The human body is in a state of continuous development, or ontogeny. The term ontogenesis was first introduced by E. Haeckel (1866) to designate the embryonic period of development of the organism. Currently, ontogenesis is considered as a single development process, beginning with fertilization of the egg and ending with natural death.
Each age period is characterized by a certain state of all structural levels of the body: cellular, tissue, organ, systemic. The process of human ontogenesis can be divided into four main periods: intrauterine development, childhood, adulthood, old age. The intrauterine period is divided into embryonic (from 0 to 3 months) and fetal (from 3 to 9 months). In the process of ontogenesis, the organism repeats the history of phylogenetic development. Thus, the human embryo has gill slits, and the heart goes through the stage of a two-chambered organ, like in fish, then a three-chambered organ, like in amphibians, and only then becomes a four-chambered organ.
Individual development takes place in accordance with a genetically determined sequence, which is realized through the interaction of the organism with environmental conditions. The transition from one stage of development to another occurs in short periods of time, which are considered as turning points, or critical periods of ontogenesis. In their determination, the speed (time) of development of a physiological function is of leading importance. Another important sign of transformation processes is the emergence of high sensitivity to certain environmental conditions - a sensitive period. This is due to the fact that with the rapid development of functions, it requires an influx of adequate sensory information. Its absence or deficiency can lead to a process of dysfunction.
According to theory systemogenesis P.K. Anokhin, the individual development of the body is based on several principles: principle of heterochrony, or non-simultaneous maturation of not only organs, but also various elements of the same organ. The structures of the central nervous system have been studied in most detail in terms of heterochrony indicators. Thus, it has been shown that nerve cells of the brain stem are the first to mature in embryogenesis, ensuring the formation of an independent functional system of nutrition and respiration of the fetus. Heterochrony in the functional nutritional system of the newborn has been studied in particular detail. Thus, the first to mature are the facial muscles that ensure the act of sucking, and the corresponding areas of the cranial nerve nuclei. Or another example: heterochrony of maturation of the neuromuscular system of a newborn, providing a grasping reaction. With regard to the functional respiratory system, heterochronic maturation of the respiratory structures of the medulla oblongata and overlying sections and the consistent formation of rhythmic breathing are shown.
In the development of each functional system, one can distinguish intrasystem heterochrony, that is, the non-simultaneous maturation of all its elements. Thus, in the functional respiratory system, which is basically “ready” at the time of birth, in the postnatal period central and peripheral mechanisms mature, which ensure more regular breathing and its subtle adaptation to changes in the external environment.
Heterochronic development can be traced through the example of the maturation of the functional nutritional system and the grasping reaction of newborns. By the time of birth, the nerve cells of the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and midbrain, as well as the muscles associated with sucking and grasping, mature earlier and synchronously, despite the topographic distance from each other.
Ontogenetic heterochrony of the origin and development of individual elements of one system or different functional systems is the result of phylogenetic heterochrony. Under the influence of natural selection, an evolutionarily younger function that better ensures the organism's adaptability to environmental conditions and its survival from generation to generation begins to develop faster. The general pattern of developmental heterochrony, both in ontogenesis and phylogenesis, is that in a shorter period of time the functional systems that are most significant for the survival of the organism at a given stage of its development mature.
To understand ontogenetic development, there are a number of analytical concepts, in particular A. A. Volokhov (1968) proposed the concept of the transition of local reactions of the human fetus to more general ones in the process of ontogenesis. An example is the early local contractions of the fetal muscles, before they begin to support posture and provide movement. Such contractions improve blood circulation, promote the supply of oxygen to tissues and the removal of metabolic products, and at the same time stimulate the development of the muscular system.
The age concept of I. A. Arshavsky (1982) is based on the idea of the general energy balance of the body and its state in equilibrium with the environment. The main function of the body is to accumulate and retain energy, to resist the “leakage” of the body’s energy resources during muscle activity. This phenomenon occurs not only during early ontogenesis, but also during aging. The more perfect the energy balance, the better the anabolic and catabolic processes are balanced, the less the body is exposed to excess catabolism (and as a result, acidification) and the longer its existence.
A great contribution to the understanding of individual development was made by the concept of the functioning of biological systems put forward by A. A. Markosyan (1969). It is based on such properties of a living system as the redundancy of its elements, their duplication and interchangeability, the speed of return to relative constancy and the dynamism of individual parts of the system itself. For example, during the period of intrauterine development, from 4,000 to 200,000 primary follicles are formed in the ovaries, and during the entire reproductive period, only 500-600 follicles mature in a woman. Another example of redundant function: the heart rate when a child screams is 200 beats per minute, which corresponds to the heart rate of an adult athlete under maximum muscle load.
Research conducted by D. A. Farber showed that during ontogenesis, the reliability of biological systems goes through certain stages of formation and formation. If in the early stages of postnatal life it is ensured by the rigid, genetically determined interaction of individual elements of the functional system, ensuring the implementation of elementary reactions to external stimuli and necessary vital functions (for example, sucking), then in the course of development plastic connections become increasingly important, creating conditions for dynamic selective organization of system components.
Using the example of the formation of an information perception system, a general pattern has been established to ensure the reliability of the adaptive functioning of the system. Three functionally different stages of its organization are identified:
Stage 1 (newborn period) - functioning of the earliest maturing block of the system, providing the ability to respond according to the “stimulus-response” principle;
Stage 2 (first years of life) - generalized uniform involvement of elements of a higher level of the system is ensured by duplication of its elements;
Stage 3 (observed from pre-preschool age) - a hierarchically organized multi-level regulatory system provides the possibility of specialized involvement of elements of different levels in processing information and organizing activities.
During ontogenesis, as the central mechanisms of regulation and control improve, the plasticity of the dynamic interaction of system elements increases; selective functional constilations are formed in accordance with the specific situation and the task at hand (D. A. Farber, N. V. Dubrovinskaya). This determines the improvement of the adaptive reactions of the developing organism in the process of complication of its interaction with the external environment and the adaptive nature of functioning at each stage of ontogenesis.
Growth and development of the child's body. The formation of the human body continues after birth (postnatal period) and ends by the age of 22-25. During periods of growth and development of the body, the mass and surface of the body increase, which is due to the development of tissues, organs and individual parts of the body.
Growth and development of an organism involves the processes during which a fertilized egg develops into an adult individual. Height- these are quantitative transformations that manifest themselves in an increase in the size of the body and its parts. Development- these are qualitative transformations that occur in the body due to differentiation processes, which lead, respectively, to qualitative and quantitative changes in the functions of the developing organism.
Growth and development is not just an increase in body weight, but also the formation of various body functions. At this time, a significant part of the physiological indicators approaches the level characteristic of an adult. For example, the activity of digestive enzymes increases, the senses and nervous system improve, and protective mechanisms against infection develop.
The processes of growth and development are interconnected, but nevertheless are in dialectical contradictory relationships, since growth processes are carried out by increasing the number of cells, which should suppress cellular differentiation, which determines the complication of the structural and functional organization of the growing organism. During one age period, some tissues grow intensively, while others at the same time undergo a stage of differentiation.
In most tissues during the functional period of ontogenesis, the processes of growth and differentiation are separated by time, which leads to the appearance of periodicity. Each period consists of a phase of differentiation with inhibition of growth and a subsequent phase of activation and expansion of functionality based on the formed new qualitative state of cells. Differentiations can be synchronized in tissues that are connected by common functional tasks and are part of a functional system. Each stage of development is aimed at achieving an intermediate goal, without which the next stage cannot be realized, therefore, disturbances and deviations in the dynamics of development that prevent the achievement of such intermediate goals can be the cause of the most severe developmental diseases.
The growth and development of a child’s body from birth to maturity proceeds heterochronically, that is, unevenly. This pattern, studied by P.K. Anokhin, can be traced during the period of embryonic development in the postnatal period. Periods of stable growth alternate with its slowdown. Those organs or organ systems that are necessary for the existence of the organism at a given stage of development grow and develop faster. Thus, at the time of birth, a newborn has a developed system of feeding liquid food (milk). At the same time, the development of functional systems that are not needed at this point in life is delayed, an example is the development of a functional system of feeding solid food.
In general, the principle of heterochrony is characteristic of all ontogenesis, and this pattern can be illustrated by changes in the body length of children and adolescents. Human growth and development are most intense in the first year of life. The average body length of newborn girls is 52.2 cm, boys 52.6 cm; in the first year of life it increases by 25 cm. In the second year it increases by 10-15 cm, in the third year of life - by 8 cm. Then, until the age of 6 years, the annual increase in body length is 4-5 cm. The maximum growth rate is achieved in puberty period: body length can increase by 7-10 cm. Up to 10 years, boys are ahead of girls in growth. From the age of 11-12 years, the “first height cross” occurs: due to earlier pubertal acceleration, girls become taller than boys. Later, when boys enter the pubertal phase of accelerated growth processes (usually two years later than girls), a “second growth crossover” occurs, then boys again become taller than girls. On average, for Russian children living in cities, the crossovers of growth curves occur at 10 years 4 months. and 13 years 10 months. respectively ( Nikityuk, Readers, 1990). Intergroup differences usually do not exceed 6 months.
An increase in body length by 7-10 cm at 6-7 years of age is called half-height(or first growth) leap. During puberty (11-14 years) occurs height(second height), or pubertal,leap. Body length increases immediately during the first year by 11-12 cm, and in the last year by 6-7 cm. In Fig. Figure 4 shows a graph of changes in growth rates with age, which clearly shows a sharp increase in growth rate in the period from 12 to 16 years (pubertal growth spurt), as well as a slowdown in the decline in growth rate from 6 to 8 years (half-life growth spurt).
Rice. 4. Change in growth rate with age
The concept of ontogenesis, general patterns of ontogenesis.
Term ontogenesis(from the Greek ontos - existing and genesis - origin) was introduced into biology by the famous German naturalist of the 19th century. E. Haeckel. Currently, this term refers to the entire period of individual development of a living organism from the moment of fertilization of the egg to the natural end of life.
In ontogenesis, two relatively independent stages of development are distinguished:
embryonic (prenatal) And postembryonic (postnatal). The first period begins from the moment of conception and continues until the birth of the child, the second - from the moment of birth to the death of a person.
Thus, the true birth of a person occurs at the moment of conception, while the birth of a newborn marks only the end of the first stage of development - prenatal, which lasts on average 280 days.
A newly born person differs from an adult in a number of qualitative features and does not represent a simple smaller copy of him. And although a newborn has all the necessary set of morphological and functional properties that ensure its survival in certain, hereditarily programmed environmental conditions, its physiological capabilities are far from corresponding to the functional activity of an adult organism.
The time during which a developing child reaches the functional level of an adult, taking into account the basic physiological indicators of the human body (functioning of the circulatory, digestive, nervous systems, etc.) is 16-20 years.
Basic patterns of ontogenesis.
1. The principle of systemogenesis and accelerated development of organs and functional systems. Questions of the theory of functional systems and features of their formation in the process of ontogenesis, i.e. features of systemogenesis were developed by the famous Soviet physiologist Academician P.K. Anokhin (1898-1974) and his students and followers.
Functional system called the temporary unification of various organs of the child’s body, aimed at achieving a result useful for the existence of the organism. For example, the sucking reflex in a newborn is carried out by a special functional system, which includes various muscle groups and associations of nerve cells that regulate their contractions. The main importance for combining organs into a functional system is not their anatomical proximity, but the need to carry out activities vital for the body.
In the process of teaching a child writing, reading, personal hygiene skills, etc. the formation of functional systems that include various organs is also required.
Thus, in the process of human ontogenesis, the formation of countless different functional systems in his body is possible, providing him with optimal interaction with environmental factors. An important biological feature in the development of children is that the formation of their functional systems occurs much earlier than they need. In the functional system that provides the child with the sucking reflex, the anatomical and physiological formation of its constituent organs and the system itself occurs long before the birth of the child.
The principle of accelerated development of organs and functional systems in children is a kind of “insurance” that nature gives to humans in case of unforeseen circumstances. For example, even in the case of premature birth, the newborn encounters the external environment “fully armed”, because he is already endowed with the most important function for his life, providing him with nutrition.
2. Heterochrony and harmonious development. The growth and development of all organs and physiological systems of children’s bodies does not occur simultaneously, i.e. heterochronically (from the Greek heteros - different, chronos - time.)
First of all, those organs whose functioning is vital for the body develop and improve. For example, the heart functions already in the third week of prenatal development, and the kidneys form much later and come into effect only in the newborn child.
Heterochronicity of development does not deny its harmony, since the non-simultaneous maturation of the morphofunctional systems of the child’s body provides him with the necessary mobility, reliable functioning of the entire organism and optimal (harmonious) interaction with environmental conditions that become more complex in the process of development.
Thus, the harmonious development is characterized by the fact that at each age stage of ontogenesis, the functional capabilities of the children’s body correspond to the requirements imposed on them by the environment.
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IGENERAL ISSUES OF AGE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY
General biological laws of the physical development of children and the basic patterns of growth and development of the body.
1. Somatoscopic indicators of physical development include
1 muscle development 2 posture condition
3 sexual development 4 body weight
5 standing height
2. The most adequate criteria for age periodization are
1 socio-pedagogical and sexual 2 chronological and socio-pedagogical
3 chronological and psychological 4 morpho-functional and psychological
3. Acceleration is understood as
1 slowdown in the rate of development of the body 2 average level of development
compared to previous
generation
3 accelerating the rate of development of the body 4 comprehensive development
compared to previous
generation
4. The conditional division of a person’s life into age stages is called
1 age certification 2 age periodization
3 age gradation 4 biological age classification
5. A synonym for the concept “calendar age” is
1 passport age 2 bone age
3 dental age 4 biological age
6. Qualitative functional changes in the body, leading to a complication of the organization and interaction of all its systems and regulatory processes are called
1 systemogenesis 2 tall
3 embryogenesis 4 development
7. One of the stages of ontogenesis is the _____________ period
1 puberty 2 fetal
3 prepubertal 4 postpubertal
8. The period of puberty is called
1 postpubertal 2 puberty
9. The developing organism of a child reaches the functional maturity of an adult within
1 16-20 years old 2 5-10 years
3 10-15 years 4 30 years
10. The laws of growth and development include
1 only harmony 2
11. To divide postnatal ontogenesis into perils, criteria are used
1 morphological, functional 2 only morphological
and psychological
3 only functional 4 only psychological
12. Establish a correspondence between a group of anthropometric characteristics and the corresponding indicators
1 Somatometric signs (V)
2 Physiometric signs (b)
3 Somatoscopic signs (A)
Possible answers:
a) posture
b) muscle strength of the hand
c) head circumference
13. Tests to determine somatic maturity include
1 memory study 2 filipino test
3 research on the development of the second 4 drawing by a child
handwriting signal system
14. Bone age is used to determine
1 biological age 2 somatometric indicators
3 calendar ages 4 somatoscopic indicators
15. In the process of ontogenesis, earlier maturation of vegetative centers for the regulation of functions compared to somatic ones is an example of __________ growth and development
1 reliability 3 continuity
3heterochrony 4 harmonies
16. Somatoscopic indicators of physical development include (several)…
1. standing height 2. sitting height
3.state of posture 4.development of the musculoskeletal system
5.sexual development
17. Establish a correspondence between a group of anthropometric characteristics and the corresponding indicators
1 Somatometric signs (V)
2 Physiometric signs (b)
3 Somatoscopic signs (A)
Answer options
a) sexual development
b) muscle strength of the hand
c) head circumference
18. Non-simultaneous maturation of various organs and systems is called (one)…..
1. harmony 2. reliability
3.heterochrony 4.homeostasis
1. V. P. Gundobin 2. I. P. Pavlov
3P.K. Anokhin 4.A.A.Markosyan
20. A person’s biological age is not determined by (one)…
1.skeletal maturity 2.dental maturity
3passport data 4 degrees of development of secondary
Sexual characteristics
21. The reliability of the growth and development of the organism is not related to (one)….
1. redundancy of structural elements 2. plasticity
3.presence of a reproductive system 4 duplication of functions
(for example, the presence of paired
Organs)
22. The most adequate method for determining the functional capabilities of the body is (one)…..
1.functional load method 2 observation
3. somatometry 4. somatoscopy
23.The science that studies the structure of the body, its organs and systems is called (one)….
1.anatomy 2 histology
3.cytology 4physiology
24.The stage of ontogenesis from the moment of conception to birth is called (one)….
1.postnatal 2 . prenatal
3.pubertal 4postpubertal
24. Compliance of the functional capabilities of the organism with the requirements imposed by the environment at each stage of ontogenesis is called (one)….
1. reliability 2 systemogenesis
3.hormoniousness 4 heterochronicity
25. Establish a correspondence between a group of anthropometric characteristics and the corresponding indicators
1. somatometric signs (A)
2 physiometric signs (V)
3 somatoscopic signs (With)
Answer options
a - standing height c - muscle strength of the hand c - posture
26.The medical criteria for school maturity do not include
1 health condition
27. Decreased motor activity is called
1. hypotension 2 hypothyroidism
3 hypoglycemia 4 physical inactivity
28. The adolescence period includes persons aged ____ years
1. 14-16 2 22-25
4 16-21
1early childhood 2 second childhood
3rd breast period 4th first childhood
30. Reliable growth and development of the body is ensured by ____________ functions and organs:
1 duplication only 2 plasticity only
3duplication, plasticity, redundancy 4 redundancy only
31. Vital capacity of the lungs (VC) consists of:
1 expiratory reserve volume 2 tidal volume
3 inspiratory reserve volumes 4 residual volume
5 air dead space
32.When measuring body length, the subject must touch the stadiometer stand
1 buttocks 2 heels
3 interscapular area 4 by the back of the head
33. The period of intrauterine development from 9 weeks to birth
1. fetal 2 germinal
3 pubertal 4 embryonic
34. Functional indicators of a child’s physical development include:
1chest excursion 2 head circumference
3 chest circumference 4 body length and weight
35. Body length changes most significantly in
1 old age 2 puberty
3 ages 5-7 years 4 first year of life
36.VC (vital capacity of the lungs) depends on
1 age 2 gender
3health conditions 4 temperament
5 emotional status
37. The period of puberty is called
1 postpubertal 2 puberty
3 prepubertal 4 prenatal
38.Calendar age is age
1 bone 2 teeth
3 passport 4 biological
39.Earlier maturation of autonomic centers for regulating functions compared to somatic ones is an example of ___________ growth and development
1 reliability 2 continuity
3 heterochronicities 4 harmonies
40. Anthropometric studies allow………..
1give a general assessment of the condition 2 evaluate creativity
physical development child
3 determine the degree 4 determine the degree
mental development mental development
41. Harmony is _________development
1 accelerated 2 medium
3 non-simultaneous maturation in ontogenesis 4 physiological compliance
Various organs and systems the body's capabilities and requirements,
demanded by the environment
42.One of the most commonly used tests for school maturity is
1 Rokeach method 2 Belgian test
3 proof test by Anfimov 4 Kern test modified by Irasek
43. A child is not considered ready for school if he
1 has no medical contraindications 2 according to biological age
2 scored 3-9 points on the Kern-Irasek test 4 scored more than 10 points
for the Kern-Irasek test
44.A synonym for the concept “calendar” age is
1 age of puberty 2 dental age
3chronological age 4 bone age
45.The science that studies the functions of the body is called (one)…
1.histology 2. physiology
3. anatomy 4 morphology
46.Individual development of an organism is called (one)….
1. phylogeny 2. anthropogenesis
3.systemogenesis 4. ontogeny
47.A child’s readiness for school is determined by (one)….
1.in terms of mental and 2.only according to physical level
physical development development
coordination abilities
3. only on the mental level 4. only on the coordination level
development of abilities
48. Physiometric characteristics include….
1.leg shape 2.body weight
3.hand muscle strength 4. chest circumference
49.The development of secondary sexual characteristics is regulated (one)….
1. nervous system 2. enzymes
3. somatotropin 4 sex hormones
50. The section of physiological science that studies biological patterns and mechanisms of growth and development is called
1 gerontology 2 embryology
3 age physiology 4 anthropology
51.Secondary sexual characteristics include...
1. sex hormones 2. genitals
52. Measuring the vital capacity of the lungs in children is possible
1 from birth 2 from 1 year
3 after 4-5 years 4 after 7-8 years
52.Growth and development occur in the body
1 only in the postnatal period 2 only in the critical period
Periods of ontogenesis
3continuously throughout ontogenesis 4 only in perinatal
53 The vital capacity of the lungs depends on
1 hand muscle strength 2 ages
3 deadlift strength 4 age
54. During an anthropometric study, body weight is determined using medical scales
1 without clothes 2 without shoes
3fasting in the morning 4 before going to bed
5after eating
55. A person’s biological age is determined
1 degree of maturation of morphofunctional 2nd level of development
and psychophysiological qualities of the individual endocrine glands
3 harmonious development of the body 4 development of secondary sex organs
Signs
56. Sexual demorphism is taken into account during the period of ontogenesis
1 only for infants 2 only for teenagers
3 at a certain age 4 always
57. Using somatometric techniques it is impossible to determine
1 head circumference 2 muscle strength
3 chest circumference 4 body length
58. The concept of growth includes
1 weight gain 2 formation of posture
3 increase in vital capacity of the lungs 4 increase in muscle strength
59. According to age periodization, an eighty-year-old person belongs to the period of __________ in age
1 senile 2 elderly
3 elderly 4 mature
60. Establish a correspondence between a group of anthropometric characteristics and the corresponding indicators
1 Somatometric signs (V)
2 Physiometric signs (b)
3 Somatoscopic signs (A)
Answer options
a) sexual development
b) muscle strength of the hand
c) head circumference
61. In the process of ontogenesis, earlier maturation of vegetative centers for the regulation of functions compared to somatic ones is an example of __________ growth and development
1 reliability 3 continuity
3heterochrony 4 harmonies
62. In the process of ontogenesis
1 medium muscles mature later 2 large muscles mature later
3 small muscles mature later 4maturation of all muscle groups
Happens simultaneously
63. The laws of growth and development include
1 only harmony 2 harmony, reliability, heterochrony
3 heterochronicity only 4 reliability only
64. One of the stages of ontogenesis is the _____________ period
1 puberty 2 fetal
prepubertal 4 postpubertal
1. visual area of the cerebral cortex 2 sticks
3 optic nerve 4 cones
66.In the process of ontogenesis, the following mature later:
1 large muscles 2 small muscles
3 middle muscles 4 maturation of all muscles
Happens simultaneously
67. From the point of view of saving energy costs, it is advisable to _________________________ the nature of ripening:
1 individual 2 simultaneous (synchronous)
3 sequential (heterochronic) 4 corresponding to passport age
68. The critical period for the formation of involuntary attention, when the indicative reaction acquires features of an exploratory nature, is:
1 1 year 2 6-7 years
3 2-3 months 4 2-3 years
69. The periods of greatest sensitivity of the body to the effects of environmental factors are called……
3sensitive 4 adaptive
70. Retardation is called __________ development
1 accelerated 2 slow motion
3 average 4 comprehensive
71. Decisive importance in the formation of a child’s speech is
1 communication with peers 2 communication with adults
3 level of somatic maturity 4 maturity of the reticular formation
72.In accordance with socio-pedagogical criteria, the ____________period of ontogenesis is distinguished
1 preschool 2 youth
3 breast 4 teenage
73. Physiometric indicators of physical development include
1 back strength 2body weight
3 posture 4 vital capacity
5 chest excursion
74. Children with functional impairments belong to__ health group
1 first 2 second
3 fourth 4 fifth
75.The general properties of the body do not include
1 ability to regenerate 2 ability to grow and develop
3 metabolism and energy 4 irritability
76. The general properties of the body do not include
1 movement ability 2 ability to adapt
3 metabolism and energy 4 ability to grow and develop
77. The totality of all genes of a given organism is called
1 genotype 2normal reaction
3 phenotype 4 mutation
78.The medical criteria for school maturity do not include
1 health condition Level 2 biological development
3 level of physical development 4 level of mental development
79.In the process of ontogenesis
1 middle muscles mature earlier 2 larger ones ripen earlier
muscles
3 small muscles mature earlier 4 maturation of all muscle groups
Happens simultaneously
80. The reason for the child’s slow development cannot (cannot) be
1 lack of social contacts 2 sensory deprivation
3 sensory enriched environment 4 genetic factors
81. Secondary sexual characteristics are not considered
1 gonads 2 hair features
3 anatomical features of the body 4 sexual desire
To the opposite sex
82. Deficiency of sensory information in early postnatal ontogenesis leads to a violation
1 metabolism 2 formation of communicative behavior
3 homeostasis 4 formation of the immune system
83. The psychological and pedagogical criteria of school maturity do not include
1 somatic maturity 2 memory development
3 psychosocial maturity 4 mental performance
84.The ability of an organism to transmit its characteristics, properties and developmental characteristics to subsequent generations is called
1 heredity 2 reproduction
85. The concept of growth is not associated with processes of increase
1 2 number of cells
3 body length 4 body weight
86. Processes of dissimilation prevail over processes of assimilation
1 in children and adolescents 2 at all stages of ontogenesis
3 in adulthood 4 in aging people
87. Assessment of indicators of physical development is carried out on a 5-point scale, in which there is no level
1 medium 2 high
3 low 4 very low
88. The subcellular levels of organization of the human body include the level
1 biochemical 2 cell
3 tissue 4 organ
89. School maturity presupposes___________ the child’s readiness for systematic learning
1 physical (somatic) 2speculative
3 psychological 4 virtual
5social
90. In contrast to “intra-group” acceleration, “epoch-making” acceleration is taken to mean
1 delayed development compared to 2 delayed development compared
with the previous generation with peers of the same generation
3 accelerated development compared to 4 accelerated development compared
peers of their generation with the previous generation
91. Sex differences in body structure appear in the __________ period
1 puberty 2 youth
3 prenatal 4 postnatal
92. Protein synthesis occurs at the __________ level
1 molecular 2 fabric
3 organ 4 system
93. The set of processes for the synthesis of complex organic substances carried out with energy expenditure is called
1 metabolism 2 dissimilation
3 assimilation 4 main exchange
94. A person’s daily intake of carbohydrates is approximately:
1 50-100 gr. 2 100-200 gr.
3 800-12000 g 4 300-500 gr.
95. Protein synthesis occurs in:
1 mitochondria 2 nucleus
3 Golgi complex 4 ribosomes
96. The relative constancy of the internal environment of the body is called
1 homeostasis 2 orthostasis
3 hemostasis 4 hematocrit
97. The ability of an organism to transmit its characteristics, properties and developmental features to subsequent generations is called
1 heredity 2 reproduction
3 reaction norm 4 variability
98. The process of substances entering the body, processing and removal of final waste products is called
1 metabolism 2 powered
3 by excretion 4 by breathing
99. Humoral translated from Latin means
1. liquid 2 endocrine
3 tissue 4 energy
100. Breast milk has immune properties because it contains
1 vitamins 2 antibodies
3 lactose 4 emulsified fats
101. Differences in sexual behavior appear with age
1 preschool 2. Mature
3 teenage 4 youth
102. Participates in maintaining homeostasis
1 nervous system only 2 endocrine system only
3 immune system only 4. nervous, endocrine, immune
103. The principles of hardening do not include
1 systematicity 2 complexity
3 single exposure to hardening factors 4 gradualism
104 After vaccination, the child is immune
1 natural active 2 artificial passive
3artificial active 4 natural passive
105. The most informative indicator for determining biological age in adolescence is (are)
1 dental maturity 2 mental maturity
3 bone maturity 4 external sexual characteristics
106. The relative constancy of the internal environment of the body is
1 orthostasis 2 hematocrit
3 hemostasis 4 homeostasis
107 The most informative indicator for determining biological age in adolescence is
1 dental maturity 2 bone maturity
3 external sexual characteristics 4 mental maturity
108 The characteristics of an organism that are largely determined by the external environment include
1 blood group 2 muscle strength of the hand
3facial features 4hemophilia
109 The term “humoral” translated from Latin means:
1 chemical 2 physical
3 mechanical 4 liquid
110. The psychological and pedagogical criteria of school maturity do not include the level of:
1 somatic maturity 2 psychosocial maturity
3 mental maturity 4 memory development
111. Limitation of a child’s motor activity leads to (one)…
1. acceleration of nervous development 2. acceleration of respiratory development
systems systems
3. inhibition of nervous development 4. Developmental inhibition of the excretor no system systems
112The periods of greatest sensitivity of the body to the effects of environmental factors are called......
3sensitive 4 adaptive
113The interaction and communication of children with each other and children with adults contributes to the development of __________ behavior
1. social 2 associative
3 motivational 4 adaptive
114. Natural active acquired immunity occurs in a child
1 as a result of vaccination 2 after an infectious disease
diseases
3 when fed with breast milk 4 as a result of the introduction of whey
115. Mechanisms for regulating posture and implementing a sequence of serial movements are maturing
1 during second childhood 2 in adolescence
3 during early childhood 4 at the beginning of infancy
116. The concept of growth is not associated with processes of increase
1 cell functionality 2 number of cells
3 body length 4 body weight
IISENSORY FUNCTIONS
Anatomy, physiology of sensory systems.
1. The pupil is an opening in
1 cornea 2 iris of the eyeball
3 retina 4 lens
2. The sense organ is
1 eye 2 organ of Corti
3 receptor 4 retina
3. External analyzers include
1 gustatory 2 motor
3 interoroceptive 4 vestibular
4. The optical system of the eye is not included
1 pupil 2 vitreous
3 lens 4 cornea
5. The middle ear is not part of
1 anvil 2 snail
3 hammer 4 stirrup
6. A strong adaptation of the analyzer to the strength and duration of the stimulus is called
1 adaptation 2 aftereffect
7. The greatest hearing acuity is characteristic of6
1 adult 2 teenagers
3 newborns 4 preschoolers
8. Rays from the object in question intersect in front of the retina
1 for astigmatism 2 for myopia
3 normal 4 with farsightedness
9. Extra-receptors include receptors of the analyzer
1 vestibular 2 motor
3 visual 4 visceral
10. The optical system of the eye includes
1 pupil 2 iris
3 retina 4 lens
11.Amplification of sound vibrations is provided by
1 middle and inner ear 2 outer and inner ear
3 external and middle ear 4 cochlea and vestibular apparatus
12. The cornea is the anterior part
1 retina 2 lenses
3 outer shells (sclera) 4 choroid
13. The specific effect of noise manifests itself in
1 increasing hearing threshold 2 changes in the operation of the central
sensitivity nervous system
3 endocrine disorders 4 changes in cardiac function
Vascular system
14. If a child bows his head strongly when writing, then he has
1 myopia 2 astigmatism
3 strabismus 4 farsightedness
15. Fluid fluctuations in the cochlea lead to
1 irritation of auditory receptors 2 vibration of the eardrum
3 vibration of the auditory ossicles 4 vibration of the oval window
16. “Apparent” myopia in children is associated with
1 high elasticity of the lens 2 corneal defect
3 small size of the eyeball 4 disturbance of accommodation
17. The nonspecific effect of noise appears
1 in lowering the hearing threshold 2 changes in cardio work
sensitivity vascular system
3 the appearance of hearing loss 4 an increase in the threshold of hearing sensitivity
18. The presence of astigmatism is determined by imperfection
1 cornea 2 lenses
3 vitreous 4 retina
19. They are not classified as sense organs.
1 eye 2 muscle spindle
3 ear 4 skin
20. Minimal hearing acuity is noted
1 in newborns 2 at 14-17 years old
3 at 30 years old 4 at 2-3 years old
21. The optical system of the eyeball is not included
1 vitreous 2 retina
3 cornea 4 lens
22. Low hearing acuity in newborns is explained by the fact that their middle ear cavity is filled
1 connective tissue 2 fluid
3 epithelial tissue 4 air
23. Photosensitive receptors are located in
1 tunica albuginea 2 retina
3blind spot 4choroid
24. External analyzers include
1 vestibular 2 interoceptive
3 auditory 4 motor
25. The general properties of sensory systems do not include:
1 coordination 2 high sensitivity
3 aftereffect 4 adaptation
26.The ________ section of the analyzer (one) matures first of all in the process of ontogenesis….
1.cortical 2.conductor
3.subcortical 4receptor
27.Color vision is provided by (one)….
1.hair cells 2.rods and cones
3.cones 4 sticks
28.Receptors that perceive sound are located in (one)….
1.outer ear 2 eardrum
3.cochlea of the inner ear 4middle ear
29.Natural farsightedness in children is associated with (one)….
1. large size of the eyeball 2 violation of accommodation
3small size of the eyeball 4corneal defect
30. The structure of sensory systems (analyzers) is represented by a set of _________ links…..
1.receptor and conductor 2. receptor, conductor
cortical
3.cortical and central 4 receptor and peripheral
31. The receptors of the visual analyzer are (one)……
1.hair cells 2. rods and cones
3 free nerve endings 4. Pacinian corpuscles
32. The auditory cortex is located in (one)….
1.frontal 2 .temporal
3.occipital 4 parietal
33.The characteristics of illumination do not include (one)…..
1. illumination level 2. light coefficient
3.shading coefficient 4.aeration coefficient
34. In ontogenesis, the ___________ department of the analyzer (one) matures the last...
1 conductor 2. subcortical
3.receptor 4 cortical
35. The cortical end of the visual analyzer is located in the __________ lobe of the cerebral hemispheres (one)…
1.occipital 2 temporal
3.parietal 4frontal
36.Receptors that perceive sound are located in (in) (one)….
1. eardrum 2. auditory tube
3.inner ear 4. middle ear
37. With farsightedness, the rays are focused (one)….
1. on the iris 2. on the retina
3.behind the retina 4in front of the retina
38.Higher analysis of auditory information occurs in:
1 auditory nerve 2 organ of Corti
3 eardrum 4 temporal region of the cerebral cortex
39. A change in the curvature of the lens occurs due to the work of:
1 smooth muscle of the iris 2 orbicularis oculi muscle
3 muscles that move the eyeball 4 ciliary muscle choroid
membranes of the eyeball
40. During accommodation there is
1 change in lens curvature 2 constriction of the pupil
3 pupil dilation 4 change in receptor sensitivity threshold
41. Rays from the object in question intersect behind the retina when
1 astigmatism 2 farsightedness
3 myopia 4 normal
43. The visual analyzer does not include:
1 rods and cones 2 organ of corti
3 sensory area of the cerebral hemispheres 4 optic nerve
44. Factors in the development of myopia in children do not include:
1duration and intensity 2 temperature mode
study load study room
3 insufficient lighting for the worker 4 decreased tone
places of eye muscles
45.Photoreceptors are located in
1 retina 2 tunica albuginea
3lens 4choroid
46. The group of interoreceptors includes the receptors of the ____________ analyzer:
1 visual 2 visceral
3 vestibular 4 motor
47. The function of sound perception is performed by:
1 retina 2 otolith organ
3 organ of corti 4 auditory nerve
48. The occurrence of myopia is promoted by:
1 well-lit work area 2 reading in transport
3 correct reading position 4 hygienically sound
49. The group of exteroceptors does not include the receptors of the _________ analyzer
1 motor 2 visceral
3 visual 4 vestibular
50. During ontogenesis, it matures the last.
The term ontogenesis (from the Greek ontos - existence and genesis - origin) was introduced into biology by the famous German naturalist of the 19th century. E. Haeckel. Currently, this term refers to the entire period of individual development of a living being from the moment of fertilization of the egg to the natural end of individual life. In ontogenesis, two relatively independent stages of development are distinguished: prenatal and postnatal. The first begins from the moment of conception and continues until the birth of the child, the second - from the moment of birth to the death of a person. Consequently, death is only one of the moments of life and represents a long process of its denial. F. Engels wrote: “Even now, physiology that does not consider death as an essential moment of life is no longer considered scientific... which does not understand that the negation of life is essentially contained in life itself, so that life is always thought of in relation with its necessary result, which is always in embryo - death. The dialectical understanding of life comes down to precisely this." "Thus, the true birth of a person occurs at the moment of conception, while the appearance of a newborn marks only the end of the first stage of development - prenatal, which lasts on average 280 days. With the birth of a child, development continues in throughout the entire postnatal stage, in which, in turn, one can distinguish early, mature and final (aging period) stages of development. A newly born person differs from an adult in a number of qualitative features and does not represent his simple reduced copy. And although a newborn has everything the necessary set of morphological and functional properties that ensure its survival in certain, hereditarily programmed environmental conditions, its physiological capabilities are far from corresponding to the functional activity of an adult organism.The time during which a developing child reaches the functional level of an adult, if we take into account the basic physiological indicators of the human body ( functioning of the blood, circulatory, digestive, nervous, etc. systems is 16-20 years. For example, only by the age of 20 does the formation of the endocrine and nervous systems end in a person. For teachers, this stage of human ontogenesis (from birth to 18-20 years) is especially interesting, since the functional characteristics of the child’s body make it most sensitive to pedagogical influences, and it is during this period that the most intensive physical development and formation of the human psyche occurs.