Syntactic means of creating expression are varied. These include the rhetorical questions, appeals and exclamations that we have already discussed.

The mere ability to find “your own,” expressive and emotional words will not make your speech come alive if you do not know the secrets of expressive syntax.

After all, you need to be able to arrange words, build sentences from them that would allow you to use a variety of intonations, emphasize them with logical stresses, and finally, skillfully place pauses...

In writing, punctuation marks serve for this, and in oral speech, emphatic intonation (from the Greek. emphasis- indication, expressiveness).

However, both are determined by the syntactic features of the utterance. After all, syntax has enormous expressive capabilities.

Below is a description of stylistic devices and figures of speech that represent a strong means of emphatic intonation.

Stylistic use of word order

When studying the stylistic order of words in a sentence, various aspects are considered - the use of word order for the correct and stylistically justified expression of thought, enhancing the effectiveness of speech with the help of inversion, and the peculiarities of word arrangement in different functional and semantic types of speech. In this case, the study of word order as a means of semantic organization of a sentence is of utmost importance.

Under actual division of the statement is understood as a semantic division that is essential for each semantic context or situation.

With actual division, the statement is divided into two parts: the first contains what is already known - subject statements; in the second - what is reported about her - rhema. The combination of theme and rheme constitutes the subject of the message.

Any statement must have a rheme, but the topic may not be specified. The topic may be reconstructed from context, or it may simply be missing.

For example, it does not stand out in statements containing only a message about a particular fact or event: “ A year has passed », « It is snowing ».

A multi-stage actual division of the statement is also possible: “ The editor read the manuscript carefully and with great interest. " Highlighting the word “ editor", we can additionally highlight in the rheme " second rheme» – « carefully and with great interest».

Word order cannot be considered in isolation from the actual division of the sentence. In the light of the doctrine of the actual division of utterances, the concepts of direct and reverse word order do not mean the sequence of arrangement of the grammatical members of a sentence, but the sequence of arrangement of theme and rheme.

In direct word order, the topic comes first in the sentence, and the rheme comes second.

Let's look at an example: the person asking the question knows that someone has already read the manuscript, and wants to clarify who did it (editor or reviewer): - Has the editor read the manuscript? – The editor read the manuscript.

The use of the subject in second place corresponds to the norm, since the subject is a rheme, it contains new information. For a similar statement, subject preposition would not be justified.

For the syntactic structure of the Russian language, the preposition of the subject is most characteristic and this position corresponds to the actual division of the utterance, since the subject is most often the topic. This word order—the transition from theme to rheme—is traditionally considered direct.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the Russian language there are many constructions in which the subject is postpositive, in which the predicate is the topic.

For example: Catching bream or perch is such bliss!

Constructions with a prepositive subject are possible, in which, however, the word order is reversed.

For example: Only random circumstance saved him from falling.(A.A. Fadeev)

Here the rheme occupies an unusual position - it comes first, it is emphasized by intonation and the intensifying particle “only”, which compensates for the violation of word order.

The predicate is usually prepositive in interrogative and exclamatory sentences.

For example: Won't my aunt intercede for me?

A sentence is usually built from phrases that are used with their usual word arrangement:

CONFORMING WORDS PRECEDE THE CORE WORD AND CONTROL WORDS FOLLOW IT.

Violating the order of words in a phrase deprives it of unity or even destroys the phrase.

For example: "In each nickel parts a hole is made" And "Every detail is done nickel hole» - the new connections that have arisen have deprived the expression of meaning.

In combinations of nouns with adjectives, the latter are usually prepositive.

For example: good man, fun ride.

Postpositive adjectives are distinguished by intonation and often carry the main semantic load, being the rheme of the statement.

For example: Belinsky was a strong and determined person . (N.G. Chernyshevsky), Life began in the village peaceful, charming days. (I.A. Bunin).

In these examples, inversion is used - reverse word order.

INVERSION(translated from Greek - rearrangement, inversion) is a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of any element of the text (word, sentence), giving the phrase a special stylistic coloring: solemn, high-sounding or, conversely, colloquial, somewhat reduced characteristics.

The following combinations are considered inverted in Russian:

a) the agreed definition comes after the word being defined.

For example:
I'm sitting behind bars in a damp dungeon(M. Yu. Lermontov);

But there were no swells running through this sea; the stuffy air did not flow: a great thunderstorm was brewing(I. S. Turgenev);

b) additions and circumstances expressed by nouns come before the word they refer to.

For example: Hours of monotonous battle(monotonous clock strike).

c) the predicate comes before the subject, known from the previous context (the subject is the given (theme) in the sentence, and the predicate is the new (rheme)).

For example:
Silence is dear to the Circassians,
Dear dear side,
But liberty, liberty for the hero
Miles from homeland and peace(M. Yu. Lermontov);

Zhilin is walking, keeping all the shadows.(L.N. Tolstoy)

Inversion can give the statement unusualness and thereby emotionality and expressiveness.

If the integrity of the phrase is violated in a sentence and the adjective is separated from the noun by a verb, then, regardless of the topic-rhematic division of the statement, such an adjective is always strongly inverted.

For example: I was tormented by terrible boredom. Large green buds. There was a strong snowstorm.

In such constructions, the verb has little information content.

Of particular stylistic interest is the use of several definitions that occupy the same syntactic positions in a sentence.

For example: …. rode at a fast trot high blue Viennese stroller.(L.N. Tolstoy).

Adjectives that name a more important feature are placed closer to the noun.

In combinations of verbs with adverbs, the word order depends on the semantic division of the statement: adverbs are postpositive when they bear the main semantic load and, therefore, logical stress.

For example: He worked artistically. The fire burned hot.

In constructions using an infinitive, the dependent infinitive is always postpositive.

For example:
I would like to live and die in Paris,
If there were no such land - Moscow.(V.V. Mayakovsky).

The prepositive use of the infinitive gives speech a conversational coloring.

For example: ...just stop crying.

Among the striking examples of expressive syntax, one should also mention various ways of breaking the closure of a sentence. First of all, this is a shift in syntactic construction: the end of the sentence is given in a different syntactic plan than the beginning.

For example:
And to me, Onegin, this pomp,
Life's hateful tinsel,
My successes are in a whirlwind of light,
My fashionable house and evenings,
What's in them?(P.)

Stylistic use of homogeneous sentence members

In the stylistic study of homogeneous members of a sentence, special interest is caused by their functioning in different styles of speech, great expressive possibilities, as well as the difficulties that arise in speech when using homogeneous members.

The same feature characterizes the scientific style: when constructing various classifications, authors strive for an exhaustive listing of features and actions characteristic of the phenomenon or object being described. In book styles, enumeration often looks like a long chain of homogeneous members, and in their ranks, as a rule, a non-union connection predominates. If the last member of a series is listed without a conjunction, then the series of homogeneous members is perceived as unfinished, open to possible addition (which is sometimes indicated by the words “ and so on e", " etc"). " closed» series of homogeneous members with a closing conjunction “and”, which introduces the meaning of exhaustion, completeness of coverage of all cases:.

For example: Musical sounds vary in strength, pitch and timbre.

In book styles, when using homogeneous shuttles, special clarity is achieved by their numbering, which helps to highlight and emphasize each of the listed items.

For example: The speech apparatus consists of four main parts: 1) respiratory apparatus, 2) larynx, 3) oral cavity, 4) nasal cavity.

In journalistic speech, homogeneous members are no less popular than in scientific and official business, and their semantic function is also supplemented by an aesthetic one, since journalists turn to enumeration not only as a proven means of coherent, logical presentation of material, but also as a bright source speech expression. The latter brings journalistic speech closer to artistic speech. At the same time, in journalistic speech one can observe a preference for homogeneous members of individual sentences.

For example: We didn't think about rest. We worked seven days a week. We worked 12 hours a day. They worked in two shifts. We worked day and night...

This syntactic construction enhances emotionality. When using homogeneous shuttles, speech tension decreases: (compare: We worked seven days a week, 12 hours a day, in two shifts...).

In artistic speech, the use of homogeneous members of a sentence is a means of enhancing its expressiveness. It is no coincidence that blocks of homogeneous members include synonyms and words of similar semantics.

For example: Thunder rolls, rumbles, grumbles, rumbles, shakes the earth. (K.G. Paustovsky).

The expression of homogeneous members is also emphasized by the antithesis.

ANTITHESIS(in translation from Greek - opposition) is a turn in which opposing concepts, positions, images are sharply contrasted. To create an antithesis, antonyms are usually used - general linguistic and contextual.

For example:
She[poetry] speaks about existence and non-existence, fidelity and jealousy, youth and old age, tenderness and anger, a grain of sand and the planet, honey and poison.

You are rich, I am very poor,
You are a prose writer, I am a poet(A.S. Pushkin);

Yesterday I looked into your eyes,
And now everything is looking sideways,
Yesterday I was sitting before the birds, -
All larks these days are crows!
I'm stupid and you're smart
Alive, but I'm dumbfounded.
O cry of women of all times:
“My dear, what have I done to you?”(M. I. Tsvetaeva)

Such a collision of antonyms, forming additional semantic shades, destroys the usual similarity of homogeneous members of the sentence.

The combination of paronyms as homogeneous members also creates a striking stylistic effect.

For example: People's representatives who betray and sell the people's interests...

Antithesis used to enhance the expressiveness of speech, emphasizing contrasting images, contrasting assessments. Antithesis is characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic texts.

In artistic speech, appealing to homogeneous members can be associated with the implementation of the most vivid descriptions (when a number of colorful epithets and other tropes are given), with the creation of dynamic pictures (if homogeneous predicate verbs are used), with visual-figurative concretization in a detailed depiction of nature, everyday life etc.

The use of homogeneous members of a sentence also affects the intonation pattern of the phrase. In artistic speech, enumeration creates a special harmony in the sound of the text and creates its orderliness. Writers who attach aesthetic importance to the sound design of speech strive for three-membered constructions of composed series.

For example:
Has arrived rainy, dirty, dark autumn.(A.P. Chekhov)

In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and receive their special, original, unlike anything else view.(S.T. Aksakov).

In other cases, instead of listing homogeneous members, the writer gives each homogeneous concept separated from the previous ones.

For example: I valued empty people! ...I forgot about the children!... I deceived my wife! Played! Lost!(A.S. Griboyedov).

This technique reproduces the intonations of live speech, creating the effect of ease.

When using homogeneous members of a sentence that occupy a worthy place in emotional speech, polyunion is possible.

MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and intonational highlighting of the listed concepts.

For example:
Oh, summer is red! I would love you
If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.(A.S. Pushkin)

...He touched my ears,
And they were filled with noise and ringing:
And I heard the sky tremble,
And the heavenly flight of angels,
And the reptile of the sea underwater,
And vegetation below the vine(A.S. Pushkin)

Although this book was not
Neither the sweet inventions of the poet,
no wise truths, no pictures;
But neither Virgil nor Racine,
neither Scott, nor Byron, nor Seneca,
not even Ladies Fashion Magazine
So it didn’t interest anyone:
That was, friends, Martin Zadeka,
The head of the Chaldean sages,
Fortune teller, dream interpreter.(A.S. Pushkin)

How strange, and alluring, and carrying, and wonderful is the word: road! And how wonderful it is, this road(N.V. Gogol)

The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and went somewhere into infinity...(King)

Pseudoculture may not differ from culture either in word or gesture, but in deed, but in consequences, but in its fallibility, it differs.(S. P. Zalygin)

Multi-Union can be used as a means of increasing the semantic significance of the listed elements, giving the speech a solemn tone and emotional elation.

The lines in which, next to polyunion, the opposite stylistic device is used, become more expressive - asyndeton.

(Go to next page)

Expressive Syntax Issues

The expressive function of language is the ability to express the emotional state of the speaker, his subjective attitude towards the designated objects and phenomena of reality.

Expressiveness as a general linguistic category affects all areas of language and the arsenal of its expressive means is vast. However, problems of expressive syntax are becoming increasingly relevant in modern linguistics. This is due to the intensive study of the structure of the text, the linguistic personality as a subject of speech activity, its pragmatic aspects of colloquial, oral-dialogue speech, the relationship between the speaker and the addressee, sound means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech and enhancing its impact on the perceiver.

Expressive possibilities of syntactic text construction

The text and its division, as is known, belong to the sphere speech. Written and oral forms of speech represent a unity. Analysis of the construction of a text (as a written analogue of speech) involves solving such issues of its organization as identifying not only minimal, limiting units, but also units that are different in their structure. However, as V. G. Gak rightly notes, “It is impossible to take an inventory of the structures of texts and SFUs; they are infinitely diverse and belong entirely to the sphere of functioning (and not structure) of language, that is, to the sphere of speech...”. In this regard, such a feature of the text as the non-rigidity of the boundaries between its divisions, in particular the SFU, the diversity and non-fixed nature of the means of organization, is noted. "The speaker knows in advance how to combine words into sentences. But he cannot know how he will combine sentences into a text." However, the analysis of a written statement - a text - makes it possible to establish means of combining individual segments of a statement into a complete text.

A written text is, in most cases, a verbal work worked out by the author in linguistic and stylistic terms. The purpose of such processing is, first of all, to strive to convey the most fully and expressively defined content in the appropriate stylistic form and thereby promote its adequate perception. And although the author, when creating a text, least of all thinks about the use of certain specific syntactic structures, syntactic means of communication, grammatical forms, punctuation marks, etc., i.e. those means that act not only as signs of connecting segments of a statement, but also as signs that contribute to the division of the text, consideration of these means by analyzing the text makes it possible to establish the linguistic foundations of the expressiveness of the text.

Basic means of expressive syntax

1. Actual division of the sentence

Linguistic means of actual division are usually: prosodic (intonation), syntactic (word order) and lexical means (articles, pronouns, adverbs, etc.). The opposition: theme - rheme (or an expressive version of the order of their occurrence: rheme - theme) is carried out in oral speech with the help of a predicative pause as the main prosodic means of expressing the predicative connection (Kovtunova 1976: 37).

The predicative pause acquires special significance where without it it would be difficult to understand the meaning of the utterance: it signals the end of the previous and the beginning of the subsequent, communicatively most important part of the utterance, i.e. performs a semantic distinguishing function.

In the process of utterance, the actual division may change (this factor is especially important for the expression plan of dynamic syntax). With such a change, the speaker is not free to choose the position of the predicative pause. He introduces it where it is required by the structure of the utterance and the general goals of communication, including expressive ones.

In combination with a predicative pause, syntactic means can also act as a means of actual division. For example, changing the order of words for the purpose of expressiveness (in a neutral sentence, the topic usually precedes the rheme), namely, placing the rheme in the initial position.

For the English language, there are certain means that make it possible to signal the “actual division” of a sentence in cases where it does not coincide with the syntactic division of the sentence, for example, word order, articles, particles, intonation emphasis, special constructions. In many cases, the deviation from the usual word order in an English sentence (subject - predicate) is explained precisely by the needs of expressing the “actual division” of the sentence.

To change the structure of a sentence in order to place the word expressing the rheme in last place, emphatic adverbial words can be used in the initial position. Rheme carriers can be subordinate clauses.

Actual division is an important element of expressive syntax, which allows one to more clearly define the semantic boundaries of an utterance and introduce variety into written and oral speech.

2. Parcellation of the speech stream

The phenomenon of parcellation refers to linguistic universals. It has been studied using materials from various languages. In connection with the study of the text, the methods of its division and organization, the problem of parcellation has become one of the most pressing in the study of syntax.

The term "parceling" goes back to the French word parceller, which means "to divide, split into parts", it is used to denote a method of dividing text. As is known, parcellation belongs to the area of expressive syntax.

Parceling does not have a complete and unambiguous definition in the linguistic literature, which is undoubtedly due to the diversity of the phenomenon of parcellation itself with the difference in approaches to its study.

The essence of parcellation, according to E.A. Ivanchikova, consists of dividing a syntactically coherent text into intonationally isolated segments, separated by a dot sign, and E.A. Ivanchikova, considering parcellation a technique of expressive syntax, attributes it only to the sphere of written literary language (Ivanchikova 2010, p. 106).

The phenomenon of parcellation is an intonational - and very often positional - isolation of a word form or phrase, in which this isolated and placed element acquires the intonational contour and information load of an independent statement.

Some researchers consider parcels as a type of connecting constructions due to the similarity of their structures, intonation, nature of connection, information richness and expressiveness.

3. Parentetic applications and their functions

One of the most important problems in the study of text - superphrasal unity - is the study of the relationship and interaction of the syntactic structure of a sentence and the syntax of superphrasal unity.

A sentence as a linear structure is characterized by certain patterns of organization of semantic and communicative relations. Being, in turn, a structural part of the whole, a sentence reveals various kinds of words, constructions ("signals", "signs"), indicating its connection with the previous message (either within the framework of a sentence, or within the framework of a super-phrase unity, text).

The set of text-linking means (anaphoric, cataphoric, expressed by conjunctions, pronouns, syntactic parallelism, etc., etc.) that carry out a structural (and semantic) connection between sentences of superphrasal unity undoubtedly include, despite their “isolation” , and many parentetic applications.

In the English language, the structure of sentences that form a superphrasal unity (text) does not always correspond to the rules of construction that normative grammar prescribes. Sentences of real living speech very often reveal various kinds of “violations” of the harmony, smoothness and precision of the “normal” rhythm and norms of intonation pattern.

These features, characteristic of texts of all registers, have long been noticed by rhetoric and used them to create such stylistic devices as prolapse, paranthesis, etc. The study of the linguistic basis of these devices is the task of expressive syntax.

The theoretical basis for studying the phenomenon of “violations” was the level of parentetic contributions. The essence of this “violation” lies in the fact that words or syntactic constructions “invade” the sentence - parenthetical entries and “violate”, “destroy” linear syntactic connections (Alexandrova 2009, p. 177).

An isolated sentence containing a parentetic statement often cannot provide a complete picture of either the subject of the statement or the content of the parentetic statement. Only within the framework of the text does it become clear, and the parentetic introduction itself, breaking the connections of the sentence, with its content switches the attention of the listener/reader to what was previously said and thereby allows one to link (generalize, draw a conclusion, establish an identity, etc.) with what is perceived at the moment moment of content.

Before talking about the expressive function of such “violations,” let us consider the structure and meaning of such contributions.

O.V. Alexandrova in her classification divides them into:

1. one-word entries: again, anyway, doubtless, first, further, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, moreover, next, nevertheless, now, otherwise, perhaps, probably, rather, say, second, since, so, sometimes, somewhat, still, too, then, thenforward, therefore, therefore, though, thus, well, whenever and so on.

2. introduction-combinations of words, among which combinations with prepositions are widespread after, along, at, by, for, from, of, on, since, to, towards, throughout, with, without and etc.: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, for example, for instance, in addition, in any case, with qualifications already noted, on this basis, on each such occasion, for any of a range of reasons, at any time and etc.

3. Particularly common are deposits on -1у: intelligibly enough, quite independently, differently from but quite compatibly with, less discriminatingly, more or less persuasively, vaguely enough, clearly enough, quite hypothetically, no doubt imperfectly and often obscurely and etc.

4. making proposals: he said, he will observe, I believe, I fancy, I suggest, I suppose, I take it, I think, I would think, it is true, it seems to me, one may say, one may think, one would suppose , one would think, some would further urge, some would say, they said, we believe, we may agree, we said, we suggested and etc.

In terms of general content, contributions are divided into three categories:

1. category of reference - these are words and syntactic structures, sometimes very extended, that the speaker uses in speech in order to refer to some fact, literary or other source, to his previous statement, etc., for example: hence, then, too, thenforward, to my mind, as you say and etc.

2. category of exemplification, including words and syntactic structures with the help of which examples, explanations, clarifications of what was previously said, etc. are introduced, for example: say, for instance, suppose we take, for example and etc.

3. category of deliberativeness - these are words and syntactic structures expressing doubts, thoughts, assessments, etc.: it seems, no doubt, no wonder, in sense, at any rate, at best, at least, no wonder and etc.

The objectivity of this categorization is confirmed by the fact that it is relevant for each of the above structural types of contributions. Thus, the vast majority of one-word contributions fit neatly into the following categories:

· references : hence, then, too, thenforward and etc.;

exemplification: thereby, thus and etc.;

Deliberation: again, anyway, doubtless, indeed, moreover, next, of course, perhaps, say, sometimes, somewhat, though and etc.

Does the same apply to deposits? syntactic constructions:

· reference: in general, as you say and etc.

exemplification : for example, for instance, that is, that is to say and etc.

deliberation: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, in addition, in a sense, in fact, it seems, let us say, no doubt, no wonder, on the whole, so to speak and etc.

Each of these groups can, in turn, be divided into smaller semantic subgroups [Alexandrova 2009: 134].

This structural and semantic categorization is closely related to the expressive function of parenthetical contributions, to the role they play in the text.

In general, the function of parentetic contributions is to “characterize what is being communicated from the perspective of the speaker to what is being communicated,” i.e. it is closely related to the category of modality [Vinogradov 1958: 229].

It is known that modality is a conceptual category with the meaning of the speaker’s attitude to the content of the statement and the relationship of the content of the statement to reality, expressed by various lexical and grammatical means (such as mood forms, modal verbs, intonation, lexical and lexical-phraseological means of expressing the category of modality) . When analyzing parentetic contributions, the above-listed means of expressing modality, and most importantly, the contextual environment and registers, should be considered in the aspect of constructing expressive speech.

Also syntactic carriers of expressiveness include syntactic stylistic devices:

Repetition (anaphora) - repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of each part or whole sentence (Skrebnev Yu.M. 2003, p. 140).

Inversion is the incorrect order of words in a sentence, as a result of which the sentence acquires an expressive connotation. Let's give an example: Talent Mr. Micauber has. (Mr. Micawber has talent)

Chiasmus is an inversion in the second half of a word, for example: He rose and down she sat (he stood up and she sat down) (Znamenskaya T.A. 2004, pp. 54-56).

In addition to stylistic devices, syntactic means of creating expressiveness include emphatic grammatical constructions (for example, whatever it costs, ... (at any price)), as well as emotionally expressive sentences. These sentences are constructed using pronominal words that qualify as intensifiers, for example: What a fool I was (what a fool I was) (Furs L.A. 1995, p. 20).

1.2.2 Basic means of expressive syntax

1. Actual division of the sentence

Actual division is an important element of expressive syntax, which allows one to more clearly define the semantic boundaries of an utterance and introduce variety into written and oral speech.

2. Parcellation of the speech stream

Some researchers consider parcels as a type of connecting constructions due to the similarity of their structures, intonation, nature of connection, information richness and expressiveness.

3. Parentetic applications and their functions

Before talking about the expressive function of such “violations,” let us consider the structure and meaning of such contributions.

O.V. Alexandrova in her classification divides them into:

1. one-word entries: again, anyway, doubtless, first, further, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, moreover, next, nevertheless, now, otherwise, perhaps, probably, rather, say, second, since, so, sometimes, somewhat , still, too, then, thenforward, thereby, therefore, though, thus, well, whenever, etc.

2. introduction-combinations of words, among which combinations with the prepositions after, along, at, by, for, from, of, on, since, to, towards, throughout, with, without, etc. are widespread: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, for example, for instance, in addition, in any case, with qualifications already noted, on this basis, on each such occasion, for any of a range of reasons, at any time and etc.

3. Particularly common are the entries at -1y: intelligibly enough, quite independently, differently from but quite compatibly with, less discriminatingly, more or less persuasively, vaguely enough, clearly enough, quite hypothetically, no doubt imperfectly and often obscurely, etc.

4. making suggestions: he said, he will observe, I believe, I fancy, I suggest, I suppose, I take it, I think, I would think, it is true, it seems to me, one may say, one may think, one would suppose, one would think, some would further urge, some would say, they said, we believe, we may agree, we said, we suggested, etc.

In terms of general content, contributions are divided into three categories:

1. category of reference - these are words and syntactic structures, sometimes very extended, that the speaker uses in speech in order to refer to some fact, literary or other source, to his previous statement, etc., for example: hence, then, too, then forward, to my mind, as you say, etc.

2. category of exemplification, including words and syntactic structures with the help of which examples, explanations, clarifications of what was previously said, etc. are introduced, for example: say, for instance, suppose we take, for example, etc.

· references: hence, then, too, thenforward, etc.;

· exemplification: thereby, thus, etc.;

· deliberations: again, anyway, doubtless, indeed, moreover, next, of course, perhaps, say, sometimes, somewhat, though, etc.

Does the same apply to deposits? syntactic constructions:

· reference: in general, as you say, etc.

· exemplification: for example, for instance, that is, that is to say, etc.

· deliberation: after all, at any rate, at best, at least, by and large, in addition, in a sense, in fact, it seems, let us say, no doubt, no wonder, on the whole, so to speak and etc.

Each of these groups can, in turn, be divided into smaller semantic subgroups [Alexandrova 2009: 134].

This structural and semantic categorization is closely related to the expressive function of parenthetical contributions, to the role they play in the text.

Also syntactic carriers of expressiveness include syntactic stylistic devices:

Repetition (anaphora) - repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of each part or whole sentence (Skrebnev Yu.M. 2003, p. 140).

Chiasmus is an inversion in the second half of a word, for example: He rose and down she sat (he stood up and she sat down) (Znamenskaya T.A. 2004, pp. 54-56).

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In order to reveal the structural and semantic features of a complex sentence and to identify its features, it is necessary, first of all, to consider the concept of a complex sentence. For example, Moskalskaya writes...

The syntax of language has no less potential than vocabulary to enhance and weaken the expressiveness of speech.

The mere ability to find “your own,” expressive and emotional words will not make your speech come alive if you do not know the secrets of expressive syntax. After all, you need to be able to arrange words, build sentences from them that would allow you to use a variety of intonations, emphasize with logical stresses, and finally, skillfully place pauses... In writing, punctuation marks are used for this, and in oral speech - emphatic intonation (from the Greek. emphasis - indication, expressiveness). However, both are determined by the syntactic features of the utterance. After all, syntax has enormous expressive capabilities. Let's touch on some techniques of “poetic syntax”.

Rhetorical figures enhance the tension and expressiveness of speech. These are primarily rhetorical exclamations:

Troika\ Bird-troika\ (N. Gogol).

Close to them are rhetorical questions, which are interrogative sentences that do not require an answer:

To be or not to be? (W. Shakespeare)

Questions are posed not in order to get an answer, but to draw attention to a particular subject or phenomenon. Let us recall the chain of such questions in M. Lermontov’s poem “The Death of a Poet”:

Why did he enter this envious and stuffy world?

For a free heart and fiery passions?

Why did he give his hand to insignificant slanderers?

Why did he believe false words and caresses?

He, who has comprehended people from a young age?

These lines also use another stylistic device - parallelism, that is, the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences, which gives the speech a special harmony. It is no coincidence that the word is repeated For what at the beginning of each simple sentence in this construction: ed i n o - the beginning (or anaphora) also emphasizes the orderliness of the construction of the utterance. In parallel syntactic constructions, the ending (or epiphora) is also used - repetition of the last words of the sentence, some of its parts: Dear friend, in this quiet house the fever strikes me. I can’t find a place in a quiet house near a peaceful fire(A. Blok).

There is a well-known ellipsis - an omission in a sentence of a word that is easily implied from the context: I am for a candle - a candle in the stove. I'm going to grab a book and run...(K. Chukovsky). Deliberate omission of the predicate in such sentences creates a special dynamism of speech, so that “restoring” the missing verbs would be unjustified (cf.: I took hold of the candle, the candle rushed into the stove).

A special figure of poetic syntax is silence, i.e. deliberate incompleteness of a sentence. Silence opens up a wide scope for subtext: in place of a pause, one can assume a different comment.

In emphatic speech, techniques are used that break the closedness of the sentence; speech becomes intermittent, incomplete:

No, I wanted... maybe you... I thought it was time for the baron to die. (A. Pushkin).

Plug-in constructions are often used, which represent incidental comments, clarifications, and additional information to the statement. For example: Believe me (conscience is our guarantee), marriage will be torment for us(A. Pushkin);

When using homogeneous members of a sentence that occupy a worthy place in emotional speech, polyunion is possible - a rhetorical figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and intonation highlighting of the listed concepts: Ox"Summer is red." I would love you if it weren’t for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies...(A. Pushkin).

A strong means of emotional speech is the period - a syntactic construction that is harmonic in form, characterized by special rhythm and orderly arrangement of parts, as well as exceptional completeness and completeness of content. Let us recall the lines from Onegin’s monologue: WheneverI wanted to limit my life to my home circle, so that I could be a father, a husband, by a pleasant lot; If I were captivated by the family picture even for a single moment, it would be true that I wouldn’t look for another bride besides you. The period is divided into two parts: in the first, the intonation rises, in the second, it sharply falls. This creates intonational integrity and harmony of periodic speech. The period is constructed from proportionate, syntactically identical elements (most often subordinate clauses).

The so-called connecting constructions are widely used, reproducing oral speech in its living immediacy (adding additional messages and explanations to the main utterance that arise in the mind not simultaneously with the main thought, but only after it has been formed). For example: The issue of reorganizing production must be resolved, and quickly

Particular expressiveness is inherent in the so-called parcellation, understood as the division of a sentence in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a dividing pause (after a period, a question mark or an exclamation mark). For example: They are different, our specialists. And by education. And from experience. And by character; We need to look for sources of profit. Search persistently, persistently, patiently.

So-called segmented constructions, or constructions with double designation, consisting of two parts, are widely used in speeches: the first part (segment, that is, segment), located at the beginning of a sentence or text and expressed, as a rule, by the nominative case of a noun or a phrase headed by this form, names a person or object, which in the second part (in the subsequent text) receives a second designation in the form of a pronoun. For example: A sense of time... it makes it possible to determine what needs to be done now.

The so-called segmented constructions, or constructions with double designation, consisting of two parts, are widely used in speeches: the first part (segment, that is, segment), located at the beginning of a sentence or text and expressed, as a rule, by the nominative case of a noun or a phrase headed by this form, names a person or object, which in the second part (in the subsequent text) receives a second designation in the form of a pronoun. For example: A sense of time... it makes it possible to determine what needs to be done now. Perestroika. What she showed: Initiative is what we often lack.

Everyone who speaks a particular language feels what is natural for a given language and what is not. To attract attention, speech must break this naturalness and familiarity. For this, different techniques are used: rhythm, selection of sounds and rhyme make the sound unusual; rare words, unusual word meanings and unexpected phrases, special word order and sentence structure can also attract attention. These “oddities” flash like sparkles against the background of everyday speech. Unusual combinations of words are usually called figures of speech, and words in other, often figurative meanings for the purpose of creating an image are called tropes (gr. tropos - turn, turn, image). Paths give clarity to the image of certain objects. Acting as tropes, ordinary words can acquire greater expressive power. Paths and figures constitute the concept of expressive syntax.

Paths and figures are divided into several groups:

Figures of thought: antithesis, exclamation, personification, silence.

Figures of adding words: repetitions, pleonasm (excess of words - “dead corpses”), polyunion, etc.

Figures of decreasing words: ellipsis, non-union, etc.

Figures of moving words: inversion, parallelism, etc.

Figures of rethinking words (they are also tropes): metaphor, metonymy, irony, synecdoche, emphasis, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, etc.

Allusion is a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known fact or historical event. It is often of a political nature when, with the help of a hint, something that, due to censorship conditions, cannot be stated directly (Pushkin hints at the link: “But the north is harmful for me”). Sometimes it disguises the circumstances of the author’s personal life. Allusions play an important role in historical novels and dramas when the depicted historical situation is correlated with the modern one. An allusion to a literary work is a reminiscence or quotation. It creates a basis for authority, is a means of parody, and creates polysemy in the text. Antitheses are phrases in which opposite concepts are sharply contrasted to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Antithesis as a strong emotional means is used in oratory, in slogans and appeals (“Peace to the huts, war to the palaces!”) It allows the listener to understand what is good and what is bad, to choose what is important to him.

Hyperbole, i.e. artistic exaggeration, is needed to create a pathetic or comic effect. This is a way of constructing a plot, conveying the author’s thoughts (Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Tale of How One Man Fed Two Generals”), outlining characters (Bazarov, “Fathers and Sons”). Hyperbole allows you to present negative characters in the most disgusting form. Litotes (understatement), or inverse hyperbole, performs the same functions. For example: Wearing large mittens, and himself as small as a fingernail. (Nekrasov N. A.)

Together they help us take a closer look at the phenomena of life and its contradictions.

An oxymoron is a metaphor taken to the point of absurdity when a word is substituted that is obviously incompatible with its neighbors:

Even the clatter of hooves is a stomp,

If someone screams, whisper. (Vysotsky V.)

The oxymoron is intended to ridicule something contained in its concept (“Young lady-peasant”).

If you expand the oxymoron into a sentence, you get a paradox: “Every person has beliefs, but sometimes they are so strong that he does not notice them” (G. K. Chesterton).

Alliteration, or onomatopoeia, is the selection of words that include certain sounds. This technique is aimed at feeling the unity and tightness of the poetic series. Alliteration should help the reader understand the semantic orientation of the text:

The hiss of foamy glasses

And the punch flame is blue. (Pushkin A.S.)

A pun is a figure of speech based on a comic play on the sound similarity of words with different meanings: Even to the Finnish brown rocks

I am using a pun (Minaev D. D.) Metaphor is a phrase that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. Metaphor is aimed at creating a certain feeling associated with the object of comparison. It makes the reader’s thoughts and imagination work and evokes certain associations.

The fire of red rowan is burning... (Yesenin S.)

Irony is the opposite of metaphor. This is a stylistic figure in which a word or statement takes on a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to its literal meaning:

The Tribunal awarded him the death penalty for shooting himself. (Vysotsky V.)

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