Legal requirements are presented to scientific publications than to fiction and magazine or newspaper articles.
- Recalling information from unreliable sources, your readers will refer to your arguments with doubt (because such arguments are based on dubious information).
- If you are constantly using unreliable sources, you will earn yourself a bad reputation.
Take into account the reputation of the author. In each area of \u200b\u200bknowledge there are authors of articles whose reputation is unshakable; Referring to the works of such authors, no one will question your arguments (and you will earn a reputation as an authority in your area).
Choose scientific or peer-reviewed sources of information that should be your main sources when working on an academic project. Information in peer-reviewed or scientific publications is as reliable as possible, so use such sources without feet.
- Scientific articles are written by experts in a specific area of \u200b\u200bknowledge for their colleagues in the same area of \u200b\u200bknowledge and with great scientific experiences by the shoulders. Such articles are written in order to convey information to the scientific community, so their authors must be high-class specialists.
- The reviewed articles are not only written by professionals, but before the publication also read and evaluated by experts specializing in the topic of articles. Reviewers determine the accuracy of information sources set out in a specific article, evaluate the research methodology and make a professional conclusion about whether a specific article is suitable for publication in an authoritative academic or scientific journal.
- Almost all reviewed logs are distributed by subscription (that is, for fee). Nevertheless, some universities provide students with free access to scientific journals. Moreover, you can work with such logs in libraries.
- In the library, use the search engine for library funds and limit the search with peer-reviewed publications.
Be careful using online sources of information, as they are open to publish the thoughts of any person (regardless of his skill and professionalism).
- As a rule, information on public institutions' sites deserves confidence.
- Sites of commercial and non-commercial organizations can sometimes be trusted, and sometimes it is impossible. In these cases, take into account the reputation of the company or the organization to which the specific site belongs.
- There are authoritative organizations that post only biased information. For example, any animal protection organization will publish subjective information corresponding to the beliefs or objectives of the Organization. On the other hand, on the site of some State Agency for Environmental Protection, you will most likely find objective information.
- Information on sites of educational institutions can be trusted selectively. Sometimes the faculties lay out information regarding the subjects taught, for example, lecture materials. Such materials are not reliable, since they did not pass the procedure of expert assessment (described above).
- If possible, find similar information in a reviewed source, and not on the institution site.
Avoid publications made at the expense of their authors. If the publisher does not want to publish a particular author, then, most likely, there is little meaning in such an article.
Different scientific and unscientific publications. If the author's manuscript is accepted for publication, this means that someone considered the idea of \u200b\u200bthe author worthy of discussions. Nevertheless, there is a difference between scientific and unscientific publications.
Use tutorials only for reference information. Tutorials are written in an easily accessible language and they contain the foundations of a particular subject (without unnecessary deepening in the subject). Therefore, when working on a serious academic project, use scientific works and articles, and not textbooks.
- Use information from textbooks only as reference information.
Take the timeliness of information. Science is constantly developing the theories that seemed revolutionary for several years or even months ago, today they can be considered outdated or in general wrong. Therefore, always check the date of publication of the article or other scientific work.
Use unauthorized sources of information with benefit. Until now, we have discussed various types of sources of information that are unacceptable for scientific work: many websites, unscientific articles and so on. But there are ways to use such sources without pointing them.
- As a rule, students do not recommend using Wikipedia. Indeed, it is not necessary to refer to Wikipedia in a serious scientific article: Articles in Wikipedia are written by anonymous authors (that is, you cannot check their credibility) and they are constantly updated (that is, Wikipedia is not a stable source of information).
- However, if you found useful information in unauthorized sources, follow the link to this information and check the authority of its source; If this source of information deserves trust, boldly specify it in your work. Thus, use Wikipedia as a starting point that will specify you the way to authoritative sources of information.
- Do the same in the event of any other non-authentic sources of information.
- If you can not find information in authoritative articles, then such information does not deserve trust, and you should not work with it.
Learn an alternative opinion. If you are a student, teacher, an employee or graduate of any educational institution, contact your profile department of this school to find out the authority of a source of information. Often, the staff of the department are well aware of the authoritative authors in their field of knowledge.
- Always figure out an alternative opinion before the end of the project. If the credibility of one or more sources of information you work with question, then you risk do not have time to finish the project on time, as you will look for other sources of information.
Topic 8. Africa
BJIOK Extraction of Knowledge and Skill
Exercise 1.Using table 1 in "Annexes", apply Africa to the country's contour map, which have received political independence after the Second World War. Specify the dates of obtaining independence and compare the country of North and Tropical Africa in this regard.
AdditionalWith the help of a "business card" on the temple of the textbook, select the corresponding
tore per- "Couples" of Africa and Foreign European countries, approximately equal to
denia (for pleasure).in size.
Task 2. Using atlas and tables and tables 3-5 "applications", carry out the classification of Africa countries to the degree of their wealth of minerals. Make a table according to the following form:
Make conclusions about the secure of these countries with raw materials and fuel for the development of heavy industry.
Additional For the same sources, determine the main territorial combinations
tel mineral. Describe the composition of the fossil in each of them; denia ( Try to tie it with the tectonic structure of the territory. Apply falled). Combining minerals on the contour card.
Task 3. With the help of Figures 7, 8 and 9, Tables 6, 7 and 8 in "Annexes" and Atlas Card, specify and add the characteristic of the land, aquatic and agroclimatic resources of Africa contained in the text of the textbook.
Task 4. Using Table 3, give the quantitative characteristic of the "urban explosion" in Africa. What conclusions can be done on the basis of these calculations?
Additional Prepare a report on the topic: "Population of Africa". Use
tel Text and drawings of the topics 3 and 8 textbook, atlas maps, application tables, denia (complicated). Additional literature.
Task 5. Analyze Figure 77. Using Africa's economic map in atlase, specify exactly which ore, non-metallic minerals, food products and agricultural raw materials define the monocultural specialization of each of the countries specified on the schedule.
Task 6. On the physical and economic cards of Africa in atlase, determine: 1) the main areas of the Mining and Mining Industry of Africa and their specialization, 2) the main areas of commodity farming and their specialization, 3) Transfrikan transport highways. Use also drawings of the topics of the textbook.
Additional Using atlas maps, make a table "zonal specialist
tel Export and consumer crops in
denmark (Creative!) Africa "as follows:
Make all possible conclusions from the analysis of this table.
Task 7.Using the textbook text and the Cairo plan in the atlas, prepare the message
(creativeon the topic "Cairo - Arabic of North Africa". Use also
code!)additional sources of information.
AdditionalImagine that you have taken a journey through the Nile from Aswan to
telmouth. Describe your trip in a letter to Comrade. Try to do denia (for So, the colorful image of this territory arose.
pleasure).
Task 8.How do you think you need to take to prevent in the future
(Creative!).repeat "Sachel tragedy"? Give the rationale for your project.
AdditionalIn his novel "Five weeks in the balloon" Jules Verne told about
teltraveling in Africa in a balloon. "Repeat" the route of this denia (fortravels. In which countries are and what pleasure).described by the writer areas of Africa today?
Total1. (Work in the notebook.) Compare North, Tropical Africa countries and
task 9.South Africa for some indicators characterizing their population and economy. Determine the traits of similarities and differences. Take the necessary data in the form of a table.
2. Compare the main industries of North Africa and South-West Asia. What conclusion can be made of this comparison?
3. Compare the main export agricultural crops of tropical Africa and South Asia. What conclusion can be made from this comparison?
4. To demonstrate in the class, prepare a small album "Geography of Africa on postage stamps".
Answer the questions:
1. Why the proportion of the population to the coasts of the oceans and the seas in Africa is expressed less than in Foreign Asia?
2. Why is it not used to export industrial products from the Congo River?
3. Why are Cairo called "diamond buttons, a fastening delta"?
4. Why are Senegal called the "peanut republic"?
Are the following statements are correct: ^ Sh
1. Most countries in Africa achieved independence in the second half of the XX century.
2. Africa is the highest birth rate and high mortality in the world.
3. For countries in Africa, high rates of urbanization are characterized.
4. The main mineral fossil Nigeria is bauxites.
Choose the correct answer:
2. The most important types of minerals of North Africa are ... (coal, iron ore, bauxite, oil, natural gas, phosphorites).
3. The least developed countries in Africa include ... (Algeria, Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Somalia, South Africa).
4. The main export agricultural crops of tropical Africa are ... (wheat, millet, cotton, citrus, peanuts, coffee, cocoa, natural rubber, sisal).
Can you:
1. Apply the following countries to the contour map of the world in memory: Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Ghana, Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Madagascar?
2. Show on the map The following cities mentioned in the text and on the maps: Cairo, Kinshasu, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Lagos, Dakar, Luanda, Johannesburg?
3. Explain the meaning of the following concepts and terms: monoculture, natural economy, apartheid?
4. Indicate which countries listed below are the main manufacturers and exporters of Cocoa: Côte d "Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Angola?
Determine the countries to which the following statements relate:
1. A country located on the island of 1,600 thousand km 2.
2. Countries inside the territory of South Africa.
3. The country underlying the average river Niger and has no way out to the seas.
4. The country, the capital of which is the city of Nairobi.
5. A country where 98% of the population is concentrated in the territory that occupies less than 4% of its total area.
1. The copper belt stretches from Zambia to the south-eastern part ....
2. ... - The largest producer in Africa and exporter of oil, member of OPEC.
3. South Africa produces ... all products manufacturing Africa.
Methodical keys to the topic 8
What you need to remember
1. Political map and peoples of Africa. (Geography, Grade 7.) 2. Features of the physico-geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, waters, soils and vegetation of Africa, natural zones within its limits. (Geography, Grade 7.) 3. Ancient Egypt. (History, Grade 5.) 4. The main content of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa at the end of the XIX - early XX century. (History, Grade 8.) 5. Material Part I of this textbook. 6. Concepts and terms: Colony, Bantustane, Platform, Desert, Savannah, Equatorial forest, Kimberlite tube, National Park.
What you need to know
Leading ideas of the topic 8.
The transformation of the socio-economic structure of Africa requires great effort from both African peoples and the entire world community.
The main scientific knowledge of the topic 8:
1. Characteristic features of the economic and geographical position, geography of natural conditions and resources, population, industry, agriculture, environmental problems in Africa. 2. Presentation of monoculture. 3. The image of North Africa. 4. Image of tropical Africa. 5. Brief overview characteristic of South Africa. 6. Keywords Topics: 1) Colonial type of industry farm structure, 2) Monoculture, 3) Arabic type of city.
What you need to be able to
1. Using the textbook and atlas, to independently produce the necessary knowledge for the characteristics. 2. Implement the comparative characteristics of industries, regions and cities. 3. Prepare a report summary on a given topic.
Topic 9. North America
Knowledge and skills
The task1. Using the textbook text and the atlas card, give the US EGP characteristic. Is it really profitable? Why do you think so? Apply a typical plan of the Country EGP (region) characteristic. 222.
Task 2.Using the textbook text and drawings 83-86, give the characteristic of the largest
(creativeurban agglomerations and megalopolis of the United States. Calculate the fraction of three
code!)megalopolis in the square and population of the country, compare the density indicators of the population in Megalopolis with the middle country, draw conclusions. Select 3 positions and digital data from text and drawings that are appropriate to use when the urbanization characteristic in the United States.
AdditionalMake a crossword center "States and city of the United States".
task (for pleasure).
Task 3.Using the data tables and drawings of the topic 5 and the tables of "applications", make the necessary calculations, in the notebook of column (strip) or circular charts showing the share of the United States in global industrial and agricultural production on certain types of products. Analyze them.
Task 4.Using the text of the textbook and the US mineral resource card in the Atlas, prove that US mineral resources contribute to the development of the multi-industry industry. Illustrate the following textbook phrase: "The main wealth of the eastern part is the fuel mineral resources, Western - ore." Apply a typical plan characteristic of natural prerequisites for the development of the industry of the country (region) on with. 222.
AdditionalUsing data on reserves and mining of coal, oil, natural gas, iron
telore in the United States, calculate the security of them (in years). Using denia (data in the text of the textbook and in Table 1, calculate the US share in the world falled).deployed reserves of coal, oil, natural gas, iron ore. What conclusions can be made from this analysis?
Task 5.Using Figure 87, name the five main "petroleum" states of the United States. Determine in which of them oil production is carried out on the continental shelf. Try to explain the configuration of the current system of oil pipelines, the causes of the constructions of the Transalelyansky oil pipeline, which was built in the 70s. Figure 25, determine where the US is imported from oil and petroleum products. What is this explained? Apply a typical plan characteristics of the industry of the country (region).
Task 6.Using Figure 88, in the notebook a constructive reference table "Main Areas of Black Metallurgy" in the following form:
Task 7.Figure 28, determine from which countries of the United States imports iron ore. What is it caused?
Use the US economic map and the world engineering card in the atlas to specify the characteristics of the mechanical engineering contained in the text of the textbook. Determine on them the largest centers of this industry. Illustrate the position of the textbook that the main engineering areas coincide with US megalopolis.
AdditionalUsing the same cards, make a contempt and reference book in the notebook
teltable "Structure of mechanical engineering in the largest centers of this industry denia (complicated).in USA".
Task 8.Using the text, Figure 89 and other patterns of the textbook, as well as the US economic card in the atlas, make a contemptive reference table "Industrial belts of the United States" in the following form:
Word and write down the conclusions.
Task 9. Figure 90 Describe the placement of US crop production. Method for overlaying Figure 90 and Cards of administrative-territorial division of the United States in Atlace Determine: 1) Two main "wheat" state (one in spring, the other in winter wheat), 2) the main "corn" state.
Task 10. Using the plans of the central parts of New York and Washington in the atlas and
(creative Additional sources of information, prepare a message about cultural
code!) Historical and architectural attractions of one of these cities. As a "guide", spend a small "excursion" in the city.
Task 11.. Based on the textbook and drawings of the Tutorial and Atlas Card, give a brief
(creative A written description of one of the US macroers (according to own
code!) choice).
Additional Imagine that you have taken "Travel" on the USA - along
tel Parallel 40 ° C. sh. and along the meridian 100 ° z. D. Describe routes.
denia (for pleasure). Use additional literature.
Task 12. Carefully view textbook and tables and tables
(creative "Applications". Choose from them all relevant to Canada. Use
code!) Atlas cards in Canada. Based on these materials, add the brief socio-economic characteristics of this country given in the textbook. Apply a typical plan characteristics of a separate country on with. 329.
Task 13. 1. (Work in the notebook.) Using the materials of the topic 9, name the main
(Final). Typology features of the population and farms of the United States and Canada. Imagine them in the form of the following table:
Work with this table, make a generalization.
2. (Work on the contour card.) Apply to the contour map of North America (by choice): 1) the largest cities, 2) the main seaports, 3) transcontinental railways. You can expand this list at your own discretion.
3. Determine what types of thematic maps in the textbook and atlas you used when studying this topic. Which of them came for you new?
4. According to the textbook and Figure 81, give a description of the central business district of the American city.
Self-control unit and mutual control
Explain why:
1. The Northeast of the United States received the name "Workshop of the Nation".
2. A significant part of the heavy industry of the United States and Canada is concentrated in the Great Lakes area.
3. US aluminum plants are located in the valleys of the Tennessee and Columbia rivers.
4. Specialization of US agriculture and Canada varies as early as the East to the West.
5. Florida, California and Hawaii attract the largest number of tourists.
6. In the United States and Canada, in recent decades has increased interest in the development of the districts of the North.
What problems arise:
1. In connection with the accelerated industrialization of the South and West USA?
2. Due to the fact that the US economy begins to increasingly depend on the import of oil, iron ore and other types of raw materials and fuel?
Do you agree with the following statements:
1. Megalopolis "Boswash" - the largest urbanized zone in the USA?
2. Recently, Alaska has become an important area of \u200b\u200boil production in the United States?
3. In the USA and Canada, the farm type of agriculture dominates?
4. The US transport system refers to the same type as the transport system of foreign Europe?
5. The River of St. Lawrence connects the Great Lakes with New York?
6. Is the world's largest airport in Atlanta?
7. The population of Canada is 1/2 from the US population?
Can you:
1. Find on the map of the city of USA, referred to in the main text of the topic 9, and to place them from the east to the west?
2. Create examples of "milk", "corn", "wheat", "orange", "pineapple", "apple", "cotton" states of the United States?
3. Apply New England on the contour card, Far West, California?
4. To say which of the above indicators characterizes the share of West in the area of \u200b\u200bthe whole country (in%): 20, 36, 49, 64?
5. List the types of mineral raw materials for which Canada is a global manufacturer and exporter?
Use the textbook text and card to answer questions:
1. In which parts of the United States is most likely employmentpeople in: 1) oil production, 2) aircraft and space industry, 3) cultivation of broiler chickens?
2. By what transcontinental railways can you cross the United States and Canada in the latitudinal direction?
3. What natural, socio-economic and historical reasons contributed to the development of the Northeast of the United States?
Imagine:
1. What have you visited one of the large cities of the United States or Canada. Describe it.
2. What you wanted to get acquainted with the US industry. Which cities you need to visit to visit: 1) Aviation Plant, 2) a large enterprise for the production of electronic products, 3) automotive factory, 4) petrochemical plant, 5) in black metallurgy combine?
3. That you have the opportunity to work on: 1) a cattle breeding ranch, 2) tobacco plantation, 3) sawmill. In which states of the United States or the province of Canada you should go for this?
Fill in the pass in the following phrases:
1. The US economy capital is considered ..., but with him more and more competes ....
2. Most of the territory of the Midwest goes to ... and ..., two main water arteries of North America.
3. To the number of important crops of the south of the United States refers ....
4. In the Canadian province ... Most residents speak French.
Methodical keys to the topic 9
What you need to remember
1. Political map and peoples of North America. (Geography, Grade 7.) 2. Features of the physico-geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, water, soil and vegetation of North America. (Geography, Grade 7.) 3. Features of the historical development of North America at the end of the XIX-first half of the XX century. (History, 8, 9 classes.) 4. Materials of part I of this textbook. 5. Concepts and terms: Reserve, farmer.
What you need to know
Leading ideas of the topic 9:
1. As a result of the collapse of the World Socialist System and the Soviet Union, the US role in world politics and economics increased. 2. New relations between Russia, other countries with economies in transition and the United States have become an important factor in international stability, changed the entire global political situation for the better.
The main scientific knowledge of the topic 9:
1. Characteristic features of EGP, the geography of natural resources and the US population. 2. The overall characteristics of the US economy. 3. Basic features of the geography of industry, agriculture, transport, United States, the main industrial and agricultural areas. 4. US macrojection and the appearance of each of the four macroers. 5. Brief economic and geographical characteristics of Canada. 6. Keywords Topics: 1) North American City Type, 2) "Second Economics", 3) Gross National Product, 4) Postedy Specialization, 5) North American Type of Transport Network, 6) Industrial belt, 7) Agricultural belt, 8) Foold Type of development area.
What you need to be able to
1. Give the characteristic of urban agglomerations and megalopolis. 2. To give a characteristic industry in the industry. 3. Giving a brief economic and geographical characteristics of the country. 4. Make a written economic and geographical description.
Instructions and plans for mastering self-study skills
1. Plan Characteristics of the Industry Industry of the Country (Region):
1. The value of the industry and the size of its products. 2. Natural prerequisites for industry development. 3. The structure of the industry. 4. The main factors affecting the placement of the industry, and the main features of its geography; Industrial industrial areas. 5. The dependence of the industry from export and import. 6. General conclusion; Prospects for the development of the industry.
2. Plan characteristics of a separate country:
1. Basic features of EGP. 2. Economic assessment of natural conditions and resources. 3. The main features of reproduction, structure and location of the population. 4. General characteristics of the economy. 5. The main features of the placement of industry. 6. The main features of agriculture. 7. Basic traits of transport geography. 8. Main Economic Areas. 9. The role and geography of external economic relations. 10. General conclusion; Prospects for development.
25. Definition of the author of the source.
etc. In this case, the historian has to be limited to the determination of the time and location of the source and find out how source refers to what people and public class.
But in the listed sources there are such, determine the author we can. A number of sayings, fairy tales of riddles and folk songs switched to "People's Literature" from literary works (for example, known to all sayings from Bass Krylov); The geographical nomenclature has changed in the existence of writing due to changes in political power (St. Petersburg, Petrograd and Leningrad, Tsaritsyn and Stalingrad, Elisavetpol and Gandja, etc.), the transition of this locality to the ownership of another landowner (Stolypino, Shestakovka, Grigorievka, etc. .), Or new aliens (liflyandka, Estonian, Elendorf, etc.). The causes and circumstances of such changes in geographic names are known for a number of sources (personal memories, acts, newspapers, etc.). Among the archaeological finds there are coins, the inscriptions of which make it possible to determine which state organization they released, and individual items, which is known.
The definition of the creator of works of arts (sculptural, architectural and painting) is facilitated by the fact that each artist has its own individual techniques of work that allocate its work among the works of other artists or masters of this era and terrain. Knowing the work techniques and the special style of the work of this artist on that works that we are reliably known, we can establish whether the work has been studied to his work or not. For example, a specialist is quite easy to identify the paintings of Rafael, Goya, F. Rops, and others of famous masters. If the surname of this master is unknown, after all, it is possible to determine which works belong to this "unknown master".
According to a special individual style of work, the design of the production and a snapshot we can define the director (director) and the operator of cinematic film. Select special features in the work of Room, Eisenstein, etc. For a specialist is not difficult. It is not particularly difficult to determine the special features in the pictures of individual photographers. But since the photo and cinema appeared relatively recently, there is no particular need: on the inscriptions on ribbons and pictures, on newspapers and magazines we can get the information you need. Therefore, the determination of the authors of the photographs and photographs to date is engaged in more than the police than historians; Usually only pornographic pictures hide their creators.
In determining the creator of real monuments, works of arts, folk songs, fairy tales, etc. The historian usually uses the conclusions of the corresponding auxiliary historical
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disciplines (archeology, art history and ethnology). Independent research historian has to be performed when using written sources.
2) when the source indicates the fictional surname or the name of the author (pseudonym);
3) when someone issues someone else's work for its (plagiarism), and
Anonymous works, so numerous in the Middle Ages, in the New Time there are more and less often. Books are issued now or indicating the name of the author or pseudonym, although the most brief (for example, V. V., Nikolai - he, Count ***, etc.) letters are subscribed, if not full of last name, then the author name (your Ivan, Peter, etc.); The acts are supplied with a number of signatures (chief or head, secretary, accountant, etc.). Therefore, most often you have to meet with anonymous works in newspapers and magazines in which most of the chronicle notes and a significant part of the articles do not have instructions of the author, as well as in such cases where the author tries to hide his surname to avoid responsibility for this work (anonymous letters with Threats, forbidden works, malicious pamphlets, etc.), but in these cases, aliases are often used.
From anonymous works it is necessary to distinguish works issued on behalf of the teams (collective authorship): publications of party organizations (proclamation, brochures, articles), state, public, professional, etc. organizations (rulings, discovery, instructions, etc.). Such publications provided with the name of them released the team, may be and are usually works of individuals who carried out the instructions of the team, but since they expressed the opinion or disposal of the team, it is not necessary to determine the individual author, and the historian may confine themselves to find out if this work is not subject. For example, the historian is indifferent to who exactly wrote such a document as the appeal of the Central Committee of the Azerbaijan Communist Party (Bolsheviks) on the sowing campaign of 1930, but it is important that the Central Committee of the ACP (b) recognized the views of this appeal to their. The definition of an individual author in these cases is made only when studying the internal history of this team and when determining the degree of participation of individuals in the team's work. In this case, the definition of the author is made in the same way as with anonymous works, if only the work of the historian is not facilitated by the fact that in acts
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(for example, in the collective protocols) there is an accurate and correct indication on the individual author of this work.
Very often, especially when studying the history of the revolutionary movement in Russia, the historian has to meet with pseudonyms. The conditions of Russia, who forced revolutionary organizations to work illegally and comply with all the rules of conspiracy, created a mass of nicknames and pseudonyms, under which party employees performed at meetings, with "rides, conferences and in print (Roman, Egor, Saratov, Sibiryakov, V. Ilyin and T . d., etc.). Many of them were frustrated in the future, with legal work, the names of revolutionary figures and began to be applied in state acts (N. Lenin, I. Stalin, Zinoviev, L. Trotsky, L . Martov et al.). The disclosure of these pseudonyms is facilitated by biographical dictionaries issued by the Istiport and the society of former polisher and referee. In other cases, it is necessary to resort to the help of archival materials (mainly the Department of Police and Security Departments) and memories, or to identify this The surname of the face hiding under the pseudonym the same techniques as the author of anonymous works.
No less frequent pseudonyms in the field of journalism, fiction and cartoons. And here the historian is assisted by literary encyclopedias and pseudonym dictionaries. In the same cases, when the historian does not find permission of the issue in encyclopedias and dictionaries, or when the historian has doubts, whether the work really belongs to the person that is indicated in the dictionaries, as a carrier of this pseudonym, the author of the work should determine how with anonymous work.
With plagiarism, the historian is found both in the field of journalism (journalism) and artistic and scientific literature and painting. Especially frequent were cases of plagiarism in the Middle Ages and in the era of the Renaissance, when nothing reprehensible was seen in this phenomenon. It is possible to determine whether there is plagiarism, it is possible by comparing this work with other works known to us, as well as by clarifying whether the style of the structure of proposals (syllable) corresponds to the style (lexicon), etc., the work of the words of the alleged plagiarifier. Such a comparison is applied very often in everyday life, especially in educational institutions when checking students' written works.
When determining the author, we meet with the following cases: 1) At our disposal, there is a manuscript written by the author; 2) the determination is the author of the manuscript rewritten by another person (or on a typewriter) or written under dictation; 3) it is necessary to identify the author of the printed work; 4) It is necessary to establish the author of the acts.
If at our disposal is written by the author manuscript (autograph), then, knowing the author's handwriting, we are extremely easy
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determine the author by hand writing, i.e. According to individual letters, punctuation marks, lines location, etc. Therefore, it is not difficult to determine the manuscripts of such prominent public figures and writers as: Lenin, Pushkin, Lermontov, etc. and distinguish between possible fakes. At the same time, of course, it is necessary to consider that the human handwriting changes over the years. Conclusions obtained in comparison of handwritters should be checked according to other data indicated below.
If at our disposal there is a manuscript, written under the dictation by another person, or rewritten by the hand of another person (or on a typewriter), then in this case the author's copyright corrections, if the author's handwriting is known, can promote the author's disclosure. At the same time, however, it should be extremely careful, since it is possible that the person who committed corrections and additions was revised by the manuscript on behalf of the author or edited it on behalf of the publishing house or the editorial board of the newspaper (magazine). Therefore, in this case, as in the event that the author's handwriting is unknown, it is necessary to figure out the features of the author's style. Each person has its own individual traits when building proposals and their manner to be expressed. The location of the subject, the definitions, additions, periods, length and rhythm of syllables, vocabulary, the use of exclamations, punctuation marks, etc. can indicate the author, if its style is known to us. For example, Lenin, Plekhanov, Martov, Chernov, Veresaev, Zoshchenko, etc. have each special style. In addition, individual authors have characteristic errors for their transmission of individual words, and when building proposals (Varvarisms, provincialisms, etc.).
When studying the rewritten manuscripts, you should consider the possibility of typos and errors made by the correspondence, especially if the manuscript has not been revised by the author or if it was rewritten from the copy. Therefore, it is impossible to limit the definition of the author only by style, but it is also necessary to analyze the contents of the manuscript, find out whether the views of the alleged author are known to other sources that expressed in the work.
When establishing the author of a book, magazine or newspaper article, proclamation, etc. It is also necessary to study the author's style, but it should be borne in mind that the editor, which is subject to not only the articles of periodicals, but also books produced by publishers His amendments, changes, additions and abbreviations in the author's text. Contracts and changes are subject to articles in a number of countries and censorship. Finally, sometimes the author on censorship considerations, or for the purpose of conspiracy (in the preparation of the proclamation), or the popularization itself tries to avoid expressing his thoughts to such a syllable as usual. In addition, in the artistic literature in individual works the author often imites the style of another era or another author.
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All this does not eliminate the author's completely different features, but significantly makes it difficult to establish such features and makes more possible mistakes in the work of the historian. Therefore, in such cases, special attention besides style, you need to pay for content. It is necessary to establish the views expressed by the author about individual events and facts, the opinion of the author on certain issues, on individual phenomena, persons, etc. Compare all this with the facts known to us on other sources and not losing sight of the author's style features, the historian can Make those or other conclusions about the author of the source. If the source has the indication on an individual or collective author, the historian can accurately establish whether the source is a fake (for example, a provocative sublayed proclamation) or not.
In case of impossibility to establish the name of the author of the source, the historian is obliged to determine the class and party affiliation of the author. It is always, almost unmistakably, can be established by the content of the source, unless the historian is familiar with the class relationships and party themes of the era to which the source belongs. From the manuscript, books, articles, etc. It can be seen with what public groups the author was better sign, as he treated: some classes and their layers, the views of which public groups and parties or currents inside any party, he adhered to The aspirations of which classes and parties in one or another form (swearing, proof of their insolvency, exposure, exposing a funny form, etc.) He fought, which aspirations, wishes and demands he expressed. Thus, according to the content of the source, you can always determine the class or party affiliation of the author, and this is quite enough when studying the history of public relations. For example, the historian of Russia is important to establish whether the studied article is written by the Cadet, the monarchist, ancer, the liquidator, the Bolshevik or others, and the definition of the author's name plays a secondary role. The establishment of the author's name is of great importance in the study of individual flows in the ranks of individual parties (for example, social democrats), but also here only when determining the role of individual individuals in the design of these currents. In the same way, in content, we can establish that the interests of the interests of class (Kulakov, middle peasants, poor people; banking, industrial, commercial capital, etc.), which national groups (Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Ukrainians, Jews, etc.) , state organizations (Russia, Germany, England, Persia, etc.), etc. He was the author of the source. On the definition of the class and party affiliation of the author, the historian should pay special attention, because it depends on the correctness of the internal criticism of the historian of the source. Errors when determining the author of the source will cause unpredictable errors when using the source.
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The acts are rarely written to those who sign them. Relationships are written in institutions, sign their heads and secretaries; The report may be written by the secretary, but signed by the Deputy Head and Managing Cases, etc. But in determining the actual author, the acts are very rarely found: a fairly establishment of the fact that the country act really proceeded from this institution. If you need to install an individual author's an act, then this can be done by handwriting a draft, if the latter has been preserved, or according to the style features. In short relations, these features are often destroyed by the accepted stationery formulas, but in reports, reports, in a longer relationship, in diplomatic notes, etc. they are preserved.
Literature is indicated in chapter 23.
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Studying history, you should know that between the events that happened in the last events and the picture described in the monographs of historical scientists, there is a huge intermediate link. This is a historical source. Simply put, any historical study begins exclusively with reading all available documents on the period. Only with the help of evidence of contemporaries or persons who are well-informed about this temporary segment, a qualitative retrospective reconstruction of events can be carried out.
So what is historical sources from which so much depends? Let's discuss this important question in more detail.
Main definitions
So, what includes the concept of "historical sources"? In science, it is accepted so called all the preserved testimony of the past, which can give us an objective picture of what happened. Of course, there are many different classifications of this kind of data proposed by both domestic and foreign historians and archaeologists. So what is, according to prominent researchers, historical sources? The definition of some of them we present in the article.
For example, L. N. Pushkarev describes the following types:
Evidence of a written type.
. Real historical sources.
. Information obtained from the results of ethnographic studies.
. Oral legends that are transmitted from generation to generation.
. Linguistic evidence.
. Cinema and photo chronicle.
. Audio recordings. These historical sources (and their classification too) appeared relatively recently, but they give us a chance to hear the voices of those who peered the fate of the world a few years ago!
Schmidt classification
Shortly before our time, in 1985, S. O. Schmidt proposed a slightly more detailed classification, deciding to use types and subtypes in it. What does it distinguish historical sources? Determining their varieties we give below.
1. As in the past case, all real evidence in all their diversity: from sculptures to home waste found during excavations.
2. Sources related to visual art:
a) artistic (cinema and photography);
b) graphic (artists canvases, simple sketches);
c) Fine-natural (photos from ordinary home archives).
3. Sources of verbal type:
a) oral historical sources, including all adverbs and varieties of language forms;
b) folklore, including rare legends, occurring only in a certain locality;
c) all written monuments of the era, to whom they would treat, with whatever purpose; If it is easier to speak, then the bureaucratic list of materials can give where as a more truthful and unfolded picture of the world than the officially approved chronicle or textbook; Stenography belongs to the same variety.
4. Conventional historical notes, designations of alchemists and chemists, astrologers and astronomers, economic reductions, etc.
5. Behavioral information. These include not only rituals and customs of primitive tribes, but even corporate and other traditions of modern society, which their roots rise to the same primitive belief.
6. Sound. With this type of data, everything is clear: these are any recorded phonograms of one or another historical period.
That's what historical sources are, if we talk about the scientific definition of this term. But no, even the most reliable information will not be able to give a researcher an objective idea of \u200b\u200bwhat happened if he does not know how to work with them and interpret them.
It should be remembered that historical sources and their classification are also a rather blurry concept. As new storage and information transfer tools appear, all these lists will expand and rethink. Here are what historical sources are.
What should I pay attention to, removing information from the document?
When working with any evidence of the epoch, you need to constantly remember two important points.
1. Important! Do not perceive the source as a storehouse of ready-made answers. You will only receive only the information that questions you can ask and link the information from you in your hands. In this regard, the notions and reporting of ordinary statists and archivists may be extremely important, which, despite their seeming "poverty", sometimes contain a lot of useful information. These historical sources and their species are presented by "useless pieces", although sometimes they are truly priceless!
2. In no case do not perceive the source as an objective reflection of the world, as it was created by a person who has its own ideas. This is an extremely important circumstance that is sometimes overlooked even prominent and experienced scholars!
In order not to be unfounded at the last point, explain. Take the famous battle of Alexander Nevsky with the Swedes. At least with the fact that even domestic historians doubt the reality of what happened at least because in Swedish archives there are no written evidence of the battle.
Perhaps they simply chose to silend about what happened. It is possible that the domestic chroniclers (according to "order from above," as they now love to say) they simply presented a private border skirmish as a heroic battle. Anyway, it is always worth studying the sources provided by both parties.
In addition, in domestic chronicles (and in European often), the word "darkness" is often found. Darkness Warriors, Darkness Chelyadi, Darkness Ladi Martial ... How to understand all this? If you repel from Mongolian tumem, then "darkness" was called the number of warriors, equal to 10,000. And what, during the very battle with the Swedes, when the river was "darkness" of their ships, all the vessels came there? Unlikely. Here we come to another feature - to interpretation.
On interpretation
Remember that historical sources, the examples of which we led and give, which were created by a person, always pursued some goals, often mercenary. Knowing about the motives that was moving by the author, you can learn a lot about his historical era. Simply put, all sources need to be correctly interpreted.
Under this word is an attempt to figure out what exactly the author invested in the meaning of each word and the expression that are found in his work. In the interpretation itself there are three important aspects.
1. First, the native content of the source itself. You should always approach the historical documents critically, never believing the word for the information that is given there.
2. If an intermediary (asset, translator) participated in the document, it is useful to pay attention to his comments and interpretations (if they are). Of course, in this case it is extremely important to take into account the quality of this kind of additions, which depends on the qualification of the editor.
3. Finally, your own understanding and interpretation of the source.
In the latter case, the researcher moves directly to the analysis of its data. It is extremely important to take a look at the events that happened through the eyes of a contemporary, for which the era was completely native. The researcher must independently give his definition of the source reliability, relying on his own information and can apply them to defend its position before other scientists.
Remember that any historical sources, examples of which you give, should have not only oral, but also documentary confirmation!
It is especially important to disclose the document to find out what the author "between the lines" is about how directly or indirectly reports. All points and possible interpretations of terms that are found in the source should be taken into account. To make it easier to understand, remember about the "opium for the people."
What associations such an expression can cause a modern person? Only the most negative. Meanwhile, at the beginning of the last century, the heroin in pharmacies were sold as a "means of cough", and the opium since ancient times was considered hardly the main painkillers that any suffering can remove. Do you feel the difference? The source invested in these words directly opposite to the current meaning.
Synthesis
Only after collecting all the information you can proceed to the generalization of your work, to the conclusions. All this is called synthesis. This is a very important stage, since even from the most truthful, accurate and reliable information can be removed at all of the wrong conclusions that would be needed.
Variability of sources depending on the historical period
We should not forget that the sources that have been processed in different periods of history carry the imprint of each era. And this is not a metaphorical expression, since in different periods of history a different approach was adopted both to the study and to interpret documents.
For example, documents 17 and 18th centuries can be distinguished by any little-to-educated person, since the cardinal changes are observed in their stylistics.
So, at this time the number of documentary evidence is sharply increasing, but the content of each of them is largely simplified. But much more important is the fact that at the time there are really mass sources for the first time, information from which could already have a significant impact on those segments of the population that took the most active participation in the development of the whole country. In addition, in those years, the statistics and documents of fiscal reporting are hardly coming.
All these historical sources whose groups we described above are not only significant, but also extremely objective, which in a historical aspect - to the offensive rarely occurring exception.
Periodicals and journalism rendered on that epoch is hardly no greater influence than all institutions involved in propaganda of certain ideas. The personal sources, memoirs and biographies also begins to be widespread. It is extremely important simply due to the fact that we can see the process of becoming the specific personalities of those historical periods, observe the change in their ideological views.
Russian paradox
So some historians call the situation when the oldest historical sources of 13-14 centuries in our country have been studied much better than the sources of the beginning and mid-20th century. However, nothing paradoxical in this is absolutely.
In just one hundred years, our long-suffering power survived three revolutions, four big wars (not counting the unreal number of local incidents). All this happened during the reign of five state formations, which replaced each other. Do not forget about those colossal economic transformations that were marked by this period: neither the construction of the same Krasnoyar HPP in those years simply had no analogues abroad.
Of course, in the years of the USSR, various rulings and reports are the main sources (written and many film and photo chronicles) are presented in the whole manifold. This is where the complexity is hidden: in order to get a "side view", many historians have to access American and similar institutions, as they collected a huge number of documents that were compiled by members of both the former royal government and simple emigrants. It is important to note that the memories of the "first wave" and those people who had to leave the country during and after the civil war and the Western intervention, which accompanied it was to be distinguished.
The fact is that in 1905, the most far-sighted people left the country, in the memories of which you can find sufficiently detailed and accurate predictions of the decay of the Empire. In 1918-1924, the members of the royal family and the intelligentsia, but also former supporters of the Bolsheviks, were emigrated to the old and new light, but also former supporters of the Bolsheviks, the views of which are fundamentally different from each other.
What documents are the greatest value for studying?
It is unpleasant to admit, but to this afternoon, many scientists with certain distrust and skepticism refer to legislation, materials of office work, periodicals. However, no less strange is the fact that the memoirs are perceived by many researchers almost as revelation of over, the truth in the last instance. Such an attitude is a gross mistake, due to which there are many historical flats and inaccuracies.
All similar historical sources and their species must be addicted and analyzed in detail in each case!
Despite the fact that the memoirs should consider purely documentary, even if a very specific genome, their objectivity sometimes remains under a huge issue. The same chainstock in his memoirs, hesitally argues about the "good intentions" of Nazi Germany, but to believe in this at least difficult.
Genre of memories
Memories are a slightly different case. These documents can often be crucial in the reconstruction of a historical event, as they reflect the views sometimes completely random people. However, it's not always that all this is so unequivocal, because in memories people often spread their own worldview from the point of view of the justifying parties, and even so much moments are marshed.
Simply put, both memoirs and memories are purely subjective documents to which should be treated with maximum alertness and a critical look. This cannot be considered a disadvantage, on the contrary, studying these sources, one can make an absolutely correct idea of \u200b\u200bthe nras of the historical period. Of course, you are unlikely to be able to carry out such an analysis by studying bureaucratic materials.
So what are historical sources, if we talk about memoirs? How valuable are they and reliable?
On the correct analysis of memoirs
Whatever it was, memoirs are often the most valuable source of information, to neglect which is frank nonsense. Often the sincerity of the person who wrote them is easily checked by making the morals of those years and written.
The object of description is very important: the person or event that occurred in the eyes (or in those years) is an eyewitness. The description of personalities should be approached especially carefully, since such information will inevitably be extremely subjective, but the events (especially those to which the person had no direct relationship) is often described quite reliably. So, what should be the approach to the study of memoirs?
First of all, it is important for you to learn about the person who wrote them. Of course, it is better to use several sources for this, and if possible, "lively" memories of the now helable contemporaries. The latter is especially important, as practically probably will significantly reliably establish the role of the author in the events described: it really was an indifferent statistically or took the most direct participation.
In addition, it is necessary to establish all possible sources of author's awareness. Very often, through this method, frank lgs were revealed, who tried to assign laurels of less famous and famous contemporaries.
Extremely valuable circumstance is the fact of the application of official documents for memoirs. For example, this approach is very characteristic of the legendary Wrangel. Many facts of that period are irretrievably lost or perverted, so these materials are probed by simply the foregoing value.
Almost all the same is true, if we talk about the memories of the daughter of the legendary P. A. Stolypin, which in the applications puts all land use documents that were composed of her father. However, if Wrangel included in his memories of the paper on their own, then applications in the memoirs of the Stolypin daughter, we are obliged to publishing a "contemporary", which considered these papers will probably become interested in a bidder reader. As you can make sure, the employees of the publisher were absolutely right.
It should be noted that the censorship in one form or another has always occurred: if in our time there are whole devices of state importance, then in troubled times, the times of the Middle Ages, etc. The best censor was fear for his life. Therefore, be sure to consider the period to which one or another document belongs - very often the author mentions some moments casually, but constantly (in context) returns to them again and again, making certain hints on their point of view.
Finally, who and when did the memoirs wrote? If a person took his memories from the diary, who led constantly, or simply made memories of this kind of documents, then the information that is set out to them, it is quite possible to trust. If the memoirs were written by the author in old age, then it is often possible to relate to them as a variety of fiction. Practice shows that people forget more than 90% of the information, every bit of which is invaluable, already after all the pairs of troika.
That's what historical sources are. We hope that reading this article turned out to be useful for you.
Historical sources - The whole range of documents and items of material culture, directly reflecting the historical process and captured individual facts and accomplished events, on the basis of which the idea of \u200b\u200bone or another historical era is reconstructed, hypotheses of the reasons or consequences of those or other historical events are put forward.
Historical source - The product (materially implemented result) of targeted human activity used to obtain data on a person and society in which he lived and acted.
Encyclopedic YouTube.
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There are several approaches to the general classification of historical sources. In the XIX century, the classification of sources on Europe was distributed in Europe residues and tradition.
I. Droisen
One of the first detailed classification of historical sources was offered the German historian of the XIX century I. Droisen. He divided the variety of products of targeted human activity for historical residues and historical traditions (historical traditions).
According to Droisen, speech, letter, image - make up historical tradition. It is divided into oral (song, saga, story, legend, joke, proverbs, winged words), written (genealogical tables, historical inscriptions, memoirs, brochures, newspapers, etc.) and pictorial (geographical maps, iconography of historical personalities, Cities, drawings, painting, sculpture).
According to Droisen, the immediate results of the events themselves are the so-called residues:
- Works of all sciences, crafts, arts indicating the needs, abilities, views, moods, states;
- Language data;
- Customs, morals, institutions;
- Monuments;
- Business acts, protocols, office work and all sorts of administrative documents.
L. N. Pushkarev
More and more complete saving of written sources, the institution of archives, their streamline, the reorganization of libraries, the creation of catalogs, repertoires, inventory is at the end of the classic era more than just a new susceptibility to the time, to their past, to the depth plasts of history; This is a way to introduce into the already formed language and the traces of the same order left them, which establishes between living beings. It was in this registered time that the historians of the 19th century will finally get the "faithful" history, that is, liberated from the classical rationality, from its ordering, and from its theodice, from its ordering, Furious strength of invading time.
Michelle Fouco
Work with sources
Removing information from the source, the researcher must remember two substantial points:
- The source gives only the information that the historian is looking for in Him, it is only responsible for the questions that the historian puts in front of him. And the answers received are entirely dependent on the questions asked.
- The writing source transfers the event through the author's worldview, which created it. This circumstance is important, because this or that understanding of the painting of the world, existing in the consciousness of the crewor of the source, one way or another affects the data it records.
Since the historical sources of various species are created by people in the process of conscious and targeted activities and served them to achieve specific goals, they bear valuable information about their creators and about the time when they were created. To extract this information, it is necessary to understand the features and conditions for the occurrence of historical sources. Information from the source is important not only to extract, but also critically evaluate, as well as correctly interpret.
Interpretation of sources
Examples of interpretation of sources
Vladimir Bibler leads the following example. In 1952, on the Nerevsky platform in Novgorod, the archaeologists of Moscow State University, headed by A. B. Artsikhovsky, among the whole range of birch, the XII-XIV centuries, found a diploma number 46 with the inscription:
N in w p s n d m k z and t with c t ... e e i and a e and a ah o e and a ...
Despite the fact that the right part of the inscription was not preserved, attempts to decipher the diploma were successful. It turns out that it was necessary to read it vertically, attaching to the letter of the upper line - the letter is lower, and then start all over again, and so until the last letter. Part of the missing letters was restored in meaning. The incomprehensible inscription was a joke of Novgorod Scholyar, who wrote: "Neusalea of \u200b\u200bPisa is not the Duma Kaza, and Hto Cee ..." - "Dogging wrote, having mischief showed, and who reads it ..." . As a result of working with a bark, the researcher not only deciphered the inscription, but also received ideas about the nature of the people and the culture of the time. He also generated a new knowledge of the Old Russian culture and the psychology of people under study, or, by the words of Bibler, expanded the fragment area of \u200b\u200bthe past:
... In our time, it is now present (as a fact) that is just such a reasonable birch gram. There is a piece of life of the XII century. Together with the characteristic coarse humor, the drawing, "fragment" of relationships.
Conditions of successful work with sources
Many historians warn about the danger of fetishization of sources. It should be remembered that the sources are just a working material for the historian, and their analysis and criticism lay the base for the study. The main stage in the work of the historian begins at the stage of interpretation of the source in the context of its time and understanding a separate source in a complex with other data for the production of new historical knowledge.
Speaking about historical sources, I. Droisen constantly emphasized their incompleteness and fragmentation, not allowing to recreate the full picture of the past. He called for a cross-analysis of various types of sources to avoid their improper interpretation. As a measure of the reliability of the study, Droisen offered to recognize the clarity in the designation of spaces and possible errors.
For successful work with historical sources from the historian, not only painstability and impersonal, but also deep knowledge of the subject of research and a wide cultural outlook. As an example of the fruitful work of the historian with sources, Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, author of the 29-languid "history of Russia" can be brought. V. O. Klyuchevsky so wrote about him:
The latitude of historical gaze was a reflection of the breadth of his historical education. In the field of Russian history it is difficult to be a specialist more Solovyov. Not much will be after him scientists who will succeed so consistently and fully explore the sources of our story. But Solovyov did not bury his specialty. In this regard, it is an instructive sample, especially for those engaged in the domestic history, between which the inclination often appears to retreat in their workshop.
V. O. Kleevsky
see also
Notes
Literature
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