Primitive society

) As sources of prehistoric times of cultures, until recently deprived of written language, there can be oral traditions transmitted from generation to generation.

Since data on prehistoric times rarely relate to individuals and do not even always say anything about ethnic groups, the main social unit of the prehistoric era of mankind is archaeological culture. All terms and periodization of this era, such as the Neanderthal or the Iron Age, are retrospective and largely conditional, and their precise definition is the subject of discussion.

Terminology

The synonym for "prehistoric period" is the term " prehistory», Which is used less frequently in Russian-language literature than similar terms in foreign literature (Eng. prehistory, dumb. Urgeschichte).

To indicate the final stage of the prehistoric era of any culture, when it itself has not yet created its own written language, but is already mentioned in the written monuments of other peoples, the term “protohistory” is often used in foreign literature (Eng. protohistory, dumb. Frühgeschichte) To replace the term primitive communal system, which characterizes the social structure before the rise of power, some historians use the terms "savagery", "anarchy", "primitive communism", "pre-civilization period" and more. In Russian literature, this term has not taken root.

Non-classical historians deny the very existence of communities and primitive communal system, interconnection, identity of power and violence.

From the stages of social development following it primitive communal system  distinguished by the lack of private property, classes and the state. According to neo-historians, who deny the traditional periodization of the development of human society, modern studies of primitive society refute the existence of such a social structure and the existence of communities, communal property under the primitive communal system, and in the future, as a logical result of the primitive communal system non-existence - communal agricultural land ownership until the end XVIII century in most countries of the world, including Russia, at least since the Neolithic.

The periods of development of primitive society

At different times, various periods of development of human society were proposed. So, A. Ferguson and then Morgan used the periodization of history, which included three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages were divided by Morgan into three levels (lower, middle and highest) each. At the stage of savagery, human activity was dominated by hunting, fishing, and gathering, there was no private property, there was equality. At the stage of barbarism, agriculture and cattle breeding appear, private property and social hierarchy arise. The third stage - civilization - is associated with the emergence of the state, class society, cities, writing, etc.

Morgan considered the lowest stage of wildness, which began with the formation of articulate speech, to be the earliest stage in the development of human society, the middle stage of wildness, according to his classification, begins with the use of fire and the appearance of fish food in the diet, and the highest stage of wildness with the invention of onions. The lowest level of barbarism, according to his classification, begins with the advent of pottery, the middle stage of barbarism with the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and the higher stage of barbarism with the beginning of the use of iron.

The most developed periodization is archaeological, which is based on a comparison of man-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, the history of mankind is mainly divided into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in the history of mankind, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay (utensils, brick buildings, sculpture) spread.

Periodization of the Stone Age:

• Paleolithic:
  • Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the oldest species of people and widespread Homo erectus .
  • The Middle Paleolithic is a period of displacement of erectus by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. In Europe, throughout the entire Middle Paleolithic period, Neanderthals dominate.
  • Upper Paleolithic - the period of domination of the modern type of people throughout the globe in the era of the last glaciation.
• Mesolithic and epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on how much the region was affected by the extinction of the megafauna as a result of the melting of the glacier. The period is characterized by the development of techniques for the production of stone tools and general human culture. Pottery is missing.
• Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still stone, but their production is perfected, ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper age

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek χαλκός   "Copper" + Greek. λίθος   "Stone") or Eneolithic (lat. aeneus  "Copper" + Greek. λίθος “Stone”)) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, Eneolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic period, copper implements were widespread, but stone still prevailed.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with an improvement in the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, late phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but in different cultures they differ. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost simultaneous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC e., known as bronze collapse, while in Western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age drags on for several centuries and culminates in the appearance of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

1. Early Bronze Age
2. Middle Bronze Age
3. Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

Iron Age Coin Treasure

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Among civilizations of the Bronze Age, it goes beyond the framework of the history of primitive society; among other peoples, civilization takes shape in the era of the Iron Age.

The term "Iron Age" is usually applied to the "barbarian" cultures of Europe, which existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from the ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, in connection with which information about them came to us either according to archeology, or according to references in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe in the era of the Iron Age M. B. Schukin identified six "barbarian worlds":

• proto-Germans (mainly Yastorf culture + south of Scandinavia);
• mainly protobalt cultures of the forest zone (possibly including the Proto-Slavs);
• proto-Finno-Ugric and Proto-Sama cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);
• steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);
• pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

The history of the development of public relations

The first tools of human labor were broken stone and a stick. People got their livelihood by hunting, which they conducted together, and gathering. Communities of people were small, they led a nomadic life, moving in search of food. But some communities of people who lived in the most favorable conditions began to switch to partial settledness.

The most important stage in human development was the emergence of language. Instead of the animal’s signal language, which facilitates their coordination on the hunt, people got the opportunity to use the language to express the abstract concepts of “stone in general”, “beast in general”. Such an application of the language made it possible to teach posterity in words, and not just by example, to plan actions before the hunt, and not during it, etc.

Any prey was shared between the entire collective of people. The tools, household utensils, jewelry were used by individuals, but the owner of the thing was obliged to share it, and besides, anyone could take someone else's thing and use it without demand (remnants of this are still found among individual peoples).

His mother was the natural breadwinner - at first she fed him with her milk, then generally assumed the obligation to provide him with food and everything necessary for life. This food was to be obtained by hunting men - brothers of the mother, belonging to her family. So cells began to form, consisting of several brothers, several sisters and children of the latter. They lived in community dwellings.

Specialists currently mainly believe that during the Paleolithic and Neolithic period - 50-20 thousand years ago - the social status of women and men was equal, although it was previously believed that matriarchy prevailed at first.

At first, neighboring clans and tribes exchanged what nature gave them: salt, rare stones, etc. Both whole communities and individuals exchanged gifts; This phenomenon is called donation. One of its varieties was "silent exchange." Then the tribes of farmers, pastoralists and those who ran the cattle-breeding economy were distinguished, and between the tribes with different economic orientations, and later within the tribes, the exchange of products of their labor developed.

Some researchers believe that tribes of hunters who did not accept an agricultural way of life began to “hunt” for peasant communities, taking away food and property. So there was a dual system of producing rural communities and former hunters robbing their squads. Leaders - leaders of hunters gradually switched from raiding robbery of peasants to regular regulated requisitions (tributes). Fortified cities were built for self-defense and protection of citizens from the attacks of competitors. The last stage of pre-state development of society was the so-called military democracy.

Power and social norms in a primitive society

The advent of religion

The primitive tribes did not have special worshipers; religious and magical rites were performed mainly by the heads of clan groups on behalf of the whole clan or by people who, by their personal qualities, gained a reputation for knowing methods of influencing the world of spirits and gods (healers, shamans, etc.). With the development of social differentiation, professional priests stand out, appropriating the exclusive right to communicate with spirits and gods.

see also

• Early history (protohistory)

Notes

References

• Alekseev V.P., Pershits A.I. History of primitive society: Textbook. for universities for special. "Story". - M.: Higher. school, 1990

• "The transition from a primitive society to a class: ways and development options."

The primitive era of mankind is a period that lasted until the invention of writing. In the XIX century, it received a slightly different name - “prehistoric”. If you do not delve into the meaning of this term, then it unites completely the entire time period, starting from the emergence of the Universe. But in a narrower perception, we are talking only about the past of a human species, which lasted until a certain period (it was mentioned above). If the media, scientists or other people use the word "prehistoric" in official sources, then the period in question is necessarily indicated.

Although the characteristics of the primitive era were formed bit by bit by researchers for several centuries in a row, the discoveries of new facts concerning that time are still being made. Due to the lack of written language, people compare the data of archaeological, biological, ethnographic, geographical and other sciences for this.

The development of the primitive era

Throughout the development of mankind, various classifications of prehistoric time have been constantly proposed. The historians Ferguson and Morgan were divided into several stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization. The primitive era of mankind, including the first two components, is divided into three periods:

Stone Age

The primitive era received its periodization. We can distinguish the main stages, among which there was At this time, all weapons and objects for everyday life were made, as you might guess, of stone. Sometimes people used wood and bones in their work. Closer to the end of this period appeared clay dishes. Thanks to the achievements of this century, the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution on the inhabited territories of the planet of the person has changed greatly, and also as a result of it, human evolution began. We are talking about anthropogenesis, i.e., the process of the emergence of intelligent beings on the planet. The end of the Stone Age was marked by the taming of wild animals and the beginning of the smelting of some metals.

According to time periods, the primitive era, to which this century belongs, was divided into stages:

Copper age

The epochs of primitive society, having a chronological sequence, differently characterize the development and formation of life. In various territorial areas, the period lasted for different times (or did not exist at all). Eneolithic could connect with the Bronze Age, although scientists still distinguish it in a separate period. The approximate time period is 3-4 thousand years BC. It is logical to assume that this primitive era was usually characterized by the use of copper devices. However, the stone did not go out of fashion. Acquaintance with new material was quite slow. Finding it, people thought it was a stone. Ordinary treatment at that time — blows in one piece against another — did not produce the usual effect, but copper nevertheless deformed. With the introduction of cold forging into everyday life, work with it went better.

Bronze Age

This primitive era has become one of the main, according to some scholars. People learned to process certain materials (tin, copper), due to which they achieved the appearance of bronze. Thanks to this invention, at the end of the century, collapse began, which occurred quite synchronously. We are talking about the destruction of human associations - civilizations. This entailed the long formation of the Iron Age in a certain area and the prolonged extension of the Bronze Age. The latter in the eastern part of the planet lasted a record number of decades. It ended with the advent of Greece and Rome. The century is divided into three periods: early, middle and late. During all these periods, the architecture of that time was actively developing. It was she who influenced the formation of religion and the worldview of society.

Iron Age

Considering the era of primitive history, we can conclude that it was the last before the advent of reasonable writing. Simply put, this century was conditionally set aside as objects from iron appeared, they were widely used in all areas of life.

Iron smelting was a laborious process for that century. After all, it was impossible to get real material. This is due to the fact that it is easily susceptible to corrosion and does not withstand many climatic changes. In order to get it from ore, a much higher temperature was required than for bronze. And casting from iron was mastered after too long a period of time.

Emergence of power

Of course, the emergence of power was not long in coming. Leaders in society have always been, even when it comes to the primitive era. Institutions of power did not exist during this period, and there was no political dominance. Here, greater importance was attached to social norms. They invested in customs, "laws of life", traditions. In the primitive system, all requirements were explained in sign language, and their violations were punished with the help of an outcast from society.

Now it’s hard to imagine that there was a time when there were no people on Earth. Several million years ago, nature was more diverse.

The animal world was full of amazing species, the remains of which are found during excavations. The climate was warm and very humid. Gigantic ferns covered the ground. However, the natural world was constantly changing, as weather and climatic conditions changed. Some species of plants disappeared and others appeared. Similar changes occurred in the animal kingdom.

A very, very long time ago the oldest humanoid apes appeared - driopithecus(from Greek drys - wood +pithekos — a monkey).Small, the size of a dog, they lived in trees. Dryopithecus were animals, but they became the most ancient ancestors of modern people. Millennia passed. Whether species of animals arose and disappeared. Nature seemed to be looking for the most successful forms that were better adapted to existence. The development of the animal and plant world, that is, evolution continued.

Thus, about 4.5 million years ago, a humanoid creature was formed in the natural environment, which modern scientists call australopithecus(from latin. australis — southern+ Greek pithekos - monkey).The structure of the skeleton, posture made it possible to briefly stand on the hind limbs. This ability became necessary when, due to the reduction in forest area, Australopithecus were forced to live in the steppes. Bipedalism made it possible to look around, notice danger from afar, and track down prey during the hunt. In addition, standing on their hind limbs, Australopithecus could hold the stick or stone in front, the first primitive weapon. This made them stronger in a duel with predators and helped to survive in the struggle for existence. The habit of uprightness helped to move faster, that's why Australopithecus finally go to upright posture.But they still remained animals, since their actions were guided not by consciousness, but by animal instincts.

Evolution continued, and about 1.75 million years ago another species of animals appeared, which was named prejinganthrop(from latin. prae -  before + ancient arab. zinj -  name of East Africa + Greek anthropos- person).

The movements of the presinjanthropus were not yet conscious and agile, but he already knew how to use stone debris or sticks. Science calls such a creature " skilled man"(In Latin" Homo habilis "). Such human-like creatures settled throughout Africa and for about one million years ago began to assimilate Europe and Asia.

The paths that the first people followed on the territory  modern Ukrainenot finally clarified. Researchers believe that they were moving from East Africa, where their ancestral home was, through West Asia and the Balkans to Central Europe via Ukrainian Transcarpathia.

The oldest in Ukraine is the parking lot found near the village. Korolevo in Transcarpathia. Archaeologists have found primitive sites in Des-nes (Mizin, Pushkari, Mulatov), \u200b\u200bthe Dnieper (Kruglik, Kirillovka), the Dniester (now the territory of Moldova), in the Donbass (Androsovka).  Material from the site

Scientists did not dare to recognize the "habilis" as a man, since he was not work,i.e., the impact on objects with the help of tools, in which the final result is realized. So labor is conscious action. It is inherent only to people.

Appeared among different peoples at different times, the term for many cultures prehistoric  either not applied, or its meaning and temporal boundaries do not coincide with humanity as a whole. In particular, the periodization of pre-Columbian America does not coincide in stages with Eurasia and Africa (see Mesoamerican chronology, chronology of North America, pre-Columbian chronology of Peru). As sources of prehistoric times of cultures, until recently deprived of written language, there can be oral traditions passed down from generation to generation.

In foreign literature the term “protohistory” is often used to refer to the final stage of the prehistoric era of a culture, when it itself has not yet created its own written language, but is already mentioned in written monuments of other peoples. In Russian literature, this term has not taken root.

Since data on prehistoric times rarely relate to individuals and do not even always say anything about ethnic groups, the main social unit of the prehistoric era of mankind is archaeological culture. All terms and periodization of this era, such as the Neanderthal or the Iron Age, are retrospective and largely conditional, and their precise definition is the subject of discussion.

Primitive communal system  - a Marxist term, meaning the very first socio-economic formation, when all members of society were in the same relation to the means of production, and the way to get a share of the social product was the same for everyone ("primitive communism"). From the stages of social development following it, the primitive communal system is distinguished by the absence of private property, classes and the state.

The periods of development of primitive society

At different times, various periods of development of human society were proposed. So, A. Ferguson and then Morgan used the periodization of history, which included three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages were divided by Morgan into three levels (lower, middle and highest) each. At the stage of savagery, human activity was dominated by hunting, fishing, and gathering, there was no private property, there was equality. At the stage of barbarism, agriculture and cattle breeding appear, private property and social hierarchy arise. The third stage - civilization - is associated with the emergence of the state, class society, cities, writing, etc.

Morgan considered the lowest stage of savagery to be the earliest stage in the development of human society, the middle step of savagery, according to his classification, begins with the use of fire and the introduction of fish food, and the highest step of savagery with the invention of onions. The lowest level of barbarism, according to his classification, begins with the advent of pottery, the middle stage of barbarism with the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and the higher stage of barbarism with the beginning of the use of iron.

The most developed periodization is archaeological, which is based on a comparison of man-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, the history of mankind is mainly divided into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

In the 40s of the XX century. Soviet scientists P.P. Efimenko, M.O. Kosven, A.I. Pershits, and others proposed periodization systems of primitive society, the criterion of which was the evolution of ownership, the degree of division of labor, family relations, etc. In a generalized form, such periodization can be represented as follows:

2) the era of the tribal system;

3) the era of decomposition of the communal clan system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property).

All periodization systems are imperfect in their own way. There are many examples where stone tools of the Paleolithic or Mesolithic form were used among the peoples of the Far East in the 16th-17th centuries, while they had a clan society and developed forms of religion and family. At present, it is believed that the universal periodization of the primitive system ends on the Mesolithic, when cultural development accelerated sharply and proceeded at different rates at different nations. The following is the generally accepted archaeological periodization of the main stages of development of primitive society. At the same time, cultures that existed simultaneously can be at different stages of development, in connection with which, for example, Neolithic cultures can be adjacent to chalcolithic or Bronze Age cultures.

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in the history of mankind, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay (utensils, brick buildings, sculpture) spread.

Periodization of the Stone Age:

• Paleolithic:
  • Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the oldest species of people and widespread Homo erectus .
  • The Middle Paleolithic is a period of displacement of erectus by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. In Europe, throughout the entire Middle Paleolithic period, Neanderthals dominate.
  • Upper Paleolithic - the period of domination of the modern type of people throughout the globe in the era of the last glaciation.
• Mesolithic and epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on how much the region was affected by the extinction of the megafauna as a result of the melting of the glacier. The period is characterized by the development of techniques for the production of stone tools and general human culture. Pottery is missing.
• Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still stone, but their production is perfected, ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper age

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek χαλκός   "Copper" + Greek. λίθος   "Stone") or Eneolithic (lat. aeneus  "Copper" + Greek. λίθος “Stone”)) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, Eneolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic period, copper implements were widespread, but stone still prevailed.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with an improvement in the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, late phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but in different cultures they differ. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost simultaneous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as bronze collapse, while in Western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age drags on for several centuries and culminates in the appearance of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

1. Early Bronze Age
2. Middle Bronze Age
3. Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Among civilizations of the Bronze Age, it goes beyond the framework of the history of primitive society; among other peoples, civilization takes shape in the era of the Iron Age.

The history of the development of public relations

The first tools of human labor were broken stone and a stick. People got their livelihood by hunting, which they conducted together, and gathering. Communities of people were small, they led a nomadic life, moving in search of food. But some communities of people who lived in the most favorable conditions then began to switch to partial settledness.

The main difference between a tribe of people and an animal flock was the invention of language. Instead of the animal’s signal language, which facilitates their coordination on the hunt, people got the opportunity to use the language to express the abstract concepts of “stone in general” and “beast in general”. Such an application of the language made it possible to teach young animals with words, and not just by example, to plan actions before hunting, and not during, etc. The very first tribe of proto-humans, who invented the language and social organization based on it, received such gigantic advantages that quickly ousted all other hominids from its ecological niche, and living humanity is the descendants of this only tribe.

Any prey was shared between the entire collective of people. The tools, household utensils, jewelry were used by individuals, but the owner of the thing was obliged to share it, and besides, anyone could take someone else's thing and use it without demand (remnants of this are still found among individual peoples).

His mother was the natural breadwinner - at first she fed him with her milk, then generally assumed the obligation to provide him with food and everything necessary for life. This food was to be obtained by hunting men - brothers of the mother, belonging to her family. So cells began to form, consisting of several brothers, several sisters and children of the latter. They lived in community dwellings.

Specialists currently mainly believe that during the Paleolithic and Neolithic period - 50-20 thousand years ago - the social status of women and men was equal, although it was previously believed that matriarchy prevailed at first.

With the invention of the bow, hunting improved, a dog was tamed, which became an assistant to the man on the hunt.

Gradually, hunting led to the taming of animals - primitive cattle breeding appeared. Agriculture grew out of gathering: the seeds of wild plants collected by people and not fully used could sprout near the dwellings. It is believed that agriculture was first born in Asia Minor. This transition was called the Neolithic revolution (X-III millennium BC). The fact that livelihoods became better off resulted in a substantial increase in the total population: at the turn of the 5th – 4th millennia BC. e. About 80 million people have already lived on Earth. . Later, people mastered the smelting of metals (first copper, then iron), which allowed us to create more advanced metal tools.

A change in the economy from purely appropriating to producing has led to a change in society. Among the agricultural tribes, the type of settlement was the village in which one community lived, which from a clan turned into a neighboring one. Large communal houses are a thing of the past, and each house now has one patriarchal family. Ownership of land was collective — within the collective, individuals or families owned plots of land that could be cultivated, but could not be transferred to others for use. In some communities, land plots were redistributed annually, in others, redistribution occurred once every few years, in the third, it is possible that plots were distributed for life land use. Tools, housing, household utensils, clothes, jewelry, household equipment were privately owned, but remnants of their community use were preserved to this day.

The population growth of farmers and pastoralists was usually higher than that of hunter-gatherers due to the greater productivity of the producing economy. Also, a much larger area was suitable for their residence. Agrarian communities filled the Earth, as previously hunters had filled it.

An important element of social organization was men's unions. The male part of the community chose the leader from among the men who stood out from the general mass with personal talents, knowledge, wealth and generosity. The result of these processes was the emergence of privileged sections of society - leaders, priests, as well as the most successful in economic activity. There was a property inequality.

At first, neighboring clans and tribes exchanged what nature gave them: salt, rare stones, etc. Both whole communities and individuals exchanged gifts; This phenomenon is called donation. One of its varieties was "silent exchange." Then tribes of farmers, cattle breeders and those who conducted livestock and cattle breeding and between tribes with different economic orientations, and later within the tribes, the exchange of products of their labor developed.

The tribes of hunters who did not accept the agricultural way of life in a natural way began to "hunt" for peasant communities, taking away food and property. This is how the dual system of producing rural communities and princely squads robbing them - former hunters - developed. Princes - leaders of hunters gradually switched from raiding robbery of peasants to regular regulated requisitions. For self-defense and saving the sub-vassal population from the raids of competitors, prison, fortresses and cities were built.

The first states arose in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Ancient India at the end - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e.

In the XIX century. very few remains of the skeletons of ancient people were known. Now there are a lot of them. The oldest are found in Africa, therefore they believe that it was on this continent that the evolution of anthropoid apes, which continued for many millions of years, led to the appearance of man. 3.5-1.8 million years ago, creatures that were called Australopithecus - southern monkeys were already roaming the steppes of Africa. They had a small brain and massive jaws, but they could already move in an erect position and hold a stick or stone in their hands.

Scientists believe that the first stone tools appeared about 2.5 million years ago. These were stones with sharp edges and flakes from them. Such tools could cut a branch, remove the skin from a dead animal, chop a bone or dig a root from the ground. The one who made them received the name ^ skilled man * (homo habilis). Now he is considered the first representative of the human race.

"Skillful man" moved on his feet, and his hands were adapted not only to hold a stick or stone, but also to make tools. These ancient people did not know how to speak; like monkeys, they gave each other signals with shouts, gestures, grimaces. In addition to plant foods, they ate the meat of animals they probably hunted. Their groups were small and consisted of several males, females with cubs and adolescents.

About 1 million years ago, a new species appeared - “straightened man” (homo erectus), pithecanthropus, i.e. monkey man. This creature still resembled its ancestors - animals. It was covered with wool, had a low forehead and very prominent brow arches. But the size of his brain was already quite large, approaching the size of the brain of modern man. "Straightened Man" learned to make various tools from stone - large choppers of the correct form, scrapers, incisors. Such tools could be used to chop, cut, plan, dig, kill animals, remove skins from them, butcher carcasses.

The development of labor skills, the ability to think, to plan their activities allowed these people to adapt to life in different climatic conditions. They lived in the cold regions of Northern China and Europe, in the tropics of the island of Java, the steppes of Africa. During the existence of the “straightened man”, the ice age began. Due to the formation of glaciers, the level of the oceans decreased, between the previously separated land areas there appeared land “bridges”, on which people could penetrate, for example, on Java Island, where the first bones of the pithecanthropus were found.

The parking lots were located along the banks of rivers and lakes, in places where large herds of animals lived. Pithecanthropus sometimes lived in caves, but not in the depths, where it was dangerous, but at the exit. Brave hunters, the prey of which were large and strong animals, drove herds of deer, bulls, elephants onto cliffs, into ravines or ravines, where they killed them with spears and stones. The booty was shared between everyone. Primitive people began to use fire, which warmed them, protected them from animals and helped to hunt. On the fire began to cook food that was previously eaten raw. Hunting large animals, protecting against dangers, moving to new territories - all this required the combined efforts of many people. Their teams were supposed to be quite large and united. The complication of lifestyle has led to the fact that the elders began to educate the younger ones, and adolescents stayed with their parents and relatives longer than before. These people already knew how to speak. And yet, their physical development and the development of culture went very slowly: the Pithecanthropus, like the tools they created, remained almost unchanged, lasted about 1 million years.