
Non-reflective listening involves minimal interference in the interlocutor’s speech with maximum concentration on it. Therefore, in order to master non-reflective listening, one must learn to be silent attentively, demonstrating understanding, goodwill and support. This technique facilitates the speaker’s process of self-expression and helps listeners better understand the meaning of statements and grasp what is behind the words.
1. The interlocutor is eager to express his attitude towards something, wants to express his point of view.
2. The interlocutor wants to discuss pressing issues. If a person is worried, offended by something, or experiencing other negative emotions, it is worth giving him the opportunity to speak out and express his feelings, with little or no interference in his speech. This relieves tension and promotes the establishment of normal bilateral contact. The simple opportunity to express what has accumulated brings emotional relief to the speaker, and helps the listener understand the reasons for his actions and experiences.
3. It is difficult for the interlocutor to express, to put into words what worries him, what he wants to talk about. Minimal interference in the conversation facilitates the speaker's self-expression. Unnecessary interference in the interlocutor’s speech and subjective comments often hinder the establishment of mutual understanding.
4. Non-reflective listening techniques are useful in conversations with shy, insecure people who find it easier to “deal with things than with others like themselves.”
5. Non-reflective listening is effective during a job interview when they want to learn as much as possible about the applicant. You can ask the question: “What attracts you most about this job?” or “Why do you want to work with us?” and allow the person to speak freely without directing his train of thought with questions and comments. It is also useful in business and commercial negotiations where a brief dialogue needs to ensure accurate mutual understanding. Minimal interference in the interlocutor's speech helps an experienced listener to better understand the speaker - his true feelings, goals and intentions. And these techniques show the interlocutor that they are really interested in him.
Reflective Listening involves establishing active feedback with the speaker. It allows you to eliminate obstacles and distortion of information in the communication process, and more accurately understand the meaning and content of statements. Keep in mind that many words have multiple meanings and can be understood differently by different people. The meaning of a word depends on the situation, on the context in which it is used. Sometimes the speaker puts one meaning into a statement, and the listener interprets it differently. People often find it difficult to express their opinions directly and openly. The fear of being misunderstood, of seeming stupid or funny, of facing disapproval, condemnation forces one to take a roundabout maneuver, pile up words, hiding the true motives. The tutorial mentioned above outlines four basic techniques for reflective listening. These techniques are usually used in combination.
¦ Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication based on the means of presenting information can be divided into kinesthetics, para- and extralinguistics, proxemics and “eye contact” (visual communication).
Kinesthetics is one of the types of nonverbal communication based on the perception of general motor skills of various parts of the human body. If we mean mainly hands, then this is - gesticulation (sign language). If we mean facial muscles, then this is - facial expressions If the posture of a person, then this is - pantomime (language of the body).
Some authors call this type of nonverbal information optical-kinetic system of signs (V.A. Labunskaya, 1986; G.M. Andreeva, 1996, etc.). In our opinion, this name for one of the main types of nonverbal communication is not correct. After all, the word “kinetics” refers to the branches of mechanics and physics. Kinetic means relating to the movement of mechanical parts (mechanics), to the energy of mechanical motion (physics). We believe that it is more correct to call this type of non-verbal communication kinesthetics, since this word is based on the concept “kinesthetic sensation” - the sensation of movements, positions of parts of the individual’s own body and applied muscle efforts. Kinaesthetic sensitivity easily comes into contact with other types of sensitivity - cutaneous, vestibular, auditory and visual.
General motor skills of various parts of the body (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) reflect a person’s emotional reactions. However, it should be borne in mind that the use of the same kinesthetic techniques (gestures, postures, facial expressions, etc.) in different folk cultures may have different interpretations. For example, the V-shaped sign with the fingers in many countries means the number 2. In most European countries, this sign means “Victory!” - it doesn’t matter whether the palm is turned towards yourself or towards the viewer. But in England and Australia, this sign takes on a different interpretation depending on which side of the speaker’s hand is turned towards himself. If the hand (palm) is turned with the back side towards the speaker, then this means “Victory!”, but if the hand is turned with the palm towards the speaker (the back of the hand towards the viewer), then this gesture takes on the offensive expression “shut up”. There are many such examples of different interpretations of certain gestures in different national cultures. The Russian proverb is true: “They don’t go to someone else’s monastery with their own rules.”
Paralinguistics is a vocalization system (voice timbre, range, tonality, etc.).
Extralinguistics is a system that determines the rate of speech and includes “additions” to verbal information (rate of speech, pauses, coughing, crying, laughter, etc.).
Proxemics- this is the area of spatial and temporal organization of communication. The founder of proxemics, E. Hall, proposed a method for assessing the intimacy of communication based on studying the organization of its space. Thus, the dimensions of a person’s personal spatial territory (meaning the norms of a person’s closeness to a communication partner, characteristic of American culture) are: intimate zone - 15-46 cm; personal zone - 46-120 cm; social zone - 1.2-3.6 m; public area - more than 3.6 m.
Visual communication(eye contact) is a system of nonverbal information based on eye movements. The frequency of exchange of glances, their duration, changes in the static and dynamic gaze, its avoidance, etc. are studied. This type of communication is an addition to verbal communication (informs about the readiness to maintain communication or the need to stop it, encourages the partner to continue the dialogue, etc. ). The study of this type of communication is of undoubted interest for medical personnel, teachers, practical psychologists, and entrepreneurs related to management problems.
Already a brief acquaintance with nonverbal communication systems shows that these systems have the ability not only to strengthen or weaken verbal impact, but also to identify such an essential parameter of the communicative process as the intentions of its participants.
A special type of nonverbal communication includes mi-mi-gestural speech. This is a form of communication for deaf people. It is a combination of natural and conventional gestures and facial expressions. However, classifying this type of communication as nonverbal is purely conditional. It can just as easily be attributed to verbal communication. After all, in fact it is speech. Mimic-gestural speech is based on a system of gestures, each of which has its own meaning, and on a unique syntax (in sentences, the object is first designated, then its qualities; an action is designated after the object to which it is directed; negation follows the verb, etc. .).
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Educational institution
"Grodno State University named after Y. Kupala".
Test
in social psychology
Topic: "Psychology of communication. Three sides of communication"
4th year students
Faculty of Psychology
Trishina
Natalia Anatolyevna
Grodno, 2011
Plan
1.Communication concept.
2.Communicative, interactive, perceptual aspects of communication.
.Structure and functions of communication.
.Types, forms and mechanisms of communication.
.Methods of communicative influence.
.Verbal and non-verbal communication.
1. Communicationrefers to the basic categories of psychology along with consciousness, activity and personality. Despite the fact that this category emerged as an independent object of study relatively recently (just over decades ago), it quickly captured the attention of many scientific psychological schools. The flow of scientific and educational literature on the topic of communication continues to this day. The interpretation of communication as a concept is determined by the theoretical positions taken by representatives of certain schools.
The most general understanding of communication is to perceive it as a form of life activity. In this sense, communication is a means of transmitting forms of culture and social experience from generation to generation, from person to person. (1) Representing the process of exchanging messages that contain the results of people’s reflection of reality, communication is an integral part of their social existence and a means of forming and functioning of their consciousness, individual and social. With the help of communication, the organization of expedient interaction between people in the course of modern activities, the transfer of experience, work and everyday skills, the emergence and satisfaction of spiritual needs occurs. (2) Through communication, the subjective world of one person is revealed to another. Communication helps people get to know each other’s personal and business characteristics, organize interaction in the process of joint activities, establish interpersonal relationships, and much more.
A narrower understanding of communication gives rise to many definitions. In domestic psychological science, based on the active approach, there are several definitions of communication.
Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.
Communication is the interaction of subjects carried out by sign means (words, gestures, etc.), caused by the needs of joint activity and aimed at a significant change in the state, behavior and personal and semantic formations of the interlocutor.
Communication is a specific form of interaction and mutual influence of subjects, caused by the needs of joint activity.
For the first time, the question of the role of communication in human mental development was considered by V.M. Bekhterev. Until the end of the 60s of the last century, the concept of “communication” was used by various psychologists in theoretical studies of the human psyche as an explanatory social factor determining its development (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, B .G. Ananyev). Only starting from the 70s did this concept become the object of independent research and develop into a relatively autonomous scientific problem. Nowadays, communication is a widely developed area of psychology, studied at the theoretical, empirical and applied levels. (1)
2. Communicationis called the exchange of information between people, in which the intellectual, emotional and volitional qualities of the individual participate. (3) Communication between people has a number of specific features.
Firstly, there must be two individuals in it, each of whom is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual information presupposes the establishment of joint activities.
The specificity of human exchange of information lies in the special role for each participant in the communication of this or that information and its significance. This significance of information is due to the fact that people do not simply “exchange” meanings, but strive to develop a common meaning. This is only possible if the information is not only accepted, but also understandable and meaningful. For this reason, each communicative process represents a unity of activity, communication and cognition.
Secondly, there must be the possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through a system of signs. In other words, the exchange of information in this case involves influencing the behavior of the partner and changing the state of the participants in the communication process.
Thirdly, influence in communication can only be exercised if there is a single or similar system of codification and decodification between the communicator (the person sending the information) and the recipient (the person receiving it).
Fourthly, communication barriers are always possible. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude becomes clear.
The dissemination of information in society occurs through a kind of “trust-non-trust filter.” Such a filter acts in such a way that true information may not be accepted, but false information may be accepted. In addition, there are means that promote the acceptance of information and weaken the effects of filters. The combination of these means is called fascination. Examples of fascination include musical, spatial or light accompaniment of speech.
The communication process model usually includes five elements: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience - feedback.
It is possible to distinguish three positions of the communicator during the communication process: open (when the communicator does not hide that he is a supporter of the point of view expressed, evaluates various facts in support of it); detached (when the communicator is emphatically neutral, compares conflicting points of view, not excluding orientation towards one of them, but not openly stated); closed (when the communicator is silent about his point of view, sometimes even resorting to special measures to hide it). In the process of communication, the following takes place: the mutual influence of people on each other, as well as the exchange of various ideas, interests, moods, and feelings. To describe the process of mutual influence, it is not enough to know only the structure of the communicative act.
Due attention should also be paid to such communication skills as non-reflective and reflective listening. Non-reflective listening - or attentive silence - is used at the stages of posing a problem, when it is just being formed by the speaker, as well as when the goal of communication on the part of the speaker is to “pour out the soul”, emotional release.
Reflective listening is used in situations where the speaker needs not so much emotional support, but rather help in solving certain problems. In this case, feedback is given to the listener in speech form through the following techniques: asking open and closed questions on the topic of conversation, paraphrasing the interlocutor’s words, allowing the same idea to be expressed in other words (paraphrase), summarizing and presenting intermediate conclusions during the conversation. (4)
InteractiveThe side of communication reflects the interpersonal interaction of people in the process of their joint activities. It is aimed at managing the partner’s behavior through a system of psychological influence techniques, taking into account social norms and public values characteristic of a given community. In the process of joint activity, people’s interactions can be built according to a number of strategies: competition, cooperation, compromise, etc. Communication is successful when people’s behavior corresponds to each other’s expectations.
PerceptualThe side of communication reflects the process of forming the image of the interlocutor, the perception of him as a person. It is quite obvious that without such mutual knowledge, successful joint activity is unthinkable. The psychological image of the interlocutor is formed on the basis of his actions, behavior, external characteristics, views, goals, emotions. The mechanisms of perceptual communication are based on the possibility of awareness of oneself through another person and are expressed in the phenomena of identification and reflection.
Identification is a way of understanding the interlocutor through an attempt to put oneself in his place (“If I were him, I would do this…”).
Reflection is the phenomenon of a person’s awareness of how he appears to his interlocutor or the audience listening to him. In the process of two-way communication, reflection generates six images that reflect the personal, emotional and cognitive characteristics of each interlocutor:
the image of "I" as he sees himself;
the image of the “I” as it really is;
the image of the “I” as it appears to the interlocutor.
In other words, six interlocutors seem to be involved in communication at the same time. If such ideas relate to their joint activities, then we are talking about a special form of reflection, namely, objective-reflexive relations. The consequence of reflection can be several phenomena: causal attribution, attraction, halo effect and stereotyping.
Causal attribution (from the Latin causa - cause and attribuo - I give, I endow) consists of identifying and attributing to the interlocutor the reasons for his behavior. And although external observation is often not enough for reliable conclusions, the interlocutor still uses probable reasons to explain the behavior of the communication partner (“probably he ...”). Naturally, such conclusions influence his own behavior, and, consequently, the characteristics of joint activities.
Attraction (from Latin attrahere - to attract, attract) is the phenomenon of the appearance of an attractive image of an interlocutor as a result of a subjective attitude towards him, generated, in particular, by reflection.
The halo effect is the influence of the general first impression of a person, formulated in conditions of a lack of information about him, on his further actions, behavior and activities. This evaluative bias prevents one from seeing the actual characteristics of the interaction partner: a positive halo causes an overestimation of the partner in a positive direction, and a negative halo causes an underestimation of the positive qualities of the individual.
Stereotyping (from the Greek Stereos - solid and typos - imprint) is a stable and simplified image of an interlocutor (group of interlocutors), arising in conditions of a lack of information as a result of communication of personal experience and preconceived ideas accepted in a given society.
When analyzing and designing joint activities, all of the above phenomena are subject to mandatory consideration in order to avoid obtaining erroneous results. (1)
. Structure of communication.Communication usually manifests itself in the unity of its five aspects: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informational, emotive and behavior.
Interpersonal sidecommunication reflects a person’s interaction with his immediate environment: with other people and the communities with which he is connected in his life. First of all, this is a family and professional group that use established cultural, historical and professional patterns of behavior. Along with these patterns of behavior, a person learns national-ethnic, social-age, emotional-aesthetic and other standards and stereotypes of communication.
Cognitive sidecommunication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner. It covers not only knowledge of another person, but also self-knowledge. As a result, in the process of communication, images and ideas about oneself and partners are formed that regulate this process.
Communication and information sidecommunication is the exchange between people of various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. If all this is considered as information, then the communication process can be understood as a process of information exchange. But this approach to human communication is very simplistic.
Emotive sidecommunication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, mood in personal contacts of partners. They manifest themselves in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, and behavior. Through them, mutual relationships emerge, which become a kind of socio-psychological background of interaction, predetermining greater or lesser success of joint activities.
Behavioral sidecommunication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It provides a controlling influence on the individual in all life processes, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses a person’s motivational forces, and regulates the relationships of partners in joint activities.
The psychological structure of communication includes four components:
Motivational-target componentis a system of motives and goals of communication. The motives for communication between members can be:
the needs and interests of one person who takes the initiative in communication;
the needs and interests of both communication partners, encouraging them to engage in communication;
needs arising from jointly solved problems.
communication verbal communication psychology
Correlation of motives for communication from complete coincidence to conflict. In accordance with this, communication can be friendly or conflicting in nature.
The main goals of communication can be: receiving or transmitting useful information, activating partners, relieving tension and managing joint actions, providing assistance and influencing other people. The goals of communication participants may coincide or contradict, or exclude each other. The nature of communication also depends on this.
Communication componentcommunication in the narrow sense of the word is the exchange of information between communicating individuals. In the course of joint activities, as noted above, individuals exchange different opinions, interests, feelings, etc. with each other. All this constitutes the process of information exchange, which has the following features:
if in cybernetic devices information is only transmitted, then in the conditions of human communication it is not only transmitted, but also formulated, clarified, and developed;
in contrast to the simple “exchange of information” between two devices, in human communication it is combined with an attitude towards each other;
the nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that through the systemic signs used, partners can influence each other and influence the partner’s behavior;
communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification or decodification. In everyday language this means that people “speak the same language.”
Interactive componentcommunication consists of the exchange not only of knowledge and ideas, but also of influences, mutual motivations, and actions. Interaction can be in the form of cooperation or competition, agreement or conflict, adaptation or opposition, association or dissociation.
Perceptual componentcommunication is manifested in the perception of each other by communication partners, mutual study and evaluation of each other. This is due to the perception of a person’s appearance, actions, actions and their interpretation. Mutual social perception during communication is very subjective, which manifests itself in not always a correct understanding of the goals of the communication partner, his motives, relationships, attitudes towards interaction, etc.
Communication functions.Communication performs certain functions. There are six of them:
.The pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity. At the same time, communication itself is often the most important need.
2.The function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects. By communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes, state and behavior of a person arise, exist and manifest themselves throughout life.
.The affirmation function gives people the opportunity to know, validate, and validate themselves.
.The function of uniting and separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, facilitates the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can contribute differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result of communication.
.The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive connections, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.
.The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed as a dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal form of human thinking. (4)
4. Communication is extremely multifaceted and can be various types.
There are interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. Mass communication- this is a lot of direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.
There are also interpersonal and role-based communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals who have specific individual qualities that are revealed in the course of communication and the organization of joint actions. In the case of role-based communication, its participants act as bearers of certain roles (buyer-seller, teacher-student, boss-subordinate).
In role-based communication, a person is deprived of a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since certain of his steps and actions are dictated by the role he plays. In the process of such communication, a person no longer manifests himself as an individual, but as a social unit performing certain functions.
Communication can be confidential and conflictual. The first is different in that during its course, particularly significant information is transmitted. Confidence- an essential feature of all types of communication, without which it is impossible to carry out negotiations or resolve intimate issues. Conflictcommunication is characterized by mutual confrontation between people, expressions of displeasure and mistrust.
Communication can be personal and business. Personal communicationthis is an exchange of unofficial information, and business- the process of interaction between people performing joint responsibilities or involved in the same activity.
Finally, communication can be direct and indirect. Direct (immediate) communicationis historically the first form of communication between people. On its basis, in later periods of the development of civilization, various types of indirect communication arise. Indirect communication- this is interaction using additional means (writing, audio and video equipment).
Communication can also vary in its forms.
Imperative communication- this is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, and force him to certain actions or decisions. The communication partner in this case acts as a passive party. Orders, regulations and demands are used as means of exerting influence.
The following areas of activity are identified where imperative communication is used quite effectively: superior-subordinate relations, military statutory relations, work in extreme conditions, in emergency circumstances. We can also highlight those interpersonal relationships where the use of the imperative is inappropriate. These are intimate-personal and marital relationships, child-parent contacts, as well as the entire system of pedagogical relations.
Manipulative communication- this is a form of interpersonal interaction in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out secretly. At the same time, manipulation presupposes an objective perception of the communication partner, while the hidden desire is to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as an integral unique personality, but as a bearer of certain properties and qualities “needed” by the manipulator. However, a person who chooses this type of communication with others as his main one often ends up becoming a victim of his own manipulations. He also begins to perceive himself fragmentarily, switching to stereotypical forms of behavior, guided by false motives and goals, losing the core of his own life (Dotsenko E.L. 1994).
Manipulation is used by dishonest people in business and other business relationships, as well as in the media when the concept of “black” and “gray” propaganda is implemented. At the same time, the possession and use of means of manipulative influence on other people in the business sphere, as a rule, ends for a person with the transfer of such skills to other areas of relationships. Relationships built on the principles of decency, love, friendship and mutual affection are the most damaged by manipulation.
Combined together on the basis of common features, imperative and manipulative forms of communication constitute different types monologue communication, since a person who considers another as an object of his influence, essentially communicates with himself, without seeing the true interlocutor, ignoring him as a person.
In its turn, dialogic communication- this is an equal subject-subject interaction, with the goal of mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. It allows you to achieve deep mutual understanding, self-disclosure of partners, and creates conditions for mutual development.
Communication mechanism. The universal mechanism for regulating communication as an activity of people is an attitude that largely determines the strategy of life, permeating all levels of human functioning and his psyche. Attitudes of all types are rooted in the subconscious and therefore are difficult to rationalize.
Partners with different attitudes understand each other poorly, cooperate poorly, and are quicker to make a radical break. The favorable development of communication is facilitated by the compatibility of partners’ attitudes.
Harmonization and coordination of partners' positions occur through the exchange of views, thoughts, and feelings. This process is subordinated to the goals of adjusting plans for joint activities. In the course of communication, the goals, motives and behavioral programs of the individuals included in it are formed. At the same time, mutual stimulation and mutual control of behavior are also carried out.
5. The practice of social communication has developed two main ways of exercising communicative influence, i.e. influence through messages: persuasion and suggestion.
Beliefis the process of logical substantiation by a message (or several messages) of any judgment or conclusion in order to achieve the agreement of the interlocutor (or audience) with the expressed point of view. Persuasion involves such a shift in the consciousness of the interlocutor (audience), which will make him ready to defend this point of view and act in accordance with it.
In the process of communication, persuasion itself comes down to the creation and transmission of messages, each of which necessarily - in accordance with the rules of logic - contains a thesis, confirmed by arguments and demonstration of the truth of the thesis. However, persuasion in this process turns out to be complicated by the influence of such factors as the quality and emotional acceptability of the arguments for the interlocutor, their relevance for proving a specific thesis, and finally, the circumstances in which communication takes place.
In the course of persuasion, the interlocutor’s critical attitude to the proposed arguments and conclusions is overcome. A critical attitude can arise for various reasons: due to the logical imperfection of the argumentation, for example, excessiveness, abundance of arguments or direct logical errors, due to the contradictory influence of the audience’s own experience - the totality of views on life that it has developed under the influence of everyday practice, due to the ideological positions of the listeners, in cases where the arguments go against the norms of the group or the prevailing values in it.
The results of persuasion are also influenced by appeals to the feelings of the interlocutor. Arguments containing this kind of appeal are designed to arouse emotion and will in the listeners. Such argumentation in communication sharpens moral feelings of duty, pride, dignity, i.e. feelings that favor belief. Irony and sarcasm, appealing to feelings of pity and compassion, modesty, and the individual’s desire to be with the majority can serve the same purpose in argumentation.
Persuasion in the course of communication is effective only with due consideration of the real possibilities of this method in specific conditions. Without this, persuasive influence turns into unhelpful moralizing, which does not give the desired result.
Suggestion- this is a method of communication influence, designed for the uncritical perception of messages in which something is affirmed or denied without evidence.
Of particular importance in the course of suggestion is a group of factors related to the orientation of interlocutors to the personality of the one who suggests. The degree to which the audience is willing to focus its attention on messages of a certain content, perceive them and assimilate them largely depends on its ideas about the person acting as a communicator.
The specific conditions in which messages are received have a far-reaching influence on the subjective readiness of communication participants to accept suggestive influence.
The immediate result of the processes of persuasion and suggestion is the formation in the minds of the audience of attitudes regarding objects that are affected or associated with the subjects of the message, or the consolidation of existing attitudes, or, finally, the change or suppression of the effects of attitudes that contradict the goals of the influence being carried out. Despite the difference in the principles of implementation, persuasion and suggestion, complementing each other, are used in every act of communication, since the absolutization of each of them leads either to dry logicalization or to shamanism, the effectiveness of which approaches zero as the criticality of the audience increases. (2)
Communication is possible only with the help of sign systems. Distinguish verbal and non-verbalmeans of communication. (4)
Speech is verbal communication, i.e. the process of communication using language. The means of verbal communication are words with meanings assigned to them in social experience. Words can be spoken out loud, silently, written, or replaced in deaf people with special gestures that act as carriers of meaning (so-called dactylology, where each letter is indicated by finger movements, and signed speech, where a gesture replaces a whole word or group of words).
The following types of speech are distinguished: written and oral speech, the latter, in turn, is divided into dialogic and monologue. (5)
Oral speech, which differs from written speech in a number of parameters, is not illiterate written speech, but independent speech with its own rules and even grammar. (4) The simplest type of oral speech is dialogue, i.e. a conversation supported by interlocutors jointly discussing and resolving any issues. Colloquial speech is characterized by remarks exchanged between speakers, repetitions of phrases and individual words after the interlocutor, questions, additions, explanations, the use of hints that are understandable only to speakers, various auxiliary words and interjections. The features of this speech largely depend on the degree of mutual understanding of the interlocutors and their relationships. The degree of emotional arousal during a conversation is of great importance. An embarrassed, surprised, delighted, frightened, angry person speaks differently than in a calm state, not only uses different intonations, but often uses different words and figures of speech.
The second type of oral speech is a monologue, which is pronounced by one person, addressing another or many people listening to him. Monologue speech has greater compositional complexity, requires completeness of thought, stricter adherence to grammatical rules, strict logic and consistency in the presentation of what the speaker of the monologue wants to say. (5)
The main advantage of oral speech over written language is its economy, i.e. Fewer words are required to convey the same idea in spoken language. Savings are achieved through different word order, skipping ends and other parts of sentences.
The disadvantages of verbal expression of thoughts are speech errors and ambiguity. (4)
Written speech appeared in human history much later than oral speech. It arose as a result of the need for communication between people separated by space and time, and developed from pictography, when thoughts were conveyed by conventional schematic drawings, to modern writing, when thousands of words are written using several dozen letters.
Thanks to writing, it turned out to be possible in the best way to transmit from generation to generation the experience accumulated by people, since when it was transmitted through oral speech, it could be subject to distortion, modification and even disappear without a trace. Written speech plays an important role in the development of complex generalizations used by science and in the transmission of artistic images. Written speech is the kind of speech that is taught in school and which is used to be considered a sign of a person’s education. Written speech is cumbersome and often contains cliches and bureaucracy, but this is the price for accuracy and unambiguousness of sentences and text. Written speech does not allow for different interpretations of sentences, which is why it is preferred in science, business and legal relations. (4.5.)
Communication between people cannot be likened to the transmission of information via telegraph, where the communicator and the recipient exchange verbal messages. The emotions of those communicating are naturally included in human communication. They relate to what is the content of communication and to those who are involved in communication in a certain way, and this emotional attitude accompanying the speech utterance forms a special, non-verbal aspect of the exchange of information, a special nonverbal communication. ( 5)
Nonverbal means of communication are needed in order to:
)regulate the flow of the communication process, create psychological contact between partners;
2)enrich the meanings conveyed by words, guide the interpretation of the verbal text;
)express emotions and reflect the interpretation of a situation.
Nonverbal means of communication, as a rule, cannot independently convey accurate meanings (with the exception of some gestures). They usually turn out to be coordinated in one way or another with each other and with verbal texts. Mismatch of individual non-verbal means significantly complicates interpersonal communication. Unlike speech, nonverbal means of communication are not fully understood by both speakers and listeners. No one can have complete control over all their non-verbal means.
Nonverbal means of communication are divided into visual, acoustic, tactile-kinesthetic and olfactory.
Visual communication means:
kinesics - movement of the arms, legs, head, torso;
direction of gaze and eye contact;
eye expression;
facial expression;
pose (in particular, localization, change of poses relative to the verbal text);
skin reactions (redness, sweating);
distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation towards him, personal space);
auxiliary means of communication, including body features (gender, age) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoo, mustache, beard, cigarette, etc.).
Acoustic (sound) means of communication are:
paralinguistic, i.e. related to speech (intonation, volume, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text);
extralinguistic, i.e. not related to speech (laughing, crying, coughing, sighing, gnashing of teeth, sniffling, etc.).
Tactile-kinesthetic means of communication are:
physical impact (leading a blind person by the hand, contact dancing, etc.);
takeshika (hand shake, pat on the shoulder).
Olfactory means of communication include:
pleasant and unpleasant odors of the environment;
natural and artificial human odors.
Each specific culture leaves a strong imprint on nonverbal means, so there are no general norms for all of humanity. The non-verbal language of another country has to be learned in the same way as the verbal one (4).
Literature
7.Kazubovsky V.M. General psychology: methodology, consciousness, activity: Proc. allowance / V.M. Kazubovsky. - Mn: Amalthea, 2003. - 224 p.
8.Social Psychology. Brief essay. Under general Ed. G.P. Predvechny and D.A. Sherkovina.M., Politizdat, 1975.
.Gurevich P.S. Tutorial. - M.: Knowledge, 1999. - p. 304.
.Krysko V.G. Social psychology: a course of lectures. - M.: Omega - L, 2003. - 365 p.
.General psychology: Textbook. for students / A.V. Petrovsky, A.V. Brumlinsky, V.P. Zlichenko and others; Under. ed. A.V. Petrovsky. 3rd ed., revised. add. - M.: Education, 1986. - 464 p., ill.
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3.3. The communicative side of communication
The communication process is, first of all, communication, that is, the process of exchanging information (exchange of opinions, ideas, experiences, moods, etc.). The communication process model usually includes five elements: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience - feedback.
The effectiveness of communication is largely determined by the communicative characteristics of those communicating: speech culture, the ability to ask and answer questions, the ability to recognize and overcome communication barriers, etc.
The specificity of human exchange of information lies in the special role of this or that information, for each participant in the communication its significance. The significance of information is due to the fact that people do not simply “exchange” meanings, but strive to develop a common meaning. What is possible subject to not only acceptance of information, but its understanding and comprehension.
Also L.S. Vygotsky noted that thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words. Therefore, communicators must have identical - in the case of auditory speech - not only the lexical and syntactic systems, but also the same understanding of the communication situation.
The main means of communication are: verbal And non-verbal. As already mentioned, speech is a verbal means of communication. Usually in verbal communication spoken and written language is used. Written speech is verbal communication using written texts. It proceeds at a slower pace than oral speech and allows you to repeatedly refer to what is written. A.R. Luria(1902–1977) considered written speech as a tool for clarifying and refining the thought process. Therefore, writing can be used to shape thinking. The advantage of written speech is the ability to transmit information in time and space, broadcasting the spiritual and intellectual experience of generations.
Oral speech is verbal communication using linguistic means perceived by ear. The advantage of oral speech over written language is economy, which is expressed in the need to use fewer words.
Difficulties in communication may be caused by communication barriers. A communication barrier is a psychological obstacle to the perception of adequate information between communication partners. A.A. Bodalev identifies: barriers of understanding, socio-cultural differences, barriers of attitude.
Another reason for misunderstanding may lie in different systems of meaning (semantic barriers to misunderstanding). Semantic barriers arise when a partner understood something other than what he was told, or something with a different meaning. The reasons for the semantic barrier can be: slang words, social, religious, professional, national and cultural differences, polysemy of the words used.
A type of understanding barrier is a stylistic barrier. Occurs when there is a discrepancy between the communicator’s speech style and the communication situation, or the speech style and the current psychological state of the communication partner. A stylistic barrier arises when information during direct verbal communication is presented in bookish, clerical language. The scientific style is more understandable when reading, but its perception by ear is difficult. In addition, it has been proven that a phrase consisting of 4-14 words is best remembered, 15–18 words are remembered worse, 18–25 words are remembered satisfactorily, a phrase consisting of over 30 words is practically not perceived by ear. Therefore, to overcome the stylistic barrier, it is necessary not only to structure the information well, to put the content adequately in the form, but also to speak briefly and at the pace and rhythm that is most situationally appropriate and suitable for the communication partner.
A logical barrier of misunderstanding arises in cases when the logic of reasoning of the communicator - the sender of information - is too complex for the perception of the recipient - the recipient of information. So we can talk about the existence of “female”, “male”, “children”, professional logic. The main problem of misunderstanding is related to the thinking habits of those communicating. For example, one partner has a predominance of abstract-logical thinking, while the other has a predominance of visual-figurative or visual-actional thinking.
Barriers of socio-cultural differences arise as a result of social, political, religious, professional differences. These differences can lead to different interpretations of the same concepts used in the communication process. The very perception of a communication partner as a representative of a certain profession, nationality, gender, or age can also act as a barrier.
Attitude barriers arise as a result of such feelings as: hostility, distrust of the communicator, which extends to the information transmitted by him.
Feedback in communication facilitates the elimination of communication barriers and a better understanding of each other. Feedback allows you to eliminate obstacles and reduce information distortion. To ensure understanding, the listener (recipient) must let the speaker (communicator) know what is correctly perceived and what is distorted. This allows you to adjust the message and make it more understandable.
This exchange of feedback and feedback signals is a process of active reflective listening. In order to establish feedback, it is recommended to use techniques such as: questioning, paraphrasing, reflecting feelings, summarizing.
Questioning This is a direct appeal to the speaker, which is carried out using a variety of questions. Questioning allows you to clarify the information received, obtain new additional information, clarify your relationship with someone or something, and determine the degree of understanding. For the purpose of questioning, you can use the following questions: “Please clarify...”, “Could you explain, comment... in more detail”, “Did I understand you correctly?...”.
Paraphrasing- expressing the same thought, but in different words. The recipient paraphrases the communicator's thought, that is, returns to him the essence of the message so that he can assess whether it was understood correctly. As a rule, paraphrasing is used to highlight only the significant thoughts of the partner. Paraphrasing can begin with the words: “As far as I could understand you...”, “So, from your point of view...”.
Reflection of feelings. Attention is paid not to the content of the message, but to the feelings that the speaker expresses. You can use phrases such as: “It seems to me that you feel...”, “If I understand you correctly, this makes you angry...”. To understand the feelings of your interlocutor, you need to pay attention to his facial expression, hand movements, posture, intonation, and the distance he establishes with his communication partners.
Summary or generalization allows you to connect individual parts of what you heard into a single whole. Used to summarize a conversation. The summary should be formulated in your own words, using, for example, phrases such as: “If we summarize what has been said, then...”, “Summarizing what has been said, we can draw the following conclusion...”.
Feedback does not prevent complete loss of information and distortion of the meaning of the message, but, nevertheless, it significantly increases the effectiveness of communication, preventing complete distortion of information. This is confirmed by data from psychologists who conducted communication trainings: in the absence of feedback between communication partners, complete distortion of information occurs, and in the presence of this connection, half of the training participants completed the task adequately.
Speech conveys mostly pure information. With the help of non-verbal means of communication - the attitude towards the partner, the emotional state experienced during communication. If verbal communication is controlled by consciousness, then nonverbal manifestations are largely unconscious. For this reason, it makes sense to pay attention to the correspondence between words and gestures.
A person’s nonverbal behavior is closely related to his mental states and serves as a means of their expression. While adapting verbal behavior to changing circumstances is relatively easy, body language is less flexible.
In social psychology, there are various classifications of nonverbal means of communication. According to one of them, the following main sign systems are distinguished: optical-kinetic, paralinguistic and extra-linguistic, organization of space and time of the communicative process, visual contact.
Optical-kinetic system– includes the visually perceived movements of another person, performing an expressive-regulatory function in communication. This system includes: facial expressions, pantomimes, gestures.
A special role in the transmission of emotional state is given to facial expressions - movements of the facial muscles. Lack of facial expressions when communicating leads to loss of information. It has been shown that when the lecturer’s face remains motionless, up to 10–15% of information is lost.
Pantomime– expressive human movements (changes in gait, postures, gestures). A person's emotional state can be recognized by a person's gait. Studies have shown that the majority of subjects with great accuracy determined his emotional states by the nature of a person’s gait: anger, pride, happiness, sadness. The heaviest gait is when you are angry, the lightest is when you are happy.
Pose is the position of the human body. It is customary to distinguish between “open” and “closed” poses. “Open” poses: are perceived as poses of trust, agreement, goodwill, and psychological comfort. “Closed” poses (a person tries to close the front part of the body, to take up as little space as possible) are perceived as poses of distrust, opposition, criticism.
If a person is interested in communication, he focuses on the interlocutor and leans towards him. If he is not very interested, he leans back. As a rule, people trying to make a statement stand straight, with their shoulders turned, in a tense state. Those people who do not need to emphasize their status and position are characterized by more relaxed and relaxed postures.
At the same time: “To correctly understand a pose, it is necessary to know cultural traditions, age restrictions, gender differences in the use of certain poses, and ways of responding to an interlocutor by men and women. Thus, it has been noticed that women in a situation of emotional stress, mistrust of a partner sharply tilt their torso forward or, while sitting, “throw it onto the back of a chair, take a relaxed pose, while men take a “rigid pose”, hold themselves straight, the movements of their hands are relaxed.”
Pantomime is little controlled by consciousness. The most informative means of pantomime are gestures. Gestures are various movements of the hands and head. The frequency and strength of gesticulation varies across cultures. According to M. Argyle, within one hour, Finns gesture once, Italians - eighty, French - twenty times, Mexicans - one hundred and eighty.
However, no matter how different cultures differ, along with the increase in a person’s emotional arousal, the intensity of gestures increases. The specific meaning of individual gestures varies across cultures. For example, nodding your head from top to bottom in Russian culture means a gesture of agreement. Bulgarians understand this same gesture as denial. However, all cultures have similar gestures. For example, in almost all cultures, arms turned towards the interlocutor demonstrate goodwill.
Paralinguistic and extralinguistic sign systems. Paralinguistic characteristics– the general name for such rhythmic and intonation aspects of speech as pitch, volume, timbre of the voice, stress force.
Extralinguistic system- this is the inclusion in speech of pauses, crying, coughing, laughter, sighs and other psychophysiological manifestations of a person.
Paralinguistic and extralinguistic means regulate the flow of speech, allow saving linguistic means of communication, complement, replace and anticipate speech utterances.
Organization of space and time of the communication process. Communication has a spatial organization. American psychologist E. Hall was one of the first to study the spatial structure of communication. To denote the spatial organization of communication, he proposed using the term “proxemics” - proximity. Proxemic characteristics include: the position of partners in space at the moment of communication, the distance between them. The proxemic characteristics of communication are influenced by ethnocultural factors. Thus, E. Hall described the norms of spatial arrangement of communicators accepted in North American culture:
Intimate distance (from 15 to 45 cm) – the communication distance of close people. Only those with whom a person is in close emotional contact are allowed to enter this zone (spouses, children, parents, friends); in this zone there is also a super-intimate subzone (0-15 cm);
Personal distance (45-120 cm) – within this zone daily communication between acquaintances and friends takes place;
Social (from 120 to 360 cm) – used when communicating with unfamiliar people during official communication;
Public distance (more than 360 cm) is typical for communicating with an audience.
People find it difficult to tolerate the intrusion of strangers into intimate and personal areas. Although modern city life has introduced a number of exceptions (in public transport, at the stadium, in the cinema).
This does not mean that in such conditions a person does not experience discomfort, but he has learned to restrain the external manifestation of reactions.
“Eye contact” or visual contact is also an important part of communication. It matters where the gaze is directed and the duration of the gaze. So, with a business look, the interlocutor’s eyes usually focus on a triangle formed by three points: the centers of the eyes and the middle of the forehead. By directing our gaze to this triangle, we contribute to the creation of a serious atmosphere of communication.
If the gaze is directed towards the triangle formed by the centers of the eyes and the middle of the mouth, an atmosphere of relaxed, interpersonal communication is created.
The length of the gaze is also informative. If the relationship develops normally, people look at each other from 30 to 60% of the time during the entire communication period. Moreover, if relationships develop in a positive direction, people look at each other longer and more often when they are listening to their partner, and not when they are talking. In aggressive relationships, the frequency of gaze intensity increases sharply at the moment of speaking, and at the moment of listening is disrupted.
By observing the movements of the pupils, one can judge the characteristics of information processing and memory access. According to American psychologists D. Grinder And R. Bandler:
The sliding of the pupils to the upper eyelids indicates the formation or recall of visual images;
Movements in the middle area are about auditory associations, memories or fantasies;
Eyes looking down (to the right and straight) are an indicator that a person is turning to sensory experience, to sensations;
Turning the eyes down to the left tells the observer that the person is saying something to himself.
In addition to the above-mentioned sign systems that allow information to be transmitted non-verbally, the literature contains descriptions of such systems as: tactile – takesika, olfactory.
Tactile sign system includes: touching, shaking hands, hugging, kissing and other touching.
Olfactory: pleasant and unpleasant environmental odors, natural and artificial human odors.
Summarizing the above, we can conclude the following, non-verbal means of communication allow:
Create an image of a communication partner;
Convey current emotional states of communication partners;
Maintain an optimal level of psychological intimacy between communicating;
Express the relationship of communication partners to each other;
Act as a clarifier of the verbal message, change its understanding, enhance the emotional intensity of what is said;
Be an indicator of status-role relationships.
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Reasons for poor communication may include:
- ? stereotypes - simplified opinions regarding individuals or situations that interfere with an objective analysis and understanding of people, situations, problems;
- ? preconceived idea - a tendency to reject everything that contradicts one’s own views, that is new, unusual (“I believe what I want to believe”). A person sometimes does not realize that another person's interpretation of events is just as valid as his own;
- ? bad relationships between people, because if a person’s attitude is hostile, then it is difficult to convince him of the validity of your view;
- ? lack of attention and interest of the interlocutor, and interest arises when a person realizes the meaning of information for himself: with the help of this information one can obtain the desired development or prevent an undesirable development of events;
- ? neglect of facts, i.e. the habit of drawing conclusions in the absence of a sufficient number of facts;
- ? errors in the construction of statements: incorrect choice of words, complexity of the message, poor persuasiveness, illogicality, etc.;
- ? incorrect choice of communication strategy and tactics.
There are several types communication strategies: 1) open -
closed communication; 2) monologue - dialogical; 3) role-based (based on the social role) - personal (heart-to-heart communication).
Open communication characterized by the desire and ability to fully express one’s point of view and the willingness to take into account the positions of others. Closed- reluctance or inability to clearly express one’s thoughts, position, attitude, information. The use of closed communications is justified in cases where there is a significant difference in the degree of subject competence - it is pointless to waste time and effort on raising the competence of an ignorant party, and in conflict situations when revealing one’s feelings and plans to the enemy is inappropriate. Open communications are effective if there is comparability, but not identity of subject positions (exchange of opinions, plans). There are also one-sided questioning- semi-closed communication in which a person tries to find out the positions of another person without talking about his own, and hysterical presentation of the problem- a person openly expresses his feelings, problems, circumstances, without being interested in whether the other person wants to “enter into other people’s circumstances” or listen to “outpourings”.
Communication as a socio-psychological process of mutual understanding between people is carried out according to two main channels: speech (verbal) and non-verbal. Speech as a means of communication simultaneously acts as both a source of information and a way of influencing the interlocutor.
Verbal means of communication: communication involves the transfer of information, and the content of information is transmitted using language and takes verbal form. At the same time, the meaning of information is distorted in places, and it is partially lost. When transmitting information, the thought that has arisen must first be formalized verbally in internal speech, then translated from internal to external, i.e. express it in words in a specific language. This statement must be heard and understood.
Language- a system of words, expressions and rules for combining them into meaningful statements used for communication. Words and the rules for their use are the same for all speakers of a particular language, this makes communication through language possible: if a person says “table”, he is sure that any interlocutor connects the same concepts with this word as he does - this the objective social meaning of a word can be called a sign of language. But the objective meaning of a word is refracted for a person through the prism of his own activity and forms its own personal, subjective meaning, so people do not always understand each other correctly.
Understanding is constantly being adjusted, since communication is not just the transfer of information, but an exchange of information that involves feedback. The process of information exchange can be schematically represented as a system with feedback and noise (distortions, losses of information).
The structure of verbal communication includes:
- 1) the meaning and meaning of words, phrases (“A person’s intelligence is manifested in the clarity of his speech”). The accuracy of the use of the word, its expressiveness and accessibility, the correct construction of the phrase and its intelligibility, the correct pronunciation of sounds and words, the expressiveness and meaning of intonation play the most important role in communication;
- 2) speech sound phenomena: speech rate (fast, medium, slow), voice pitch modulation (smooth, sharp), voice pitch (high, low), rhythm (uniform, intermittent), timbre (rolling, hoarse, creaky), intonation , speech diction. Observations show that the most attractive in communication is a smooth, calm, measured manner of speech;
- 3) expressive qualities of the voice: characteristic specific sounds that arise during communication: laughter, grunting, crying, whispering, sighs, etc.; separating sounds are coughing; zero sounds - pauses, as well as nasalization sounds - “hmm-hmm”, “uh-uh”, etc.
In verbal communication, not only oral, but also written speech can be used - with the help of written texts. Written texts make it possible to transmit information in time and space, broadcast the intellectual and spiritual experience of generations, and require a carefully thought-out and logically designed expression of thoughts in words and detailed sentences. The advantage of oral speech over written language is economy, which is expressed in the need to use fewer words and short sentences, increasing the expressiveness and clarity of communication through non-verbal means of communication, expressing the emotional attitude of the interlocutors.
The person’s attitude towards the problem being discussed is conveyed to the interlocutor non-verbal means: facial expressions, gestures, intonation.
Most often, people react not to the message itself, but to the way the information was conveyed.
Nonverbal means of communication include:
- ? intonation, emotional expressiveness of speech, which can give different meanings to the same phrase;
- ? facial expressions, posture, gaze of the interlocutor, which can enhance, complement or refute the meaning of the phrase;
- ? gestures as means of communication, which can be either generally accepted, i.e. have meanings assigned to them, or expressive, i.e. serve to give speech greater expressiveness.
- ? The distance at which interlocutors communicate depends on cultural and national traditions, and on the degree of trust in the interlocutor.
Research shows that in the daily act of human communication, words make up 7%, intonation sounds - 38%, non-speech interaction - 55%. On the basis of non-verbal behavior, a person’s inner world is revealed, the mental content of communication and joint activity is formed.
Nonverbal means of communication are studied by the following sciences:
- 1) kinesthetics - studies the external manifestations of human feelings and emotions:
- ? facial expressions - studies the movement of facial muscles,
- ? Gestures - explores the gestural movements of individual parts of the body,
- ? pantomime - studies the motor skills of the whole body: poses, posture, bows, gait;
- 2) Takesika - studies touch in a communication situation: shaking hands, kissing, touching, stroking, pushing, etc.;
- 3) proxemics - studies the location of people in space when communicating; The following distance zones in human contact are distinguished:
- ? intimate zone (15-45 cm) - only close, well-known people are allowed into this zone; this zone is characterized by trust, a quiet voice in communication, tactile contact, touching. Research shows that violation of the intimate zone entails certain physiological changes in the body: increased heart rate, increased secretion of adrenaline, rush of blood to the head, etc. Premature invasion of the intimate zone during communication is always perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his integrity,
- ? personal, or personal zone (45-120 cm) - for casual conversation with friends and colleagues, involves only visual contact between partners maintaining a conversation,
- ? social zone (120-400 cm) - usually observed during official meetings in offices, teaching and other office premises, as a rule, with those who are not well known;
- ? public zone (over 400 cm) - implies communication with a large group of people - in a lecture hall, at a rally, etc.
Facial expressions- movements of the facial muscles, reflecting the internal emotional state, can provide true information about what a person is experiencing. Facial expressions carry more than 70% of the information, i.e. a person's eyes, gaze, and face can say more than spoken words. Studies have shown that when the lecturer's face is motionless or invisible, up to 10-15% of information is lost. Thus, it has been observed that a person tries to hide his information (or lies) if his eyes meet his partner’s eyes for less than 3 times the conversation time. With the help of the eyes, the most accurate signals about a person’s condition are transmitted, since the dilation and contraction of the pupils cannot be consciously controlled. If a person is excited, interested in something, or in high spirits, his pupils dilate four times their normal size. And an angry, gloomy mood causes the pupils to constrict.
By its specificity, the gaze can be: businesslike, when it is fixed in the area of the interlocutor’s forehead, this implies the creation of a serious atmosphere of business partnership; secular - when the gaze drops below the level of the interlocutor’s eyes (to the level of the lips), this helps create an atmosphere of secular, relaxed communication; intimate - when the gaze is directed not at the eyes of the interlocutor, but below the face - at other parts of the body to chest level. Experts say that this view indicates a greater interest in each other, in communication; a sideways glance indicates a critical or suspicious attitude towards the interlocutor.
Forehead, eyebrows, mouth, eyes, nose, chin - these parts of the face express basic human emotions: suffering, anger, joy, surprise, fear, disgust, happiness, interest, sadness, etc. Moreover, positive emotions are most easily recognized: joy, love, surprise; Negative emotions - sadness, anger, disgust - are more difficult for a person to perceive. It is important to note that the main cognitive load in the situation of recognizing a person’s true feelings is borne by eyebrows and lips. It has been scientifically proven that the left side of the face reveals a person’s emotions, especially negative ones, much more often and more clearly.
Information is carried by movements of the human body such as posture, gesture, and gait. Pose- this is the position of the human body, typical for a certain culture, the pose clearly shows how a given person perceives his status in relation to the status of other persons present (“confident pose”, “humiliation pose”, “closed poses”, “Napoleonic pose”, “ open poses”, etc.). A person’s gait and his style of movement reflect his emotional state: anger, suffering, joy, pride, fatigue, etc.
Gestures when communicating carry a lot of information. Sign language, like speech language, has its own “words” and “sentences”. The rich “alphabet” of gestures can be divided into five groups:
- 1) illustrative gestures are message gestures: pointers (“pointing finger”), pictographs, i.e. figurative paintings (“of this size and configuration”); kinetographs - body movements; "beat" gestures ("signal" gestures); ideographers, i.e. peculiar hand movements connecting imaginary objects together;
- 2) regulatory gestures are gestures that express the speaker’s attitude towards something. These include a smile, a nod, the direction of gaze, purposeful movements of the hands;
- 3) gestures-emblems are original substitutes for words or phrases in communication. For example, hands clenched together in the manner of a handshake at arm level mean in many cases “hello”, and hands raised above the head mean “goodbye”;
- 4) adapter gestures are specific human habits associated with hand movements. This can be: a) scratching, twitching of individual parts of the body; b) touching, patting the partner; c) stroking, fingering individual objects at hand (pencil, button, etc.);
- 5) affector gestures - gestures that express certain emotions through body movements and facial muscles.
There are also microgestures: eye movements, increased number of blinks per minute, lip twitching, etc.
Practice shows that people, wanting to show their feelings, turn to gestures. This is why it is important for a discerning person to acquire the ability to understand false, feigned gestures. The peculiarity of these gestures is as follows: they exaggerate weak emotions (demonstration of increased movements of the arms and body); suppress strong emotions (by limiting such movements); these false movements usually start from the limbs and end on the face. When communicating, the following types of gestures often arise:
- ? assessment gestures - scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking, etc. (a person evaluates information);
- ? gestures of confidence - connecting fingers into a pyramid dome, rocking on a chair;
- ? gestures of nervousness and uncertainty - interlacing fingers, pinching palms, tapping the table with fingers, touching the back of a chair before sitting on it, etc.;
- ? gestures of self-control - hands clasped behind the back, with one squeezing the other, the pose of a person sitting on a chair with his hands clutching the armrest, etc.;
- ? waiting gestures - rubbing palms, slowly wiping wet palms on a cloth;
- ? denial gestures - folded arms on the chest, body tilted back, crossed arms, touching the tip of the nose, etc.;
- ? positional gestures - placing a hand on the chest, intermittently touching the interlocutor, etc.;
- ? gestures of dominance - gestures associated with showing thumbs, sharp strokes from top to bottom, etc.;
- ? gestures of insincerity - covering the mouth with a hand, touching the nose (can also indicate that the interlocutor has doubts about something), turning the body away from the interlocutor, “running gaze”, etc.
The ability to recognize and understand gestures (gestures of ownership, courtship, mirror gestures, bowing gestures, etc.) will allow you to better understand people and their mood. (We recommend reading: Nirenberg J., Calero G. How to read a person like a book. M., 1990.)
The contradiction between gestures and the meaning of statements is a signal of lies.
Difficulties in communication may be caused by communication barriers- psychological obstacles to the perception of adequate information between communication partners. A.A. Bodalev identified the following types of barriers: barriers to understanding(phonetic misunderstanding due to unclear diction, semantic misunderstanding due to the polysemy of words used, professional and cultural-national differences; stylistic misunderstanding due to long complex sentences, logical misunderstanding due to differences in the types of thinking of the interlocutors), barriers of socio-cultural differences(socio-cultural, religious, political, professional differences lead to different interpretations of the same words), attitude barriers(a negative attitude towards the interlocutor causes a negative attitude towards his words and information).
Effective communication is impossible if the interlocutors do not want or do not know how to listen to each other, do not know how to use those types of listening that are most appropriate in a particular communication situation. The following types can be distinguished hearings: passive, active, empathic.
The type of listening in which the reflection of information comes to the fore is called active listening. The most common techniques characterized by active listening are constantly clarifying the correct understanding of the information that the interlocutor wants to convey by asking clarifying questions like: “Did I understand you correctly that...”, paraphrases: “So, you want to say...” or: “In other words, you meant...” Using such simple communication techniques allows you to achieve two goals at once:
- 1) adequate feedback is provided - the interlocutor can track that the information conveyed to him is correctly understood;
- 2) the communication partner indirectly informs his interlocutor that this is not a child to whom he can direct, and not a “dictaphone” into which he can dictate his thoughts and reasoning, but an equal partner.
Active listening is indispensable in business negotiations, in situations where a communication partner is equal or stronger than his interlocutor, as well as in conflict situations when a person behaves aggressively or demonstrates his superiority. Active listening techniques only work when the interlocutors take into account the situation, the content of the conversation and each other’s emotional state.
If a person is in a state of emotional affect, in a state of strong emotional arousal, in such cases the so-called passive listening. Here it is important to just listen to the person, just let him know that he is not alone, that they listen to him, understand him and are ready to support him. The best techniques for this are “uh-huh reactions” and phrases like: “Yes, yes,” “Well, of course.” At the same time, you should not remain silent, because deaf silence causes irritation in any person, and in an excited person this irritation will be increased, ask clarifying questions, because this will increase the partner’s irritation, tell your interlocutor: “Calm down, don’t worry, everything will work out” - similar words can be perceived as a manifestation of misunderstanding, underestimation of his problem.
There are certain rules for empathic listening:
- 1) you need to tune in to listening: temporarily forget your problems, your own experiences and try to understand what your interlocutor feels, “see” his emotions;
- 2) in your reaction to your partner’s words, you must accurately reflect the experience, feeling, emotion behind your communication partner’s statement, but do it in such a way that your interlocutor feels that his feeling is not only correctly understood, but also accepted by you;
- 3) it is necessary to remember that empathic listening is not an interpretation of the secret motives of his behavior hidden from the interlocutor. You just need to reflect your partner’s feeling, but not explain to him the reason for this feeling;
- 4) it is necessary to take pauses. After your answer, the interlocutor usually needs to remain silent and think. Pauses are necessary for the interlocutor to understand his experience.