Isaac Newton was born December 25, 1642 (or January 4, 1643 according to the Gregorian calendar) in the village of Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire.
Young Isaac, according to contemporaries, was distinguished by a gloomy, withdrawn character. He preferred reading books and making primitive technical toys to boyish pranks and pranks.
When Isaac was 12 years old, he entered the Grantham School. The extraordinary abilities of the future scientist were discovered there.
In 1659, at the urging of his mother, Newton was forced to return home to farm. But thanks to the efforts of teachers who were able to see the future genius, he returned to school. In 1661, Newton continued his education at the University of Cambridge.
College education
In April 1664, Newton successfully passed his exams and acquired a higher student level. During his studies, he was actively interested in the works of G. Galileo, N. Copernicus, as well as the atomistic theory of Gassendi.
In the spring of 1663, lectures by I. Barrow began at the new mathematical department. The famous mathematician and prominent scientist later became a close friend of Newton. It was thanks to him that Isaac's interest in mathematics increased.
While in college, Newton came up with his basic mathematical method, the expansion of a function into an infinite series. At the end of the same year, I. Newton received a bachelor's degree.
Notable discoveries
studying short biography Isaac Newton, you should know that it is he who owns the exposition of the law gravity. Another important discovery of the scientist is the theory of the motion of celestial bodies. The 3 laws of mechanics discovered by Newton formed the basis of classical mechanics.
Newton made many discoveries in the field of optics and color theory. He developed many physical and mathematical theories. The scientific works of the outstanding scientist largely determined the time and were often incomprehensible to contemporaries.
His hypotheses regarding the oblateness of the Earth's poles, the phenomenon of light polarization and the deflection of light in the gravitational field still surprise scientists today.
In 1668 Newton received his master's degree. A year later he became a doctor of mathematical sciences. After he created the reflector, the forerunner of the telescope, the most important discoveries were made in astronomy.
Social activity
In 1689, as a result of a coup, King James II, with whom Newton had a conflict, was overthrown. After that, the scientist was elected to Parliament from the University of Cambridge, where he sat for about 12 months.
In 1679, Newton met C. Montagu, the future Earl of Halifax. Under Montagu's patronage, Newton was appointed Keeper of the Mint.
last years of life
In 1725, the health of the great scientist began to deteriorate rapidly. He passed away on March 20 (31), 1727, in Kensington. Death came in a dream. Isaac Newton was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Other biography options
- At the very beginning of his schooling, Newton was considered a very mediocre, perhaps the worst student. The moral trauma forced him to break out into the best when he was beaten by his tall and much stronger classmate.
- AT last years life, the great scientist wrote a certain book, which, in his opinion, should have become a kind of revelation. Unfortunately, the manuscripts are on fire. Due to the fault of the scientist's beloved dog, which overturned the lamp, the book disappeared in the fire.
Newton (symbol: N, N) is a unit of force in the SI system. 1 newton is equal to the force imparting to a body of mass 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s² in the direction of the force. Thus, 1 N \u003d 1 kg m / s². The unit is named after the English physicist Isaac ... ... Wikipedia
Siemens (symbol: Cm, S) SI unit of measurement of electrical conductivity, reciprocal of ohm. Before World War II (in the USSR until the 1960s), the Siemens was a unit of electrical resistance corresponding to resistance ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Tesla. Tesla (Russian designation: Тl; international designation: T) is a unit of measurement of induction magnetic field in international system units (SI), numerically equal to induction such ... ... Wikipedia
Sievert (symbol: Sv, Sv) unit of measurement of effective and equivalent doses ionizing radiation in the International System of Units (SI), has been used since 1979. 1 sievert is the amount of energy absorbed by a kilogram ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Becquerel. Becquerel (symbol: Bq, Bq) is a measure of the activity of a radioactive source in the International System of Units (SI). One becquerel is defined as the activity of the source, in ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Siemens. Siemens (Russian designation: Sm; international designation: S) is a unit of measurement of electrical conductivity in the International System of Units (SI), the reciprocal of ohm. Through others ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Pascal (meanings). Pascal (symbol: Pa, international: Pa) is a unit of pressure (mechanical stress) in the International System of Units (SI). Pascal is equal to pressure ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Gray. Gray (symbol: Gy, Gy) is a unit of measurement of the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation in the International System of Units (SI). The absorbed dose is equal to one gray if as a result ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Weber. Weber (symbol: Wb, Wb) is a unit of measurement of magnetic flux in the SI system. By definition, a change in magnetic flux through a closed loop at a rate of one weber per second induces ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Henry. Henry (Russian designation: Гн; international: H) is a unit of measurement of inductance in the International System of Units (SI). The circuit has an inductance of one henry if the current changes at a rate of ... ... Wikipedia
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1 centinewton [cN] = 0.01 newton [N]
Initial value
Converted value
newton exanewton petanewton teranewton giganewton meganewton kilonewton hectonewton decanewton decinewton centinewton millinewton micronewton nanonewton piconewton attonewton dyne joule per meter joule per centimeter gram-force kilogram-force ton-force (short) ton-force (long) ton-force (metric) -force kilopound-force pound-force ounce-force poundal pound-foot per sec² gram-force kilogram-force walls grav-force milligravity-force atomic unit of force
More about strength
General information
In physics, force is defined as a phenomenon that changes the motion of a body. This can be both the movement of the whole body and its parts, for example, during deformation. If, for example, a stone is lifted and then released, it will fall, because it is attracted to the ground by gravity. This force changed the movement of the stone - from a calm state, it moved into motion with acceleration. Falling, the stone will bend the grass to the ground. Here, a force called the weight of the stone changed the movement of the grass and its shape.
Force is a vector, that is, it has a direction. If several forces act simultaneously on a body, they can be in equilibrium if their vector sum is zero. In this case, the body is at rest. The rock in the previous example will probably roll on the ground after the collision, but will eventually stop. At this moment, the force of gravity will pull it down, and the force of elasticity, on the contrary, will push it up. The vector sum of these two forces is zero, so the rock is in balance and is not moving.
In the SI system, force is measured in newtons. One newton is the vectorial sum of forces that changes the speed of a one kilogram body by one meter per second in one second.
Archimedes was one of the first to study forces. He was interested in the influence of forces on bodies and matter in the Universe, and he built a model of this interaction. Archimedes believed that if the vector sum of the forces acting on a body is zero, then the body is at rest. Later it was proved that this is not entirely true, and that bodies in equilibrium can also move at a constant speed.
Basic forces in nature
It is forces that move bodies, or make them stay in place. There are four main forces in nature: gravity, electromagnetic interaction, strong and weak interaction. They are also known as fundamental interactions. All other forces are derivatives of these interactions. Strong and weak interactions affect bodies in the microcosm, while gravitational and electro magnetic impact operate over long distances.
Strong interaction
The most intense of the interactions is the strong nuclear force. The connection between the quarks that form neutrons, protons, and the particles that consist of them, arises precisely due to the strong interaction. The motion of gluons, structureless elementary particles, is caused by strong interaction, and is transmitted to quarks due to this motion. Without the strong force, matter would not exist.
Electromagnetic interaction
The electromagnetic interaction is the second largest. It occurs between particles with opposite charges that are attracted to each other, and between particles with the same charges. If both particles have a positive or negative charge, they repel each other. The movement of the particles that occurs is electricity, physical phenomenon which we use every day Everyday life and in technology.
Chemical reactions, light, electricity, the interaction between molecules, atoms and electrons - all these phenomena occur due to the electromagnetic interaction. Electromagnetic forces prevent the penetration of one solid body into another, since the electrons of one body repel the electrons of the other body. Initially, it was believed that electric and magnetic influences are two different forces, but later scientists discovered that this is a kind of one and the same interaction. Electromagnetic interaction is easy to see with a simple experiment: pulling off a wool sweater over your head, or rubbing your hair against a woolen cloth. Most bodies are neutrally charged, but rubbing one surface against another can change the charge on those surfaces. In this case, electrons move between two surfaces, being attracted to electrons with opposite charges. When there are more electrons on the surface, the total surface charge also changes. Hair "standing on end" when a person removes a sweater is an example of this phenomenon. The electrons on the surface of the hair are more strongly attracted to the c atoms on the surface of the sweater than the electrons on the surface of the sweater are attracted to the atoms on the surface of the hair. As a result, the electrons are redistributed, which leads to the appearance of a force that attracts the hair to the sweater. In this case, hair and other charged objects are attracted not only to surfaces with not only opposite but also neutral charges.
Weak interaction
The weak nuclear force is weaker than the electromagnetic force. Just as the motion of gluons causes a strong interaction between quarks, so the motion of W and Z bosons causes a weak interaction. Bosons - emitted or absorbed elementary particles. W-bosons participate in nuclear decay, and Z-bosons do not affect other particles with which they come into contact, but only transfer momentum to them. Due to the weak interaction, it is possible to determine the age of matter using the method of radiocarbon analysis. Age archaeological finds can be determined by measuring the content of radioactive carbon isotope in relation to stable carbon isotopes in the organic material of this find. To do this, a pre-cleaned small fragment of a thing is burned, the age of which needs to be determined, and, thus, carbon is mined, which is then analyzed.
Gravitational interaction
The weakest interaction is gravitational. It determines the position of astronomical objects in the universe, causes the tides to ebb and flow, and because of it, thrown bodies fall to the ground. The gravitational force, also known as the force of attraction, pulls bodies towards each other. The greater the mass of the body, the stronger this force. Scientists believe that this force, like other interactions, arises due to the movement of particles, gravitons, but so far they have not been able to find such particles. The movement of astronomical objects depends on the force of gravity, and the trajectory of motion can be determined by knowing the mass of the surrounding astronomical objects. It was with the help of such calculations that scientists discovered Neptune even before they saw this planet through a telescope. The trajectory of Uranus could not be explained by gravitational interactions between planets and stars known at that time, so scientists assumed that the movement occurs under the influence of the gravitational force of an unknown planet, which was later proven.
According to the theory of relativity, the force of attraction changes the space-time continuum - the four-dimensional space-time. According to this theory, space is curved by the force of gravity, and this curvature is greater near bodies with greater mass. This is usually more noticeable near large bodies such as planets. This curvature has been proven experimentally.
The force of attraction causes acceleration in bodies flying towards other bodies, for example, falling to the Earth. Acceleration can be found using Newton's second law, so it is known for planets whose mass is also known. For example, bodies falling to the ground fall at an acceleration of 9.8 meters per second.
Ebb and flow
An example of the action of the force of attraction is the ebbs and flows. They arise due to the interaction of the forces of attraction of the Moon, the Sun and the Earth. Unlike solids, water easily changes shape when a force is applied to it. Therefore, the forces of attraction of the Moon and the Sun attract water more strongly than the surface of the Earth. The movement of water caused by these forces follows the movement of the Moon and the Sun relative to the Earth. This is the ebb and flow, and the forces that arise in this case are tide-forming forces. Since the Moon is closer to the Earth, the tides depend more on the Moon than on the Sun. When the tide-forming forces of the Sun and the Moon are equally directed, the greatest tide occurs, called the syzygy tide. The smallest tide, when tide-forming forces act in different directions, is called quadrature.
The frequency of flushes depends on geographical location water mass. The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun pull not only water, but the Earth itself, so in some places tides occur when the Earth and water are attracted in one direction, and when this attraction occurs in opposite directions. In this case, high tide occurs twice a day. In other places it happens once a day. Ebb and flow depends on coastline, ocean tides in the area, and the positions of the Moon and Sun, as well as the interaction of their attractive forces. In some places, high and low tides occur every few years. Depending on the structure of the coastline and on the depth of the ocean, tides can affect currents, storms, change in wind direction and strength, and change atmospheric pressure. Some places use special clocks to determine the next high or low tide. Having set them up in one place, you have to set them up again when you move to another place. Such clocks do not work everywhere, as in some places it is impossible to accurately predict the next high and low tide.
The power of moving water during high and low tides has been used by man since ancient times as a source of energy. Tidal mills consist of a water reservoir, which is filled with water at high tide and discharged at low tide. The kinetic energy of water drives the mill wheel, and the resulting energy is used to do work, such as grinding flour. There are a number of problems with the use of this system, such as environmental ones, but despite this - tides are a promising, reliable and renewable source of energy.
Other powers
According to the theory of fundamental interactions, all other forces in nature are derivatives of four fundamental interactions.
Force of normal support reaction
The force of the normal reaction of the support is the force of counteraction of the body to the load from the outside. It is perpendicular to the surface of the body and directed against the force acting on the surface. If the body lies on the surface of another body, then the force of the normal reaction of the support of the second body is equal to the vector sum of the forces with which the first body presses on the second. If the surface is vertical to the surface of the Earth, then the force of the normal reaction of the support is directed opposite to the force of gravity of the Earth, and is equal to it in magnitude. In this case, their vector force is zero and the body is at rest or moving at a constant speed. If this surface has a slope with respect to the Earth, and all other forces acting on the first body are in equilibrium, then the vector sum of the gravity and normal reaction forces of the support is directed downward, and the first body slides on the surface of the second.
Friction force
The force of friction acts parallel to the surface of the body, and opposite to its movement. It occurs when one body moves along the surface of another, when their surfaces are in contact (sliding or rolling friction). Friction also occurs between two bodies at rest if one lies on an inclined surface of the other. In this case, this is the static friction force. This force is widely used in technology and in everyday life, for example, when moving vehicles with the help of wheels. The surface of the wheels interacts with the road and the friction force does not allow the wheels to slide on the road. To increase friction, rubber tires are put on the wheels, and in icy conditions, chains are put on the tires to increase friction even more. Therefore, without the force of friction, transport is impossible. The friction between the rubber of the tires and the road ensures the normal driving of the car. The rolling friction force is smaller than the dry sliding friction force, so the latter is used during braking, allowing you to quickly stop the car. In some cases, on the contrary, friction interferes, because it wears out the rubbing surfaces. Therefore, it is removed or minimized with the help of a liquid, since liquid friction is much weaker than dry friction. That is why mechanical parts, such as a bicycle chain, are often lubricated with oil.
Forces can deform solid bodies, as well as change the volume of liquids and gases and the pressure in them. This occurs when the action of a force is distributed unevenly over a body or substance. If a large enough force acts on a heavy body, it can be compressed into a very small ball. If the size of the ball is less than a certain radius, then the body becomes a black hole. This radius depends on the mass of the body and is called Schwarzschild radius. The volume of this ball is so small that, compared to the mass of the body, it is almost zero. The mass of black holes is concentrated in such an insignificantly small space that they have a huge force of attraction, which attracts to itself all bodies and matter within a certain radius from the black hole. Even light is attracted to a black hole and doesn't bounce off it, which is why black holes are indeed black - and are named accordingly. Scientists believe that large stars turn into black holes at the end of their lives and grow, absorbing surrounding objects within a certain radius.
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We are all accustomed in life to use the word strength in comparative terms, saying men are stronger than women, a tractor is stronger than a car, a lion is stronger than an antelope.
Force in physics is defined as a measure of the change in the speed of a body that occurs when bodies interact. If force is a measure, and we can compare the application of different forces, then it is a physical quantity that can be measured. In what units is force measured?
Force units
In honor of the English physicist Isaac Newton, who did tremendous research into the nature of existence and use various kinds force, the unit of force in physics is 1 newton (1 N). What is a force of 1 N? In physics, one does not simply choose units of measurement, but makes a special agreement with those units that have already been adopted.
We know from experience and experiments that if a body is at rest and a force acts on it, then the body under the influence of this force changes its speed. Accordingly, to measure the force, a unit was chosen that would characterize the change in the speed of the body. And do not forget that there is also the mass of the body, since it is known that with the same force the impact on different objects will be different. We can throw the ball far, but the cobblestone will fly away a much shorter distance. That is, taking into account all the factors, we come to the definition that a force of 1 N will be applied to the body if a body with a mass of 1 kg under the influence of this force changes its speed by 1 m / s in 1 second.
Gravity unit
We are also interested in the unit of gravity. Since we know that the Earth attracts to itself all the bodies on its surface, then there is a force of attraction and it can be measured. And again, we know that the force of attraction depends on the mass of the body. The greater the mass of the body, the stronger the Earth attracts it. It has been experimentally established that The force of gravity acting on a body of mass 102 grams is 1 N. And 102 grams is approximately one tenth of a kilogram. And to be more precise, if 1 kg is divided into 9.8 parts, then we will just get approximately 102 grams.
If a force of 1 N acts on a body weighing 102 grams, then a force of 9.8 N acts on a body weighing 1 kg. The acceleration of free fall is denoted by the letter g. And g is 9.8 N/kg. This is the force that acts on a body of mass 1 kg, accelerating it every second by 1 m / s. It turns out that the body falling from high altitude, during the flight is gaining a very high speed. Why then do snowflakes and raindrops fall quite calmly? They have a very small mass, and the earth pulls them towards itself very weakly. And the air resistance for them is quite large, so they fly to the Earth with not very high, rather the same speed. But meteorites, for example, when approaching the Earth, gain a very high speed and when they land, a decent explosion is formed, which depends on the size and mass of the meteorite, respectively.
Physics as a science that studies the laws of our universe, uses a standard research methodology and certain system units of measure. it is customary to denote N (newton). What is strength, how to find and measure it? Let's explore this issue in more detail.
Isaac Newton is an outstanding English scientist of the 17th century who made an invaluable contribution to the development of the exact mathematical sciences. It is he who is the forefather of classical physics. He managed to describe the laws that govern even huge celestial bodies, and small grains of sand carried away by the wind. One of his main discoveries is the law of universal gravitation and the three basic laws of mechanics that describe the interaction of bodies in nature. Later, other scientists were able to derive the laws of friction, rest and sliding only thanks to scientific discoveries Isaac Newton.
A bit of theory
A physical quantity was named after the scientist. Newton is a unit of measure for force. The very definition of force can be described as follows: "force is a quantitative measure of the interaction between bodies, or a quantity that characterizes the degree of intensity or tension of bodies."
Force is measured in Newtons for a reason. It was this scientist who created three unshakable "power" laws that are relevant to this day. Let's study them with examples.
First Law
For a complete understanding of the questions: "What is a newton?", "The unit of measurement of what?" and "What is its physical meaning?", it is worth carefully studying the three main
The first says that if other bodies do not exert any influence on the body, then it will be at rest. And if the body was in motion, then in the complete absence of any action on it, it will continue its uniform motion in a straight line.
Imagine that a certain book with a certain mass lies on a flat table surface. Denoting all the forces acting on it, we get that this is the force of gravity, which is directed vertically downwards, and (in this case, the table), directed vertically upwards. Since both forces balance each other's actions, the magnitude of the resultant force is zero. According to Newton's first law, this is the reason why the book is at rest.
Second law
It describes the relationship between the force acting on a body and the acceleration it receives due to the applied force. Isaac Newton, when formulating this law, was the first to use the constant value of mass as a measure of the manifestation of inertia and inertia of a body. Inertia is the ability or property of bodies to maintain their original position, that is, to resist external influences.
The second law is often described by the following formula: F = a*m; where F is the resultant of all forces applied to the body, a is the acceleration received by the body, and m is the mass of the body. The force is ultimately expressed in kg * m / s 2. This expression is usually denoted in newtons.
What is a newton in physics, what is the definition of acceleration and how is it related to force? These questions are answered by the formula of the second law of mechanics. It should be understood that this law only works for those bodies that move at speeds much less than the speed of light. At speeds close to the speed of light, slightly different laws work, adapted by a special section of physics about the theory of relativity.
Newton's third law
This is perhaps the most understandable and simple law that describes the interaction of two bodies. He says that all forces arise in pairs, that is, if one body acts on another with a certain force, then the second body, in turn, also acts on the first with an equal force.
The very wording of the law by scientists is as follows: "... the interactions of two bodies on each other are equal to each other, but at the same time they are directed in opposite directions."
Let's see what a newton is. In physics, it is customary to consider everything on specific phenomena, so we will give several examples that describe the laws of mechanics.
- Aquatic animals like ducks, fish or frogs move in or through water precisely by interacting with it. Newton's third law says that when one body acts on another, a counteraction always arises, which is equivalent in strength to the first, but directed in the opposite direction. Based on this, we can conclude that the movement of ducks occurs due to the fact that they push the water back with their paws, and they themselves swim forward due to the response of the water.
- squirrel wheel - a prime example proof of Newton's third law. Everyone probably knows what a squirrel wheel is. This is a fairly simple design, reminiscent of both a wheel and a drum. It is installed in cages so that pets like squirrels or decorative rats can run around. The interaction of two bodies, the wheel and the animal, causes both of these bodies to move. Moreover, when the squirrel runs fast, then the wheel spins at high speed, and when it slows down, the wheel starts spinning more slowly. This once again proves that action and counteraction are always equal to each other, although they are directed in opposite directions.
- Everything that moves on our planet moves only due to the "response action" of the Earth. It may seem strange, but in fact, when walking, we are only exerting effort to push the ground or any other surface. And we move forward, because the earth pushes us in response.
What is a newton: a unit of measurement or a physical quantity?
The very definition of "newton" can be described as follows: "it is a unit of measurement of force." But what is its physical meaning? So, based on Newton's second law, this is a derivative quantity, which is defined as a force capable of changing the speed of a body with a mass of 1 kg by 1 m / s in just 1 second. It turns out that Newton is that is, it has its own direction. When we apply a force to an object, for example, pushing a door, we simultaneously set the direction of movement, which, according to the second law, will be the same as the direction of the force.
If you follow the formula, it turns out that 1 Newton \u003d 1 kg * m / s 2. When solving various problems in mechanics, it is very often necessary to convert newtons to other quantities. For convenience, when finding certain values, it is recommended to remember the basic identities that connect newtons with other units:
- 1 N \u003d 10 5 dyne (dyne is a unit of measurement in the CGS system);
- 1 N \u003d 0.1 kgf (kilogram-force - a unit of force in the MKGSS system);
- 1 N \u003d 10 -3 walls (a unit of measurement in the MTS system, 1 wall is equal to the force that imparts an acceleration of 1 m / s 2 to any body weighing 1 ton).
Law of gravity
One of the most important discoveries of the scientist, which turned the idea of \u200b\u200bour planet, is Newton's law of gravity (what is gravity, read below). Of course, before him there were attempts to unravel the mystery of the Earth's gravity. For example, he was the first to suggest that not only the Earth has an attractive force, but also the bodies themselves are able to attract the Earth.
However, only Newton managed to mathematically prove the relationship between the force of gravity and the law of planetary motion. After many experiments, the scientist realized that in fact, not only the Earth attracts objects to itself, but all bodies are attracted to each other. He deduced the law of gravity, which states that any bodies, including celestial bodies, are attracted with a force equal to the product of G (gravitational constant) and the masses of both bodies m 1 * m 2 divided by R 2 (the square of the distance between the bodies).
All the laws and formulas derived by Newton made it possible to create an integral mathematical model, which is still used in research not only on the surface of the Earth, but also far beyond our planet.
Unit conversion
When solving problems, one should remember about the standard ones that are used, among other things, for "Newtonian" units of measurement. For example, in problems about space objects, where the masses of bodies are large, it is very often necessary to simplify large values to smaller ones. If the solution turns out to be 5000 N, then it will be more convenient to write the answer in the form of 5 kN (kiloNewton). Such units are of two types: multiples and submultiples. Here are the most used of them: 10 2 N \u003d 1 hectoNewton (gN); 10 3 N \u003d 1 kiloNewton (kN); 10 6 N = 1 megaNewton (MN) and 10 -2 N = 1 centiNewton (cN); 10 -3 N = 1 milliNewton (mN); 10 -9 N = 1 nanoNewton (nN).