Pavlov Ivan Petrovich
(b. 1849 – d. 1936)
Outstanding Russian physiologist, biologist, doctor, teacher. The creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, the largest physiological school of our time, new approaches and methods of physiological research. Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1907), academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1917), academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1925), honorary member of 130 academies and scientific institutions. The fourth Nobel laureate in the world (1904) and the first in the field of natural sciences. Author of classic works on the physiology of blood circulation and digestion.
“If a person achieves such significant success as Pavlov, and leaves behind a legacy so significant both in terms of the amount of data obtained and in ideological terms, then we are naturally interested in finding out how and in what way he accomplished this in order to understand What were the psychophysiological characteristics of this person that provided him with the possibility of such achievements? Of course, he was recognized by everyone as a genius,” said a contemporary of the great scientist, corresponding member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, physiologist Yu. Konorsky.
Pavlov himself, sincerely classifying himself among the “small and medium,” repeated more than once: “I have nothing of genius that is attributed to me. Genius is the highest ability to concentrate attention... to think relentlessly about a subject, to be able to go to bed with it and get up with it! Just think, just think all the time - and everything difficult will become easy. Anyone in my place, doing the same, would become a genius.” But if everything were so simple, the world would consist of only geniuses. And only a few of them are born every century.
And who could have imagined that the boy Vanya, born in the ancient Russian city of Ryazan on September 26, 1849, would reach unprecedented heights in physiology - a science so far from the aspirations of his parents. Father, Pyotr Dmitrievich Pavlov, who came from a peasant family, was at that time a young priest of one of the seedy parishes. Truthful and independent, he often did not get along with his superiors and lived poorly. High moral qualities and a seminary education, which was considered significant for residents of provincial towns of those times, earned him the reputation of a very enlightened person. Mother, Varvara Ivanovna, also came from a spiritual family, but did not receive any education. In her youth, she was healthy, cheerful and cheerful, but frequent childbirth (she gave birth to 10 children) and experiences associated with the untimely death of some of them undermined her health. Her natural intelligence and hard work made her a skilled teacher of her children, and they idolized her, vying with each other to help with something: chop wood, light the stove, bring water.
Ivan Petrovich recalled his parents with a feeling of tender love and deep gratitude: “And underneath everything, constant gratitude to my father and mother, who taught me a simple, very undemanding life and gave me the opportunity to receive a higher education.” Ivan was the first-born in the Pavlov family. He willingly played with his younger brothers and sisters, from an early age he helped his father in the garden and garden, and while building a house he learned a little carpentry and turning. For many years, gardening and gardening were a significant help for the Pavlov family, in which, in addition to their own children, they also raised nephews - the children of their father’s two brothers.
Ivan learned to read and write by the age of eight, but entered school three years late. The fact is that one day, while laying out apples to dry on a high platform, he fell on the stone floor and was seriously hurt, which had serious consequences for his health. He lost his appetite, began to sleep poorly, lost weight and turned pale. Home treatment did not bring significant success. And then the boy was taken in by his godfather - the abbot of the Trinity Monastery, located near Ryazan. Clean air, increased nutrition, and regular gymnastics classes returned Ivan to health and strength. The boy's guardian turned out to be a kind, intelligent and highly educated man for those times. He read a lot, led a Spartan lifestyle, and was demanding of himself and those around him. Under his leadership, Ivan acquired remarkable strength and endurance, and even amused himself with fist fights. But most of all he loved the game of small towns, which required attentiveness, dexterity, accuracy and taught him to remain calm. At home, the father also built gymnastic equipment for his sons so that “all the extra strength would be used for the benefit, and not for self-indulgence.”
Returning to Ryazan in the fall of 1860, Ivan entered the Ryazan Theological School straight into the second grade. Four years later, he successfully graduated and was accepted into the local theological seminary, where the children of priests received certain benefits. Here Pavlov became one of the best students and even gave private lessons, using his reputation as a good tutor. It was then that Ivan really fell in love with teaching and was happy when he could help others acquire knowledge.
The years of Pavlov's teaching were marked by the rapid development of advanced social thought in Russia. And Ivan frequented the public library. One day he came across an article by D. Pisarev, where the words “Almighty natural science holds in its hands the key to understanding the whole world.” In the seminary they talked about the immortality of the soul and the afterlife, and in the literature they called for abandoning blind faith and studying the most important problems of life. After the fascinating monograph “Reflexes of the Brain” by the father of Russian physiology I. Sechenov and the popular book “Physiology of Everyday Life” by the English scientist J. Lewis, Pavlov “fell ill with reflexes” and began to dream of scientific activity.
After graduating from the sixth grade of the seminary in 1869, Pavlov decisively abandoned his spiritual career and began to prepare for the entrance exams to the university. In 1870, he left for St. Petersburg, dreaming of enrolling in the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. But since the seminary did not provide sufficient knowledge in mathematics and physics, Ivan was forced to choose the Faculty of Law. And yet he achieved his goal: 17 days after the start of classes, with the special permission of the rector, he was transferred to the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. True, because of this he lost his scholarship. In this first year he had a very hard time, and then his brother Dmitry entered the university, who, with his characteristic thriftiness, established their simple student life. A year later, the natural department was replenished with another Pavlov - Peter. All the brothers became scientists: Ivan - a physiologist, Dmitry - a chemist, and Peter - a zoologist, but only for the eldest, serious scientific work, continuous and all-consuming, became the meaning of life.
Ivan studied very successfully, attracting the attention of professors. Short, stocky, with a thick chestnut beard grown for appearance, he was unusually serious, thoughtful, hardworking and passionate about his studies. In the second year of study he was awarded a regular scholarship (180 rubles per year), in the third year he already received the so-called imperial scholarship (300 rubles per year). At this time, an excellent teaching staff of the faculty was formed in the natural science department, where among the professors of the faculty there were outstanding chemists D. Mendeleev and A. Butlerov, famous botanists A. Beketov and I. Borodin, famous physiologists F. V. Ovsyannikov and I. Tsion. Under the influence of the latter, Pavlov decided to devote himself to the study of animal physiology, as well as chemistry. Ilya Fadeevich not only skillfully presented the most complex issues and carried out experiments in a truly artistic manner, but also masterfully mastered surgical technique. He could operate on a dog without even taking off his snow-white gloves and without staining them with even a drop of blood. Following in the footsteps of his teacher, Pavlov, being left-handed, learned to operate brilliantly with both hands. Eyewitnesses said that when he stood at the table, “the operation ended before it even began.”
Pavlov's research activities began early. As a fourth-year student, Ivan, under the guidance of F. Ovsyannikov, examined the nerves in the lungs of a frog. Then, together with classmate V. Velikiy, under the leadership of Zion, he completed the first scientific work on the influence of the laryngeal nerves on blood circulation. The results of the study were reported at a meeting of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists, after which Pavlov began to regularly attend meetings, communicate with Sechenov, Ovsyannikov, Tarkhanov and other physiologists at them, and participate in the discussion of reports. And his scientific work on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas was awarded a gold medal by the university council. True, the student, passionate about research, almost forgot that final exams were coming up. I had to write a petition to stay “for a second year.” In 1875, Pavlov brilliantly graduated from the university, received the academic degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences and continued his studies at the Medical-Surgical Academy, immediately entering the third year, but “not with the goal of becoming a doctor, but so that later, having a degree of Doctor of Medicine, be entitled to occupy the chair of physiology.” He was then 26 years old.
With bright hopes, the young scientist set out on the road to independent life. I. Tsion, who took over the position left by Sechenov as head of the Department of Physiology at the Medical-Surgical Academy, invited him as his assistant. At first, everything worked out well for I.P. Pavlov. But soon his teacher was forced to leave the academy, and Pavlov considered it necessary to refuse the position of assistant offered to him by the new head of the department, Professor I. F. Tarkhanov. Thus, he lost not only an excellent place for scientific work, but also his income. Continuing his studies, Ivan became an assistant to Professor K. N. Ustimovich at the Department of Physiology of the Veterinary Department.
During his time working in the laboratory (1876–1878), Pavlov independently completed a number of valuable works on the physiology of blood circulation. In these studies, for the first time, the beginnings of his ingenious scientific method of studying the functions of the body in their natural dynamics in a non-narcotized whole organism appeared. As a result of numerous experiments, Pavlov learned to measure blood pressure in dogs without putting them to sleep and without tying them to an experimental table. He developed and implemented his original method of implanting a chronic ureteral fistula into the outer covering of the abdomen. For the work done during his studies, Pavlov received a second gold medal, and upon graduating from the Academy in December 1879, he received a doctor’s diploma with honors. In the summer, using the money he had saved with difficulty, on the recommendation of Ustimovich, he visited Breslavl, where he became acquainted with the works of the prominent physiologist Professor R. Heidenhain. Pavlov's research on the physiology of blood circulation attracted the attention of physiologists and doctors. The young scientist became famous in scientific circles.
In 1879, Pavlov took charge of the physiological laboratory at S. Botkin’s clinic, where the famous Russian clinician invited him back in December 1878. Then formally, Ivan Petrovich was offered the position of laboratory assistant, but in reality he was supposed to become the head of the laboratory. Pavlov willingly accepted this offer, because shortly before this the veterinary department of the Medical-Surgical Academy was closed and he lost his job and the opportunity to conduct experiments. Here the young scientist worked until 1890, achieved outstanding results in the field of studying the physiology of blood circulation and digestion, took part in the development of some topical issues of pharmacology, improved his extraordinary experimental skills, and also acquired the skills of an organizer and leader of a team of scientists.
Twelve years of work in difficult conditions in a practically impoverished physiological laboratory was inspired, intense, purposeful and extremely fruitful, although it was accompanied by acute material need and deprivation in his personal life. Pavlov became a prominent figure in the field of physiology not only in his homeland, but also abroad.
His wife helped Ivan Petrovich survive this difficult time. Pavlov met Serafima Vasilyevna Karchevskaya, a student of the Pedagogical Courses, in the late 1870s. They were united not only by love, but also by a commonality of spiritual interests and similarity of views. They were an attractive couple. Serafima Vasilievna admitted that she was attracted by “that hidden spiritual power that supported him in his work all his life and to whose charm all his employees and friends involuntarily obeyed.” At first, love completely absorbed Ivan Petrovich. According to his brother Dmitry, for some time the young scientist was more busy writing letters to his girlfriend than doing laboratory work.
In 1881, the young people got married, despite the fact that Pavlov’s parents were against this marriage, as they intended to marry their first-born son to the daughter of a wealthy St. Petersburg official. After his marriage, Ivan Petrovich’s complete helplessness in everyday affairs became apparent. The wife took upon herself the entire burden of family concerns and for many years resignedly endured all the troubles and failures that accompanied him at that time. With her faithful love, she undoubtedly contributed a lot to Pavlov’s amazing successes in science. “I was looking for only a good person for a life partner,” wrote Pavlov, “and found him in my wife, who patiently endured the hardships of our pre-professor life, always guarded my scientific aspirations and turned out to be as devoted to our family throughout my life as I am to the laboratory.” Material deprivation forced the newlyweds to live for some time with Ivan Petrovich’s brother, Dmitry, who worked as an assistant to the famous Russian chemist D.I. Mendeleev and had a government-owned apartment, and with his friend N. Simanovsky. There was grief in the Pavlovs’ family life: their first two sons died in infancy.
Ivan Petrovich was completely devoted to his favorite work. He often spent his meager earnings on the purchase of experimental animals and other needs of research work in the laboratory. The family experienced a particularly difficult financial situation during the period when Pavlov was preparing his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences. Serafima Vasilievna repeatedly begged him to speed up his defense, rightly reproaching him that he was always busy helping his students in the laboratory and had completely abandoned his own scientific affairs. But Pavlov was inexorable; he sought to obtain increasingly significant and reliable scientific facts for his doctoral dissertation and did not think about speeding up its defense. Over time, material hardships became a thing of the past, especially after the scientist was awarded the Warsaw University Prize. Adam Chojnacki (1888).
In 1883, Pavlov brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation on the centrifugal nerves of the heart. He found that there are special nerve fibers that influence the metabolism in the heart and regulate its functioning. These studies laid the foundation for the study of the trophic nervous system. In June 1884, Ivan Petrovich was sent to Leipzig, where for two years he worked together with famous physiologists K. Ludwig and R. Heidenhain. The trip abroad enriched Pavlov with new ideas. He established personal contacts with prominent figures of foreign science.
Returning to his homeland with solid scientific baggage, Ivan Petrovich began lecturing on physiology at the Military Medical Academy (as the Military Surgical Academy had been renamed by this time), as well as to doctors at a clinical military hospital and enthusiastically continued his research in a shabby laboratory at the Botkin clinic . She was housed in a small, dilapidated wooden house, completely unsuited for scientific work, which was originally intended either for a janitor's room or for a bathhouse. There was a lack of necessary equipment, and there was not enough money to purchase experimental animals and for other research needs. But all this did not prevent Pavlov from developing vigorous activity here.
Over the years of work in the laboratory, the colossal capacity for work, indomitable will and inexhaustible energy of the scientist were fully revealed. He was able to lay a strong foundation for his future research into the physiology of digestion: he discovered the nerves that regulate the secretory activity of the pancreas, and carried out his now classic experiment with imaginary feeding of dogs. Pavlov believed that experiments on animals are necessary in resolving many complex and unclear issues of clinical medicine. In particular, he sought to elucidate the properties and mechanism of the therapeutic action of new or already used medicinal preparations of herbal and other origin.
Pavlov regularly reported on the results of his research on the pages of domestic and foreign scientific journals, at meetings of the physiological section of the Society of Natural Scientists of St. Petersburg and at congresses of the same society. For his length of service, in 1887 he was promoted to court councilor, and three years later he was appointed to the post of professor of pharmacology at Tomsk, and after that at the University of Warsaw and, finally, at the Military Medical Academy itself. The scientist held this position for five years, before moving to the Department of Physiology, which he continuously headed for three decades, successfully combining brilliant teaching activities with interesting, although limited in scope, research work. His lectures and reports were extremely successful. Ivan Petrovich captivated the audience with his passionate speech, unexpected gestures, and flaming gaze. The American scientist J.B. Kellogg, having attended one of the reports, said that if Pavlov had not become a famous physiologist, he would have made an excellent dramatic actor. But Pavlov considered the language of facts to be the best eloquence.
In 1890, the Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine was opened, created on the basis of the Pasteur Station with the financial support of the famous philanthropist - Prince A. Oldenburg. It was he who invited Pavlov to organize the department of physiology, which the scientist then continuously led for 46 years. Basically, Pavlov’s classical works on the physiology of the main digestive glands were carried out here, which brought him world fame. The fistula method developed by Pavlov was a major achievement and made it possible to study the functioning of the glands under different conditions and food composition. The operation did not disrupt the normal connections of the body with the environment and at the same time allowed for long-term observations.
Pavlov conducted all his research on dogs. The experimental animal was cared for after the operation no less carefully than a sick person. So, when studying such an important organ as the pancreas, and creating a small stomach for the purity of the experiment, the scientist needed three dozen dogs over the course of six months, none of which died. A clear proof of the correctness of the scientist’s ideas was the dog Druzhok, who became famous throughout the world. This was a real scientific victory for Pavlov, which was followed by a whole series of brilliant experiments. The scientist spoke about his experiences, observations and methods of work in the book “Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands” (1897). For this work, Ivan Petrovich became the fourth Nobel Prize laureate for outstanding achievements in the study of the physiology of digestion (1904). Before him, only doctors received this award. The physiologist's work was assessed as having "brought the greatest benefit to humanity." She immortalized the name of Pavlov and glorified Russian science.
On the initiative of Ivan Petrovich, a monument to the dog was erected in front of the institute building - a tribute to a faithful friend, assistant and full-fledged colleague in work. The inscription at its base reads: “Let the dog, man’s helper and friend since prehistoric times, be sacrificed to science, but our dignity obliges us to ensure that this happens without fail and always without unnecessary torment. Ivan Pavlov."
It is impossible not to note one feature of Pavlov’s life path: almost all of his achievements in science received official recognition from Russian state institutions much later than abroad. Ivan Petrovich became a professor only at the age of 46, and an academician only three years after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, although before that he was elected a member of academies in a number of countries and an honorary doctor of many universities. The scientist never received any government assistance and always urgently felt the need for permanent employees. Thus, in the department of physiology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, he had only two full-time researchers, in the laboratory of the Academy of Sciences - only one, and Pavlov paid him from personal funds. Influential tsarist officials were irritated by his democracy. All sorts of intrigues swirled around the scientist: noble ladies-hypocrites were constantly set against him, screaming about the sinfulness of scientific experiments on animals; defenses of dissertations by Ivan Petrovich’s employees often failed; his students had difficulty gaining titles and positions; when re-elected to the post of chairman of the Society of Russian Doctors, his candidacy was voted out, despite the fact that Pavlov did a lot of work in this post.
But with his authority, outstanding scientific achievements, and amazing temperament, Pavlov attracted young science enthusiasts like a magnet. Many Russian and foreign specialists worked under the guidance of a talented physiologist without monetary remuneration. Ivan Petrovich was the soul of the laboratory. He introduced a new form of scientific work - “collective thinking,” which is now called “brainstorming or storming.” At the collective tea parties introduced by scientists on Wednesdays, it was necessary to “let loose one’s imagination” - the creative process took place in front of everyone. This is how the Pavlovian scientific school took shape, which soon became the largest in the world. The Pavlovians completed almost half a thousand works, writing only about a hundred dissertations. A passionate gardener, Ivan Petrovich did not call his pets “jiggings” for nothing. His students E. Asratyan, L. Orbeli, K. Bykov, P. Anokhin eventually became academicians, headed entire areas of physiology, and created independent scientific schools.
Pavlov did not at all look like a scientific cracker. He was passionate about science and passionate about it. His wife recalled: “He loved all kinds of work. From the outside it seemed that this work was the most enjoyable for him, it made him so happy and amused. This was the happiness of his life.” Serafima Ivanovna called it “boiling of the heart.” Pavlov was like a small child, constantly coming up with various competitions, funny fines and incentives for employees. And Ivan Petrovich indulged in rest with the same rapture. Having started collecting butterflies, he turned into an excellent entomologist; growing vegetables, he became a breeder. In everything, Pavlov preferred to be first. And God forbid, if during a “quiet hunt” someone collected one mushroom more than him, the competition would start all over again. And even young people could not keep up with him in sports. Until his old age, Pavlov preferred walking and cycling to his personal car, on the horizontal bar and in his favorite game - gorodki - he had no equal.
When it seemed to everyone that the scientist had already reached the very top, he suddenly made a sharp turn from the study of digestion to the psyche. He was admonished: is it too late to take on a new problem at fifty-three years old, but Pavlov was adamant and switched all employees to the study of the nervous system. He “reached into the dog’s soul” because “psychic” salivation interfered with the purity of the experiments. The scientist understood that the psyche is not limited to lower unconditioned reflexes. The Stranger in Neuroscience conducted a groundbreaking experiment (now a classic) with a hungry dog that was asked to respond to the sound of a bell, which was associated with food. If a dog sees food (unconditioned stimulus) and at the same time hears the ringing of a bell (conditioned stimulus), then when the combination “food + bell” is repeated many times, a new reflex arc is established in the dog’s cerebral cortex. After this, saliva is released as soon as the dog hears the bell ringing. This is how Ivan Petrovich discovered conditioned reflexes (the term was introduced by Pavlov himself). Unconditioned reflexes are the same in all animals of the species, but conditioned reflexes are different.
Such a system of signals, formed in the cerebral cortex, the first signal system, exists in both animals and humans. But man has another signaling system, more complex and more advanced. It was developed in him in the process of thousands of years of historical development, and it is with it that the fundamental differences between the higher nervous activity of man and any animal are associated. Pavlov called it the second signaling system. It arose among people in connection with social work and is associated with speech.
For the purity of experiments on the development of conditioned reflexes, in 1913, thanks to a subsidy from Moscow philanthropist K. Ledentsov, a special building with two towers, called “towers of silence,” was built. They were initially equipped with three experimental chambers, and in 1917 five more came into operation. Using the developed method for studying conditioned reflexes, Pavlov established that the basis of mental activity is the physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. His research into the physiology of higher nervous activity (1st and 2nd signal systems, types of nervous system, localization of functions, systematic functioning of the cerebral hemispheres, etc.) had a great influence on the development of physiology, medicine, psychology and pedagogy.
Only in 1923 did Pavlov decide to publish a work, which he called “Twenty years of experience in the objective study of higher nervous activity (behavior) of animals.” Pavlov's doctrine of higher nervous activity is not just a brilliant page written in the history of science, it is an entire era.
Pavlov accepted the February Revolution with enthusiasm, believing “that the elective principle should underlie both the entire state system and individual institutions.” He reacted sharply negatively to the October Revolution, opposing the new authorities, even put on royal orders, which he never wore under the old regime, as well as a uniform, and in his office hung an oil portrait of the Prince of Oldenburg in a military frock coat with a general -adjutant aiguillette and imperial crown on top.
In 1922, due to a desperate financial situation that called into question further research, Pavlov turned to Lenin with a request to move his laboratory abroad. But he refused, citing the fact that Soviet Russia needs scientists like Pavlov. A special decree was issued, which noted “the exceptional scientific merits of Academician I.P. Pavlov, which are of great importance for the working people of the whole world”; a special commission headed by M. Gorky was tasked with “creating the most favorable conditions in the shortest possible time to ensure the scientific work of Academician Pavlov and his collaborators”; the relevant government organizations were asked to “print the scientific work prepared by Academician Pavlov in a luxurious edition” and “provide Pavlov and his wife with a special ration.” Ivan Petrovich refused the last point: “I will not accept all these privileges until they are provided to all laboratory workers.”
In 1923, Pavlov visited the United States and upon his return openly spoke out about the harmfulness of communism: “For the social experiment that the communists are conducting in the country, I would not sacrifice even a frog’s leg.” When in 1924 the Military Medical Academy in Leningrad began to dismiss those who had “non-proletarian origins,” Pavlov refused his honorary place in the Academy, declaring: “I am also the son of a priest, and if you expel others, then so do I.” I’ll leave!” In 1927, he was the only one who voted against the appointment of party functionaries to the Academy. The professor wrote a letter to I.V. Stalin, which contained the following lines: “In light of what you are doing to the Russian intelligentsia, demoralizing them and depriving them of all rights, I am ashamed to call myself Russian.”
And yet Pavlov did not leave his homeland, refusing the flattering offers of the Swedish and London Royal Societies. In the last years of his life, he became more loyal to the authorities and even stated that obvious changes for the better were taking place in the country. This turnaround occurred, apparently, as a result of increased government spending on science. The construction of the “tower of silence” was completed at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. On the scientist’s 75th birthday, the physiological laboratory of the Academy of Sciences was reorganized into the Physiological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now named after Pavlov), and on his 80th birthday, a special scientific institute-town began operating in Koltushi (near Leningrad) (the only scientific institution of its kind in the world). kind), nicknamed the “capital of conditioned reflexes.” Pavlov’s long-standing dream of an organic connection between theory and practice also came true: clinics for nervous and mental diseases were established at the institutes. All scientific institutions headed by him were equipped with the latest equipment. The number of permanent scientific and scientific-technical employees has increased tenfold. In addition to the usual large budget funds, the scientist was given significant sums each month to spend at his personal discretion. Regular publication of scientific works from Pavlov's laboratory began.
G. Wells noted in 1934 that “Pavlov’s reputation contributes to the prestige of the Soviet Union.” Elected a member of numerous scientific societies, academies, and universities, Ivan Petrovich in 1936 was recognized by the World Congress of Physiologists as the senior physiologist of the whole world (princeps physiologorum mundi).
The brilliant scientist was 87 years old when he diagnosed himself with swelling of the cerebral cortex (this was confirmed at autopsy). But Ivan Pavlovich died on February 27, 1936 from pneumonia. The death of the scientist came as a complete surprise to everyone. Despite his advanced age, he was physically very strong, burned with ebullient energy, worked tirelessly, and enthusiastically made plans for further work. The day before, Pavlov visited England, where he led the organization and holding of the XV International Congress of Physiologists, and visited his native Ryazan. However, the years took their toll, Ivan Petrovich was no longer the same as before: he looked unhealthy, got tired quickly and felt unwell. The illness and quick death of his youngest son Vsevolod turned out to be a heavy blow for Pavlov. But Ivan Petrovich stubbornly refused treatment, carefully recording all the symptoms of the disease. After another cold that developed into pneumonia, the country’s best medical forces were unable to save the life of the great scientist.
Pavlov told his employees that he would live for at least a hundred years, and only in the last years of his life would he leave the laboratory to write memoirs about what he saw on his long life path. This is probably the only thing he failed...
The famous American physiologist W. Cannon wrote: “In the teachings of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, I was always amazed by two phenomena. The extraordinary primitivism of the experiment and the possibility, precisely with the help of this primitivism, to see through the entire abyss of the human psyche and establish the basic principles of its work. On the one hand, such and such a number of drops of saliva in such and such a number of minutes, and on the other, the cornerstones of the physiology of higher nervous activity. Pavlov’s analogue in physical chemistry is Faraday, who substantiated electrodynamics using a piece of iron, a wire and a magnet. Both, of course, are geniuses without any reservations, having penetrated into the nature of things using childishly naive methods. This is their greatness and immortality. The banners of physiology of all countries bowed at his feet. On all continents of the globe they know the name of Pavlov, even children know him, they know his portrait - a man with a white beard, a cunning and smartest Russian peasant.”
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From the book Against the Current. Academician Ukhtomsky and his biographer author Reznik Semyon EfimovichIVAN PAVLOV Among the wide steppe, near the railway along which an armored train goes into the distance, there is a silver plane. Five-pointed stars are red on its wings, but on the fuselage there is a fresh inscription in French - “Vieux ami” (“Old friend”). The plane has a pilot in
From the author's book From the author's bookChapter fifteen. Ivan Pavlov and his team 1. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov and Nikolai Evgenievich Vvedensky belonged to the same generation, and their life paths were in many ways similar. Both came from families of provincial priests, both graduated from theological seminary, both
(1904) in physiology and medicine, author of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Born September 26 (14), 1849 in Ryazan. He was the eldest son in a large family of a parish priest, who considered it his duty to give his children a good education. In 1860, Pavlov was immediately admitted to the second class of the Ryazan Theological School. After graduating in 1864, he entered the theological seminary. Six years later, under the influence of the ideas of Russian revolutionary democrats, especially the works of Pisarev, and Sechenov’s monograph Brain reflexes left his studies at the seminary and entered the university. Due to the restrictions that existed at that time in choosing a faculty for seminarians, Pavlov first entered the Faculty of Law in 1870, then transferred to the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.
At that time, among the university professors were outstanding scientists - D.I. Mendeleev, A.M. Butlerov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.F. Tsion. In the third year of the university, not without the influence of Tsion, Pavlov decided to specialize in the field physiology.
In 1875 Pavlov graduated from the university with a candidate's degree in natural sciences. Zion invited him to become his assistant at the Department of Physiology of the Medical-Surgical Academy (since 1881 - Military Medical Academy, Military Medical Academy). He convinced the assistant to also get a medical education). In the same year, Pavlov entered the Moscow Art Academy in his third year and received a doctor’s diploma in 1879.
After Tsion left the academy, Pavlov refused the position of assistant at the department of physiology, offered to him by the new head of the department, I.R. Tarkhanov. He decided to stay at the Moscow Art Academy only as a student. Later he became an assistant to Professor K.N. Ustimovich at the Department of Physiology of the Veterinary Department of the Medical-Surgical Academy, where he did a number of works on the physiology of blood circulation.
In 1878, the famous Russian clinician Botkin invited Pavlov to work in his clinic (he worked here until 1890, conducting research on the centrifugal nerves of the heart and working on his doctoral dissertation; from 1886 he was the head of the clinic).
At the end of the 70s, he met his future wife, S.V. Karchevskaya. The wedding took place in May 1881; in 1884 the couple left for Germany, where Pavlov trained in the laboratories of the leading physiologists of that time, R. Heidenhain and K. Ludwig.
In 1890 he was elected professor and head of the Department of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy, and in 1896 - head of the Department of Physiology, which he headed until 1924. Since 1890, Pavlov also headed the physiological laboratory at the Institute of Experimental Medicine.
From 1925 until the end of his life, Pavlov headed the Institute of Physiology of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1904, he was the first Russian scientist to be awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in the field of digestive physiology.
Pavlov was elected a member and honorary member of many foreign academies, universities, and societies. In 1935, at the 15th International Congress of Physiologists, he was recognized as the oldest physiologist in the world for his many years of scientific work.
All the scientific work of the scientist is united by a common principle, which at that time was called nervism - the idea of the leading role of the nervous system in regulating the activity of organs and systems of the body.
Scientific method.
Before Pavlov, research was carried out using the so-called. “acute experience”, the essence of which was that the organ of interest to the scientist was exposed using incisions on the body of an anesthetized or immobilized animal. The method was unsuitable for studying the normal course of life processes, since it disrupted the natural connection between the organs and systems of the body. Pavlov was the first physiologist to use the “chronic method,” in which an experiment is carried out on a practically healthy animal, which made it possible to study physiological processes in an undistorted form.
Research on the physiology of blood circulation.
One of Pavlov's first scientific studies was devoted to studying the role of the nervous system in the regulation of blood circulation. The scientist found that cutting the vagus nerves that innervate the internal organs leads to profound impairments in the body’s ability to regulate blood pressure. As a result, it was concluded that significant pressure fluctuations are detected by sensitive nerve endings in the vasculature, which send impulses signaling changes to the corresponding center of the brain. These impulses give rise to reflexes aimed at changing the functioning of the heart and the state of the vascular bed, and blood pressure quickly returns to the most favorable level.
Pavlov's doctoral dissertation was devoted to the study of the centrifugal nerves of the heart. The scientist proved the presence of “triple nerve control” on the heart: functional nerves that cause or interrupt the activity of the organ; vascular nerves, which regulate the delivery of chemical material to the organ, and trophic nerves, which determine the exact size of the final utilization of this material by each organ and thereby regulate the vitality of the tissue. The scientist assumed the same triple control in other organs.
Research on the physiology of digestion.
The method of “chronic experiment” allowed Pavlov to discover many laws of the functioning of the digestive glands and the digestive process in general. Before Pavlov, there were only some very vague and fragmentary ideas about this, and the physiology of digestion was one of the most backward sections of physiology.
Pavlov's first research in this area was devoted to studying the functioning of the salivary glands. The scientist established a relationship between the composition and amount of saliva secreted and the nature of the irritant, which allowed him to draw a conclusion about the specific excitability of different receptors in the oral cavity by each of the irritating agents.
Studies concerning the physiology of the stomach are Pavlov's most significant achievements in explaining the processes of digestion. The scientist proved the existence of nervous regulation of the activity of the gastric glands.
Thanks to the improvement of the operation to create an isolated ventricle, it was possible to distinguish two phases of gastric juice secretion: neuro-reflex and humoral-clinical. The result of the scientist’s research in the field of digestive physiology was his work entitled Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands, published in 1897. This work was translated into German, French and English within several years and brought Pavlov worldwide fame.
Research on the physiology of higher nervous activity.
Pavlov moved on to the study of the physiology of higher nervous activity, trying to explain the phenomenon of mental salivation. The study of this phenomenon led him to the concept of a conditioned reflex. A conditioned reflex, unlike an unconditioned one, is not innate, but is acquired as a result of the accumulation of individual life experience and is an adaptive reaction of the body to living conditions. Pavlov called the process of formation of conditioned reflexes higher nervous activity and considered this concept equivalent to the term “mental activity.”
The scientist identified four types of higher nervous activity in humans, which are based on ideas about the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition. Thus, he laid a physiological foundation for the teachings of Hippocrates on temperaments.
Pavlov also developed the doctrine of signal systems. According to Pavlov, a specific feature of a person is that, in addition to the first signal system, common with animals (various sensory stimuli coming from the outside world), he also has a second signal system - speech and writing.
The main goal of Pavlov's scientific activity was to study the human psyche using objective experimental methods.
Pavlov formulated ideas about the analytical-synthetic activity of the brain and created the doctrine of analyzers, the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex and the systematic nature of the work of the cerebral hemispheres.
Publications: Pavlov I.P. Complete set of works, 2nd ed., vol. 1–6, M., 1951–1952; Selected works, M., 1951.
Artem Movsesyan
Ivan Pavlov is a famous Russian scientist whose works are highly appreciated and recognized by the scientific world community. The scientist made important discoveries in the field of physiology and psychology. Pavlov is the creator of the science of higher nervous activity in humans.
Ivan Petrovich was born in 1849, on September 26, in Ryazan. This was the first child of ten born into the Pavlov family. Mother Varvara Ivanovna (maiden name Uspenskaya) was raised in a family of clergy. Before marriage, she was a strong, cheerful girl. Childbirth, one after another, had a negative impact on the woman’s health. She was not educated, but nature endowed her with intelligence, practicality and hard work.
The young mother raised her children correctly, instilling qualities through which they would successfully realize themselves in the future. Pyotr Dmitrievich, Ivan's father, was a truthful and independent priest of peasant origin, who presided over services in a poor parish. He often came into conflict with management, loved life, was not sick, and willingly looked after his garden.
The nobility and pastoral zeal of Pyotr Dmitrievich eventually made him the rector of the church in Ryazan. For Ivan, his father was an example of perseverance in achieving goals and striving for excellence. He respected his father and listened to his opinion. Following the instructions of his parents, in 1860 the boy entered a theological school and took the initial seminary course.
In early childhood, Ivan was rarely sick, grew up as a cheerful and strong boy, played with children and helped his parents with housework. Father and mother instilled in their children the habit of working, maintaining order in the house, and being neat. They worked hard themselves, and they demanded the same from their children. Ivan and his younger brothers and sisters carried water, chopped wood, lit the stove and performed other household chores.
The boy was taught to read and write from the age of eight, but he went to school at 11. The reason for this was a severe bruise received when falling down the stairs. The boy lost his appetite and sleep, he began to lose weight and turn pale. Home treatment did not help. Things began to improve when the child, exhausted by illness, was taken to the Trinity Monastery. The abbot of the monastery, who was visiting the Pavlovs’ house, became his guardian.
Health and vitality were restored thanks to gymnastic exercises, good food and clean air. The abbot was educated, well-read and led an ascetic life. Ivan learned the book given by his guardian and knew it by heart. It was a volume of fables, which later became his reference book.
Seminary
The decision to enter the theological seminary in 1864 was made by Ivan under the influence of his spiritual mentor and parents. Here he studies natural sciences and other interesting subjects. Actively participates in discussions. Throughout his life, he remains an avid debater, furiously fighting with the enemy, refuting any of his opponent’s arguments. At the seminary, Ivan becomes the best student and is additionally engaged in tutoring.
Young Ivan Pavlov in seminary Gets acquainted with the works of great Russian thinkers, imbued with their desire to fight for freedom and a better life. Over time, his preferences concentrate on natural science. Acquaintance with I.M. Sechenov’s monograph “Reflexes of the Brain” played a big role in this. The realization comes that the career of a clergyman is not interesting to him. Begins to study the subjects necessary for admission to the university.
Physiology
In 1870 Pavlov moved to St. Petersburg. He enters the university, studies well, at first without a scholarship, since he had to transfer from one faculty to another. Later, the successful student is awarded an imperial scholarship. Physiology is his main hobby, and from the third year onwards it has been his main priority. Under the influence of the scientist and experimenter I.F. Tsion, the young man finally makes his choice and devotes himself to science.
In 1873, Pavlov began research work on frog lungs. In collaboration with one of the students, under the guidance of I.F. Tsiona, he writes a scientific paper on how the nerves of the larynx affect blood circulation. Soon, together with student M. M. Afanasyev, he studies the pancreas. The research work is awarded a gold medal.
Student Pavlov graduates from the educational institution a year later, in 1875, as he remains for a repeat course. Research work takes a lot of time and effort, so he fails his final exams. Upon graduation, Ivan is only 26 years old, he is full of ambitions, and wonderful prospects await him.
Since 1876, Pavlov has been assisting Professor K.N. Ustimovich at the Medical-Surgical Academy and at the same time studying the physiology of blood circulation. The works of this period are highly appreciated by S. P. Botkin. A professor invites a young researcher to work in his laboratory. Here Pavlov studies the physiological characteristics of blood and digestion
Ivan Petrovich worked in the laboratory of S.P. Botkin for 12 years. The biography of the scientist of this period was replenished with events and discoveries that brought world fame. It's time for change.
It was not easy for a simple person to achieve this in pre-revolutionary Russia. After unsuccessful attempts, fate gives a chance. In the spring of 1890, the Universities of Warsaw and Tomsk elected him professor. And in 1891, the scientist was invited to the University of Experimental Medicine to organize and create a department of physiology.
Until the end of his life, Pavlov permanently led this structure. At the university he conducts research on the physiology of the digestive glands, for which in 1904 he received a prize, which became the first Russian prize in the field of medicine.
The coming to power of the Bolsheviks turned out to be a blessing for the scientist. I appreciated his work. Favorable conditions conducive to fruitful work were created for the academician and all employees. Under Soviet rule, the laboratory was modernized into the Physiological Institute. On the occasion of the scientist’s 80th birthday, an institute-town was opened near Leningrad; his works were published in the best publishing houses.
Clinics were opened at the institutes, modern equipment was purchased, and the staff increased. Pavlov received funds from the budget and additional amounts for expenses, and felt gratitude for such an attitude towards science and himself.
A special feature of Pavlov’s technique was that he saw a connection between physiology and mental processes. Works on the mechanisms of digestion became the starting point for the development of a new direction in science. Pavlov has been conducting research in the field of physiology for more than 35 years. He created the method of conditioned reflexes.
Ivan Pavlov - author of the project "Pavlov's Dog" The experiment, called “Pavlov’s dog,” consisted of studying the animal’s reflexes to external influences. During it, after a signal with a metronome, food was given to the dog. After the sessions, the dog began to salivate without food. This is how the scientist derives the concept of a reflex formed on the basis of experience.
In 1923, the first description of twenty years of experience with animals was published. In science, Pavlov made the most serious contribution to the knowledge of brain functions. The results of research supported by the Soviet government were stunning.
Personal life
The talented young man meets his first love, the future teacher Serafima Karchevskaya, in the late seventies. Young people are united by common interests and ideals. In 1881 they got married. The family of Ivan and Seraphima had two daughters and four sons.
The first years of family life turned out to be difficult: there was no home of our own, and there was not enough money for the necessities. The tragic events associated with the death of the first-born and another young child undermined the wife’s health. This unsettled and led to despair. Encouraging and consoling, Seraphima brought her husband out of severe melancholy.
Subsequently, the couple’s personal life improved and did not interfere with the young scientist’s career. This was facilitated by the constant support of his wife. Ivan Petrovich was respected in scientific circles, and his warmth and enthusiasm attracted friends to him.
Death
From photographs taken during the scientist’s life, a cheerful, attractive, bushy-bearded man looks at us. Ivan Petrovich had enviable health. The exception was colds, sometimes with complications such as pneumonia.
Pneumonia caused the death of the 87-year-old scientist. Pavlov died on February 27, 1936, his grave is located at the Volkovsky cemetery.
Bibliography
- Centrifugal nerves of the heart. Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
- Twenty years of experience in the objective study of higher nervous activity (behavior) of animals.
- Lectures on the work of the cerebral hemispheres.
- Physiology and pathology of higher nervous activity.
- Latest reports on the physiology and pathology of higher nervous activity.
- Complete collection of works.
- Articles on the physiology of blood circulation.
- Articles on the physiology of the nervous system.
Ivan Pavlov is one of the most prominent scientific authorities in Russia, and what can I say, in the whole world. Being a very talented scientist, throughout his life he was able to make an impressive contribution to the development of psychology and physiology. It is Pavlov who is considered the founder of the science of higher nervous activity in humans. The scientist created the largest physiological school in Russia and made a number of significant discoveries in the field of regulation of digestion.
Brief biography
Ivan Pavlov was born in 1849 in Ryazan. In 1864, he graduated from the Ryazan Theological School, after which he entered the seminary. In his last year, Pavlov came across the work of Professor I. Sechenov, “Reflexes of the Brain,” after which the future scientist forever connected his life with serving science. In 1870, he entered the Faculty of Law at St. Petersburg University, but a few days later he was transferred to one of the departments of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. The department of the Medical-Surgical Academy, which was headed by Sechenov for a long time, after the scientist’s forced move to Odessa, came under the leadership of Ilya Zion. It was from him that Pavlov adopted the masterly technique of surgical intervention.
In 1883, the scientist defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic of centrifugal cardiac nerves. Over the next few years, he worked in the laboratories of Breslau and Leipzig, led by R. Heidenhain and K. Ludwig. In 1890, Pavlov held the positions of head of the department of pharmacology of the Military Medical Academy and head of the physiological laboratory at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. In 1896, the Department of Physiology of the Military Medical Academy came under his care, where he worked until 1924. In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for his successful research into the physiology of digestive mechanisms. Until his death in 1936, the scientist served as rector of the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Pavlov's scientific achievements
A distinctive feature of Academician Pavlov’s research methodology was that he connected the physiological activity of the body with mental processes. This connection has been confirmed by the results of numerous studies. The scientist’s works describing the mechanisms of digestion served as an impetus for the emergence of a new direction - the physiology of higher nervous activity. It was to this area that Pavlov devoted more than 35 years of his scientific work. His mind came up with the idea of creating a method of conditioned reflexes.
In 1923, Pavlov published the first edition of his work, in which he describes in detail more than twenty years of experience in studying the higher nervous activity of animals. In 1926, near Leningrad, the Soviet government built a Biological Station, where Pavlov launched research in the field of genetics of behavior and higher nervous activity of anthropoids. Back in 1918, the scientist conducted research in Russian psychiatric clinics, and already in 1931, on his initiative, a clinical base for studying animal behavior was created.
It should be noted that in the field of knowledge of brain functions, Pavlov made perhaps the most serious contribution in history. The use of his scientific methods made it possible to lift the curtain on the mystery of mental illness and outline possible ways for their successful treatment. With the support of the Soviet government, the academician had access to all the resources necessary for science, which allowed him to conduct revolutionary research, the results of which were truly stunning.
None of the Russian scientists of the 19th-20th centuries, not even D.I. Mendeleev, did not receive such fame abroad as academician Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). “This is the star that illuminates the world, shedding light on paths not yet explored,” said Herbert Wells about him. He was called a “romantic, almost legendary figure”, “citizen of the world.” He was a member of 130 academies, universities and international societies. He is considered the recognized leader of world physiological science, a favorite teacher of doctors, and a true hero of creative work.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in Ryazan on September 26, 1849 into the family of a priest. At the request of his parents, Pavlov graduated from theological school, and in 1864 he entered the Ryazan Theological Seminary.
However, a different fate was destined for him. In his father's extensive library, he once found a book by G.G. Levy “Physiology of Everyday Life” with colorful illustrations that captured his imagination. Another strong impression on Ivan Petrovich in his youth was made by the book, which he later remembered with gratitude all his life. This was the study of the father of Russian physiology, Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, “Reflexes of the Brain.” Perhaps it is not an exaggeration to say that the theme of this book formed the leitmotif of Pavlov’s entire creative activity.
In 1869, he left the seminary and first entered the Faculty of Law, and then transferred to the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University. Here, under the influence of the famous Russian physiologist Professor I.F. Zion, he forever connected his life with physiology. After graduating from university I.P. Pavlov decided to expand his knowledge of physiology, in particular human physiology and pathology. For this purpose, in 1874 he entered the Medical-Surgical Academy. Having completed it brilliantly, Pavlov received a two-year business trip abroad. Upon his arrival from abroad, he devoted himself entirely to science.
All works on physiology carried out by I.P. Pavlov for almost 65 years, mainly grouped around three sections of physiology: circulatory physiology, digestive physiology and brain physiology. Pavlov introduced a chronic experiment into practice, which made it possible to study the activity of a practically healthy organism. Using the developed method of conditioned reflexes, he established that the basis of mental activity is the physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Pavlov's research into the physiology of higher nervous activity had a great influence on the development of physiology, psychology and pedagogy.
Works by I.P. Pavlov’s blood circulation problems are associated mainly with his activities in the laboratory at the clinic of the famous Russian doctor Sergei Petrovich Botkin from 1874 to 1885. The passion for research completely absorbed him during this period. He abandoned his house, forgot about his material needs, his suit and even his young wife. His comrades more than once took part in the fate of Ivan Petrovich, wanting to help him in some way. One day they collected some money for I.P. Pavlova, wanting to support him financially. I.P. Pavlov accepted friendly help, but with this money he bought a whole pack of dogs to carry out the experiment that interested him.
The first serious discovery that made him famous was the discovery of the so-called amplifying nerve of the heart. This discovery served as the initial impetus for the creation of the scientific doctrine of nervous trophism. The entire series of works on this topic was formalized in the form of a doctoral dissertation entitled “Centrifugal Nerves of the Heart,” which he defended in 1883.
Already during this period, one fundamental feature of I.P.’s scientific creativity was revealed. Pavlova - to study a living organism in its holistic, natural behavior. Work by I.P. Pavlova in the Botkin laboratory brought him great creative satisfaction, but the laboratory itself was not convenient enough. That's why I.P. In 1890, Pavlov happily accepted the offer to take over the department of physiology at the newly organized Institute of Experimental Medicine. In 1901 he was elected a corresponding member, and in 1907 a full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1904, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion.
Pavlov's teaching on conditioned reflexes was the logical conclusion of all those physiological experiments that he performed on blood circulation and digestion.
I.P. Pavlov looked into the deepest and most mysterious processes of the human brain. He explained the mechanism of sleep, which turned out to be a type of special nervous process of inhibition that spreads throughout the cerebral cortex.
In 1925 I.P. Pavlov headed the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences and opened two clinics at his laboratory: nervous and psychiatric, where he successfully applied the experimental results he obtained in the laboratory to treat nervous and mental illnesses. A particularly important achievement in recent years of work by I.P. Pavlov was the study of the hereditary properties of certain types of nervous activity. To resolve this issue, I.P. Pavlov significantly expanded his biological station in Koltushi near Leningrad - a real city of science - for which the Soviet government allocated more than 12 million rubles.
Teaching of I.P. Pavlova became the foundation for the development of world science. Special Pavlovian laboratories were created in America, England, France and other countries. On February 27, 1936, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov passed away. After a short illness, he died at the age of 87. The funeral service according to the Orthodox rite, according to his will, was performed in the church in Koltushi, after which a farewell ceremony took place in the Tauride Palace. An honor guard of scientists from universities, technical colleges, scientific institutes, and members of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences was installed at the coffin.