The problem of the possibility of determining true and false information in communicative communication has recently become especially acute. We live in a constantly changing world, so this problem is more relevant now than ever. What can you really do to avoid falling into the trap that people sometimes set for each other? Moreover, it does not matter in what area the distortion of information occurs, in business, family or somewhere else. I would like to consider this problem comprehensively, understand the basic patterns and, as a result, develop a method for determining information distortion.

So, we have to communicate with a business partner. Where to start analyzing - is it possible that there is a distortion of information in this interaction or is it unlikely? First, let's determine what we already know about this person, about his behavior. How has he behaved in different situations before? Is this a person you can rely on or not? What are his weaknesses, vulnerabilities? We collect, collect and collect information about this person. And the amount of information should be directly proportional to the importance of the transaction. The greater the danger of losing a lot, the more carefully you need to prepare for the meeting. If we ourselves do not know this person, perhaps our business partners have worked with him and can somehow characterize him. This is already good. Because a person most often behaves in his usual way. If this is a scoundrel, then there is a high probability that he will try to deceive you too. As a rule, the circle of business partners with whom we communicate is quite small. Information spreads quickly. It is unlikely that you will not be able to collect the information you are interested in. Where did man come from? Who recommended him? Has the person who recommended you worked with him before? The range of questions is extensive, yes. But, really, it’s worth the effort rather than “biting your elbows” later. The trouble is that true scammers seem to be charming people at first, they easily find a common language with everyone, and win over their interlocutor. But the point is that it's their job. This is their piece of bread. And if they did not have these qualities, perhaps they would do something else. Our problems come from our occupation. People are sociable, but those who do not like to put effort into work also look for corresponding ways of income. Although, of course, one cannot say indiscriminately that all sociable people are scammers, it still doesn’t hurt to be on the safe side.

We can conditionally divide people into three large groups: these are people who professionally distort information, born liars - there is such a category of people; and we are all the rest and the majority of people, deceiving each other from time to time out of necessity.

Who can be classified as professionals? These are not only professional swindlers, swindlers of all stripes, scammers, gypsy fortune tellers, but also such respected people as diplomats, artists (while playing a role, they transform into another person and, in fact, mislead other people). Another thing is that they play by the rules. We agreed so. For politicians and diplomats, distortion of information is also their daily bread, albeit to varying degrees. But I think no one doubts that in these areas there is by no means mutual openness. Next, I especially want to highlight pathological liars. They were described by P.B. Gannushkin in his work “Clinic of psychopathy, their statics, dynamics, systematics” (1). Let's turn to this work and figure out who these pathological liars are.

Pathological liars. These people “lie like they breathe.” They have a need to attract attention and dazzle other people with the brilliance of their personality. Most often these are people with certain abilities. They are smart, resourceful, quickly learn everything new, speak beautifully and know how to use any knowledge they have for their own purposes. They may seem educated but have only superficial knowledge. These people quickly make acquaintances, adapt well to people, and easily gain trust. They know how to behave with dignity, are dexterous and graceful, they care about their appearance and the impression they make on the people around them.

But it should also be noted that they lack genuine interest in anything not related to their personality. They have no endurance or diligence. They are easily distracted and scattered. Work that requires perseverance and accuracy is intolerable for them. These are frivolous people, incapable of deep feelings and affections. They love only themselves.

They lie masterfully, often getting carried away by their own fantasies and forgetting that it is a lie. It is impossible to understand from their behavioral signs that they are lying, because they themselves sincerely believe in what they say. Their behavior and words are congruent. With their rich imagination, they can describe in great detail the furnishings of a non-existent villa that supposedly belongs to them. Moreover, they can go and show someone’s villa under the guise of their own. These are numerous swindlers posing as very rich people. These are charlatans who arrogate to themselves the titles of doctors, engineers, and bank directors. Such are the swindlers and even petty street swindlers who talk about their “misfortunes.” They lie with confidence. It is impossible to confuse them with anything. Being pressed against the wall, they can easily be twisted out. Sometimes they themselves begin to believe what they say.

As you can see, it is quite difficult to compete with them. Having identified one or only suspected it, it is better to step aside in time - because there is a high probability that they will outplay you. These are virtuosos of deception, distortion of information, and it is often extremely difficult to guess that they are distorting information. You involuntarily succumb to their charm, their charms. In any case, you need to know that such people exist and take into account their professionalism. Better yet, don't have anything to do with them.

Now only the “amateurs” remain. They can be divided into those who believe in what they say, i.e. is mistaken. His truth is simply not true. In this case, the person is completely congruent; there are no physical signs of lying. Here it is advisable to look for logical inconsistencies and carefully check the essence of the information. And the second group - the person does not believe in what he says, i.e. he realizes that he is deliberately lying to you. Such lies can often be identified by physical signs, slips of the tongue, facial expressions, etc. In any of the cases presented to you, you first need to determine the motives for distorting information, i.e. answer the question: why? Why does a person need this? It is unlikely that normal people would lie for the love of art. As lawyers say, look for who benefits from it and you won’t go wrong.

All amateur deceivers can also be divided into two other categories: some distort information because circumstances force them to do so, and others because they cannot act otherwise. We can say that this is a variant of child protection: to lie so as not to be scolded. A person has grown up a long time ago, but continues to remain a small child at heart, and just as he used to defend himself from the anger of his parents, so now he defends himself from the outside world. He doesn't know any other way. Moreover, such people, as a rule, consider the entire world around them to be dishonest. This is their psychological defense mechanism. A person tries to find an excuse for his behavior, finds real or fictitious reasons for this. On the other hand, if you distort information, you must be prepared for the same from other people, because action is equal to reaction.

We dwelled in detail on two main points - the alleged motives for distorting information and what we know about this person, and partially touched upon the issue of personality structure. Because, based on the personality structure, everything, even motives, will be different. Thus, melancholic people often distort information in order to avoid trouble, while phlegmatic people often distort information in order to defend their socioeconomic interests. Cholerics - to be visible. The most striking example was Khlestakov. Baron Munshausen, etc.

Now let's look at various technological methods of distorting information. After all, only if you have a good command of the technology of deception, you can see the pitfalls in certain situations and step aside in time or use them, as in aikido, to strengthen yourself.

We have already said that the reasons for people’s distortion of information are varied. The communication of deliberately false information, regardless of the degree of intentionality, can be found in any field of activity - business, economics, politics, i.e. where a situation often arises in which an advantage can be achieved through distortion of information. That is why an individual or a group always tries to use these mechanisms to achieve goals. False information is used especially often during rivalry, hostile competition, and clashes of opposing interests. It is often used to achieve victory over an enemy, discredit him, deliberately mislead and achieve various other goals.

Untrue messages can be impulsive and episodic. However, there is also a strategic distortion of information aimed at gradually creating the desired image of a person in the eyes of a communication partner. In this case, the distortion of information is more complexly organized, its relationship with truthful information is usually calculated in advance, and special combinations are formed that are subordinate to a single goal. A person who uses false messages puts on the mask he needs and creates an image that is attractive to the target.

And it happens that distortion of information occurs not through the fault of the source of information, but during the process of its transmission, i.e. The source of misinformation is the transmission channel itself. People rarely think about how often the reason we misunderstand each other is due to errors that occur when transmitting a message. People remember mainly the meaning of a message, not the words with which it was conveyed. And if the meaning is misunderstood, then further errors follow. And then at the input and output we have completely different information. And who is to blame?

Another aspect of possible distortion of information is different interpretations of the same words depending on intonation, punctuation marks, context, or associations that different people have with the same words. Some people are so good at constructing phrases that, while actually deceiving their interlocutor, they formally remain right. Let us at least recall the situation from a children's cartoon. Depending on where the comma is placed, the meaning of the phrase changes completely: “Execution cannot be pardoned.”

But that’s not even the main thing. For any trick to succeed, the victim’s suspicions must first be lulled, because if a person feels the possibility of being deceived, he immediately withdraws and is wary. In this case, every word, every gesture is weighed in the mind. And vice versa, if we trust a person, we behave freely and relaxed. Therefore, if a person wants to deceive, he tries to inspire confidence in his victim and only after that begins to distort information. How he does it? All means are used, starting from the formation of an appropriate reputation, creating the image of a truthful person, creating a certain legend that would ensure uncritical perception on the part of the victim, flattery, playing on individual personal characteristics (remember the film of our childhood “The Adventures of Pinocchio” and the song of the fox Alice : “You don’t need a knife for a fool, you’ll tell him a lot of lies, and do whatever you want with him.” The potential victim develops a sense of self-worth. Dale Carnegie also wrote that “almost every person you meet considers himself in some way superior to you, and you will find the right way to his heart if you unobtrusively let him know that you recognize the important role that he plays in his little world , and acknowledge it sincerely."

The following methods of distorting information can be distinguished. Let's look at them in more detail.

Manipulation of information flow - there are many ways to manipulate information to create a false model of the surrounding reality in a person. We will consider some of these techniques separately.

Silence (concealment) is the transmission of incomplete true information, as a result of which the victim makes a mistake. A person withholds some information without saying anything that is not true. Not everyone believes that silence and lying are the same thing, therefore, if there is a choice of how to lie, people often prefer to remain silent about something, not to speak, rather than openly distort the facts. There are many benefits to hiding. Firstly, it is easier to hide than to manipulate the facts. There is no need to invent anything. There is no risk of getting caught due to the fact that the entire “legend” has not been worked out in advance. Concealment is also preferable because it is passive and seems less reprehensible than falsification. It can also be much easier to cover up later if it is exposed. The man doesn't go too far. There are many excuses: ignorance, desire to talk about it later, bad memory, etc. By feigning a memory lapse, the distorter avoids the need to remember the “legend”: all that needs to be remembered is the statement about the bad memory. But memory loss can only be referred to if it is about minor things or something that happened some time ago, otherwise it will not be believable.

Selection is a selective pass to the victim of only information beneficial to the deceiver.

When competing with a business partner, it is also much easier to hide information from him than to dispute it in a polemic. The ability to competently hide something from your opponent is the most important component of the art of diplomacy. The professionalism of a polemicist lies in skillfully evading the truth without resorting to outright lies.

Distortion is a way of presenting information when attention is drawn only to the facts that are most beneficial for the source of information; it is a conscious emphasis on only some aspects of the phenomenon that are beneficial to the deceiver. This also includes creating an appropriate design that presents the issue from a certain angle.

Distortion is an understatement, exaggeration, or out of proportion. A typical example of distortion of the proportions of transmitted information from battlefields. The American psychologist F. Butler proposed a simple version of seemingly objective two-sided argumentation: he advised bringing the strongest, most convincing arguments in favor of “your” position, and the weakest ones in favor of the “other” side. This way you can show the inconsistency of any opponent. You can also compare obviously unequal categories. Non-experts won't even notice it.

Inversion - changing places, replacing “black” with “white”. Another Polish humorist writer E. Lec wrote: “Never change the truth! Change the truth!” This can be a substitution of goals: when one’s own interest is presented as the interest of another person. Remember how Tom Sawyer painted the fence (“Painting a fence is cool”).

Falsification (fraud) is the transmission of deliberately false information on the essence of the issue under consideration. This may be perjury, false statements and refutations, fabrication of facts, documents, etc.(1)

It has to be resorted to when silence alone is not enough. When falsifying, a person takes the next step: he not only conceals true information, but also presents false information as true. The real state of affairs is hidden and the partner receives deliberately false information, which can be presented in the form of false documents, links to non-existent sources, experiments, etc.

In some cases, an untrue message requires fabrication from the very beginning; concealment alone is not enough. For example, if you need to distort information about previous work experience in order to get a good place when applying for a job. It is necessary not only to hide inexperience, but also to come up with a suitable work history. Fraud is also inevitable if it is necessary to disguise what a person needs to hide. This is especially necessary when it comes to hiding emotions. It is easy to hide an emotion that has already been experienced, and it is much more difficult to hide one that is being experienced at the moment, especially if it is a strong feeling. Horror is more difficult to hide than anxiety, rage is more difficult to hide than irritation.

Most often, a person fails because some sign of hidden emotion leaks out. The stronger the emotion, the more likely it is that some sign of it will leak through, despite all attempts to hide it. Imitating another, unexperienced emotion can help mask the hidden experience. By falsifying an emotion, one can cover up the leakage of signs of a secret experience. It is much easier to put on a mask, slow down or extinguish, with a number of other actions, those that express the emotion being experienced. When your hands begin to tremble, it is much easier to do something with them - clench them into fists or squeeze them - than to force them to lie still. The best mask is a false emotion. Most often, a smile is used as a mask. It is the opposite of all negative emotions: fear, anger, suffering, disgust, etc. Another reason for the popularity of a smile as a mask is that it is the easiest of all facial expressions of emotion to spontaneously reproduce. For most people, it is more difficult to fake negative emotions. But not every situation allows you to mask the emotion you are experiencing. In some cases, you need to solve a much more difficult problem: how to hide an emotion without falsifying another.

False explanation - a person may also not hide his feelings, especially if he is unable to do so, but lie about their reason. While truthfully recognizing the emotion being experienced, he is misleading about the cause of its occurrence.

Disorientation is the transmission of irrelevant true or false information in order to distract from the essence of the issue at hand. Anything is reported, but not the essence of the matter. Types of disorientation such as flattery and slander are widely used. This technique is especially widely used by political leaders.

A half-truth is the mixing of significant true information with significant false information, the mixing of lies and reliable information; one-sided reporting of facts; inaccurate and vague wording of the provisions under discussion; references to sources with a disclaimer such as: “I don’t remember who said...”; distortion of a reliable statement using value judgments, etc. The “half-truth” technique is most often used when it is necessary to avoid an undesirable turn in a dispute, when there are no reliable arguments, but one must certainly challenge the opponent, when it is necessary, contrary to common sense, to persuade someone to a certain conclusion. What is being said is true, but only partially.

Planting false evidence - People are known to trust ideas that originate in their own heads much more than thoughts that come from another person. Therefore, experienced deceivers always try to avoid direct pressure on the victim, preferring an indirect, unobtrusive influence on his way of thinking. To do this, they seemingly randomly throw certain information at him, the conclusions of which he must draw himself. With a competent presentation of certain facts, a person must himself draw exactly the conclusions that the deceiver is counting on. At the same time, it is important that the principle be observed: evidence should be planted seemingly accidentally, indirectly, only then it does not arouse suspicion. This suggests a conclusion: having received evidence of someone’s guilt, think about whether there are people for whom such a development of events is favorable. It is possible that this information did not come to you by accident.

Creating a “non-existent reality” - with the help of small but expressive details, a corner of false space is created around the victim, which should give the words and actions of the scammers special persuasiveness.

Masking(2) – represents an attempt to hide some significant information with the help of some non-essential information. There are four main camouflage options:

Masking essential lies with unimportant lies.

Disguising an essential truth with an unimportant lie.

Disguising an essential lie with an insignificant truth.

Disguising essential truth with non-essential truth.

A false conclusion is another technique to avoid telling a lie. It consists in allowing the interlocutor to draw a conclusion from what was said himself, but at the same time leading him to ensure that this conclusion is false.

False interpretation - at the logical level is associated with the ability to introduce some false premises into consciousness. To implement them, they use such techniques as the “presumption of normality”: the communication of a large number of true and testable judgments, among which only one judgment is false. Because of this, it is quite difficult to detect an untrue judgment.

Changing the context - a real-life incident is given. But this case is transferred to another context. This makes it possible to retain in memory many small details related to a given incident, which creates the illusion of the truthfulness of the story. There is no need to compose something and specifically remember it.

The false expectation effect: successful distortion of information is based on it. A person who is being deceived, given the truthful information received, predicts the development of events in the most likely direction, and a person who distorts the information acts in a way that violates his expectations. The purpose of a false message is to direct the interlocutor’s thinking along the path of updating frequently encountered familiar situations. The deceived is always an unwitting accomplice in deception: he is a victim of his own inadequate ideas about reality. Also, deceivers can use true information, provoking the interlocutor to draw erroneous conclusions from it.

Deception "by contradiction" - the wolf caught the hare. And the hare asks him: “Do whatever you want with me, even eat me, just don’t throw me into the thorn bush.” “If he’s so afraid of it,” the wolf thought, “then I’ll throw him there.” So the smart hare deceived the stupid wolf.

Telling the truth under the guise of deception is another related method - telling the truth, but with delays, so that the victim does not believe it, i.e. telling the truth is deceitful. Otto von Bismarck said: “If you want to fool the world, tell it the truth.” Deception using the truth is a rare form of deception. It works very well. The main thing is that people, as a rule, do not expect such impudence. True, here you need to either have good self-control or be a good artist.

Those who want to be deceived are deceived. In many cases, the victim of deception misses the mistakes of the person distorting information, giving his ambiguous behavior the most favorable interpretation. This is done to avoid the dire consequences that could result from exposure. Often the victim both gains and loses from false information or from its exposure, but these results are not necessarily balanced.

Deception by permutation - when the potential victim is forced to try on the role of the deceiver. As a result of various psychological manipulations, the victim begins to think that he is deceiving others, but real scammers diligently maintain this illusion up to a certain point. And only in the finale everything falls into place.

In any case, the key point in the analysis of whether a given message is true or not is to determine the motives of the subject, to establish the reasons why he considers it necessary to remain silent about some facts known to him.

Perhaps one of the most important points in understanding a person by a person and recognizing possible deception on his part is determining his motives. Think: is there any reason or any interest for this particular person to keep silent about any facts or even change them altogether. It is not for nothing that the police, when solving crimes, always ask the question: who benefits from this? If you are about to enter into a trade deal with a partner, you may want to read the contract more carefully, especially the fine print. It’s even better to compose the text yourself so that there are no misunderstandings.

Psychological techniques for distorting information are quite diverse. And in order to understand the true or false information your interlocutor is communicating, you need to be able to easily “read” these techniques. And also be able to understand when someone is playing various games with you.

Now let's look at how situations of increased motivation are used to deceive a particular person. To successfully deceive, you need to take into account the desires of the person you want to deceive. If you determine what a person wants most and present him with deception as the fulfillment of his desires, he will definitely “buy it.” Or you can create such a strong need for something artificially and achieve the desired goal in this roundabout way.

There is a hierarchy of human needs proposed by A. Maslow (1):

1. Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, sexual desire, etc.

2. The need for security: to feel protected, to get rid of fear and failure, from aggressiveness.

3. The need for belonging and love: to belong to a community, to be close to people, to be recognized and accepted by them.

4. The need for respect (honor): competence, achievement of success, approval, recognition, authority.

5. Cognitive needs: to know, be able to, understand, explore.

6. Aesthetic needs: harmony, symmetry, order, beauty.

7. The need for self-actualization: realizing one’s goals, abilities, developing one’s own personality.

Here are the keys that will open any door. These are the buttons that people press, wanting to deceive us.

Using states of love and jealousy. A person in love looks at the world, and especially at the object of his love, through rose-colored glasses, through the prism of his feelings. Love, as a rule, is followed by jealousy, causing even stronger emotions. Sometimes it grips a person so strongly that it is already difficult for the arguments of reason to reach the mind. And this can also be used against.

Use of noble motives. A person often has two motives for any action: one that is real and another that looks good. Deep down, we know the true motive very well, but we are not always eager to talk about it openly. And here the scammers’ calculation is simple: they offer to perform an act that satisfies secret desires, but is dressed in the exquisite clothes of a noble act. For example, asking a man to help open the apartment door of a beautiful girl when she forgot her keys at home and whose husband is now on a business trip.

Using strong emotions. Sometimes, in order to deceive a person, you need to make him really angry. Another strong emotion is fear. It is fear that often allows you to manipulate a person in any way you like. One has only to introduce a drop of this feeling, and a person quickly loses the ability to act rationally. And you can easily direct the actions of a frightened person. Arousing suspicion through indirect hints is also a tried and true method of deception. Half-hints, drop by drop, introduce doubts into the victim’s consciousness. Especially if this is done “seemingly by accident.”

Use of individual characteristics. Each person has his own “golden key”, which allows you to penetrate his soul and influence his thoughts and actions. Here is the main set of such “keys”: greed, stupidity, fear, admiration for everything significant, extraordinary, pride, vanity, ambition.

Using greed. Deception based on greed has been used since ancient times. Greed is often the key that traps people who want to get rich instantly. But free cheese is only in a mousetrap.

We have already written about the first stage of information distortion – gaining trust. I would like to dwell on this issue in more detail. How is trust gained, how is a situation created in which people trust another person?

So, stage 1 - gaining trust is created with the help of an appropriate reputation, creating the image of a truthful, honest person, an open, charming smile, a confidential tone of conversation, creating a certain legend that ensures uncritical perception on the part of the object of deception, flattery, evoking pity, playing on individual personalities characteristics of a person, creating an appropriate role situation, inducing a sense of self-worth in a potential victim of deception, etc. Anyone who seeks to achieve his practical goal through deception, as a rule, acts under the guise of a champion of truth, goodness and justice. Let's outline ways to instill confidence:

1. inducing a sense of self-worth in the victim;

2. Using the guise of a champion of truth, goodness, and justice;

3. creation of a certain role situation;

4. creating the image of a simpleton;

5. Instills confidence with many small details

6. creating the image of an honest person

7. the use of noble motives: collecting money for the construction of an orphanage, temple, hospital, orphanage;

8. using a certain role that people are used to trusting (military, doctor, gas worker, policeman).

I would like to immediately focus on the most general recommendations: break the scenarios that they are trying to impose on you, dictate your terms. It’s not for nothing that we have known the following proverbs since childhood: “Trust, but verify,” “Trust in God, but don’t make a mistake yourself.” The wisdom of the people, the wisdom of centuries, often comes to our aid in difficult situations.

Separately, I would like to dwell on the definition of distortion of information by non-verbal signs of human behavior. What can body language and body language tell us?

The communication process is not only the verbal communication of people, it is a more comprehensive and multifaceted concept. We react with “body + mind and tongue.” They are connected to each other very deeply. The mental is reflected in the physical and vice versa - physical changes entail mental movements. In general, there is a rule: the posture changes, the person’s attitude changes. You can artificially change a person’s posture and thus influence his point of view. Gestures also reflect a person’s temperament.

We have two languages ​​that we have used since childhood - the language of words and body language. We are often not aware of body language; it is in the unconscious for us. It is body language, if we do not consciously control it, that sometimes conveys our desires and thoughts better than words. Freud, in his book “Psychology of the Unconscious,” wrote that “there is no secret that a mere mortal could hide. His lips are closed, but he blurts it out with his fingertips. From all his pores confession bursts out. Therefore, the task is to see the most secret and unravel it."

The diagnostic value of gestures lies in their spontaneity and immediacy, because a person most often is not aware of his gestures and does not pay conscious attention to it. Gesticulation changes in case of emotional upsurge or excitement, when events that are significant for a person occur. In case of discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal manifestations, the non-verbal will correspond to the true position of the person.

Even if we carefully think through the most sophisticated lies, our involuntary gestures can give away the head. At the same time, knowing the meaning of each gesture and consciously using it, we can signal our partner’s subconscious about our intentions and thereby exert a hidden influence on him, which will allow us to have an extra trump card to master the situation.

If you use gestures consciously, you will be able to convey your message to your interlocutor more accurately. It is necessary to take into account that your interlocutor can also know sign language and also use it for his own purposes. But there is one subtlety here: it is impossible to control ALL your movements; somewhere insincerity will still break through in the form of a “bodily slip”. This is exactly what you need to pay attention to. If a person's posture does not correspond to his words, then it is better to believe the body. Various options are possible here: either the person himself is not aware of his true desire, his true thoughts, or he is trying to deceive you. In any case, you need to take his words more carefully, check and double-check them. And under no circumstances should you make a decision without thinking it through thoroughly. This is a case where it is better to say “no” than to say “yes” and lose everything. In life, in general, it is better to be guided by the rule: if for some reason you doubt it, say “no.” Don't be afraid to offend! So that they don't offend you.

Now let's figure out what helps and what makes it difficult to identify false information (2).

The man knew that he would have to lie, and he prepared;

He is faced with the task of simply hiding some information, and not presenting it in a falsified form;

For the person who is being deceived, the distortion of information will not have negative consequences (in this situation, the person reporting untrue information is less susceptible to remorse and guilt, which negatively affect the “quality” of the untrue message);

The object of the lie trusts the interlocutor and does not expect untrue information from him;

The distortion of information is authorized and someone else bears responsibility for it, and the object of the lie is anonymous or has very different norms and values ​​(this situation reduces the feeling of guilt of the person distorting the information);

The person who is given false information is forced to hide his suspicion and must appear trusting. This will lead to the fact that significant mental effort will be spent on maintaining the image of a simpleton, to the detriment of a thorough analysis of the interlocutor’s behavior;

Captivity of a person who distorts information with a variety of strong emotions, which will lead to difficulties in determining the meaning of certain non-verbal signs (for example, why the person blushed: from shame for his lie, or from anger);

The need to determine the distortion of information by ear, i.e. inability to see the person you are talking to.

Lies are more difficult to detect when:

The need for a person distorting information to hide not the information, but the feelings that captured him at the time of the conversation. This is especially difficult to do in relation to negative emotions, as well as in cases where you need to be emotionally neutral, indifferent, i.e. there is no way to hide an unwanted emotion under the guise of another;

Personal acquaintance between the person distorting the information and the person to whom the false information is given, as well as their belonging to the same social and cultural group, which avoids errors associated with individual and cultural differences in verbal and non-verbal behavior;

The person who is given false information is known to be honest and decent. This often causes remorse in the person distorting information;

The high significance of the success of a lie for a person distorting information. Paradoxically, the more a person wants to lie, and therefore the more he strives to control his behavior, the greater the likelihood of being caught in a lie. The point is that such behavior will seem rehearsed and not spontaneous enough. In addition, due to the impossibility of equally successfully controlling all channels of information transmission, it is very likely that inconsistencies and mismatches will appear between, for example, face and body, face and voice, body movements, which will convey different (in terms of truth-falsity) information;

Lack of direct, face-to-face contact between the person distorting information and the object of the lie. Since in a situation of such contact one has to say something and follow the topic of conversation, the object’s attention is diverted from the task of detecting the untruth of information.

So, the signs of misrepresentation, which are known to everyone and include easily suppressed actions, cannot be very reliable if the stakes are high and the person does not want to be exposed. Behavioral indicators of information distortion, through which hidden information can leak, and which may indicate an unprepared version or give out an emotion that does not correspond to the chosen line of behavior.

Through slips of the tongue, emblematic slips and tirades, hidden information of any kind can leak out - emotions, past actions, plans, intentions, fantasies, ideas, etc.

Indirect speech, pauses, speech errors and a decrease in the number of illustrators may indicate that the speaker is very careful in his statements without preparing his line of behavior in advance. These are signs of any negative emotion. The number of illustrators also decreases due to boredom.

Changes in breathing or sweating, increased swallowing, and severe dry mouth are signs of strong emotions.

So, the methodology for determining information distortion includes:

1. Determining the supposed motives for the actions of the interlocutor or partner.

2. Understanding the characteristics of a given person’s behavior and determining his character structure.

3. Knowledge of technological methods of distorting information.

4. The ability to determine distortion of information from the speech of the interlocutor and from his non-verbal behavior.

Although, of course, it is also worth dwelling on those situations in which lying fails. Let's list them:

1. The victim of deception may accidentally stumble upon evidence.

2. Can someone give it away?

3. Signs of deception may appear in facial expressions, body movements, voice modulations, swallowing movements, changes in breathing, lengthening pauses between words, slips of the tongue, etc.

Unsuccessful course of action. Lack of preparation or inability to adhere to the original line of behavior. Such mistakes as the inability to foresee the need to lie, prepare the necessary line of behavior in advance and adequately respond to changing circumstances, or adhere to the initially accepted line of behavior provide easily recognizable signs of deception. These signs are not in what a person says, but in how he says it. The man contradicts himself. (Congruence Exercise)

Lies and feelings. People do not choose their emotions, and they cannot control their external manifestations at will. Emotions take over people, especially if they are very strong. It is not easy to hide emotions, but it is not easy to falsify them, especially negative ones (grief, fear, anger). Distortion of information is rarely not accompanied by some kind of emotion.

Fear of exposure. In a weak form it is not dangerous; on the contrary, by preventing you from relaxing, it can help you avoid mistakes. Behavioral signs of deception begin to appear already at an average level of fear. As a result of long-term practice of successful deception, the fear of detection decreases. Self-confidence also reduces the fear of exposure. And then the liar can make mistakes simply out of carelessness, i.e. Some fear of discovery is even beneficial for a liar. The higher the stake, the greater the fear of exposure. However, when applying this rule, it is easy to get confused, because It's not always easy to understand what exactly is at stake. Fear increases when the stake includes not only a reward, but also the opportunity to escape punishment. The fear of exposure is greatest if:

The victim has a reputation for being difficult to deceive;

The victim begins to suspect something;

A liar has little experience in the practice of deception;

The liar is predisposed to fear of detection;

The stakes are very high;

Both reward and punishment are at stake;

The punishment for the lie itself or for the act is so great that there is no point in confessing;

The lie is not beneficial to the victim at all.

Pangs of conscience. May be of varying intensity. Sometimes punishment may be exactly what a person seems necessary to free himself from painful feelings of guilt. The feeling of shame is closely related to guilt, but there is one key, qualitative difference for it. The public is not needed for remorse; man is his own judge. And shame requires disapproval or ridicule from others. These two emotions can tear a person apart. The desire to alleviate guilt encourages confession, while the desire to avoid the humiliating feeling of shame prevents it.

Remorse increases if:

The victim is deceived against her will;

Cheating is very selfish; the victim does not gain any benefit from the deception, but loses as much or even more than the liar gains;

Cheating is not allowed and the situation requires honesty;

The liar has not practiced deception for a long time;

The liar and the victim share the same social values ​​(people feel less guilty towards those who do not live as they should.);

The liar knows the victim personally;

It is difficult to accuse the victim of negative qualities or excessive gullibility (if the victim is too gullible, then the liar may believe that she herself is to blame for everything);

The victim has a reason to assume deception or, conversely, the liar himself would not want to be a deceiver.

The delight of deception. A lie can be considered an achievement, which in itself is always pleasant. A liar may experience joyful excitement either from the challenge or directly in the process of deception, when success is not yet entirely clear. If successful, there may be pleasure from relief, pride in what has been achieved, or a feeling of smug contempt for the victim. May be of varying intensity. People who like to brag are most prone to it. People may admit to deception expecting recognition and appreciation of their abilities. Lying, like mountaineering, can only be enjoyable if there is some risk involved. The presence of people anticipating the triumph of the deceiver contributes to the delight of deception.

The delight of deception increases when:

The victim behaves defiantly, having a reputation as a person who is difficult to deceive;

The lie itself is a challenge;

There are understanding spectators and connoisseurs of the skill of a liar.

Remorse, fear of exposure, delight in deception can manifest themselves in facial expressions, voice or plasticity, even when the liar tries to hide them. Even if they can be hidden, the internal struggle required to hide them can also give behavioral signs of deception.

Of course, within the scope of the article it is impossible to fully cover the topic of distortion of information, its features, and motivating reasons. Almost left out of the picture is such an interesting topic as determining the distortion of information by nonverbal behavior and the peculiarities of constructing speech structures. But this is a topic for a separate article.

Bibliography

M.Yu. Konovalenko. Distortion of information. Problems of business communication.

People rarely think about how often the reason we misunderstand each other is due to errors that occur when transmitting a message. They remember mainly the meaning of the message, and not the words with which it was conveyed. If the meaning is misunderstood, then further errors will occur. Then at the input and output we have completely different information. Let's consider the main techniques that are used in manipulative processes of information distortion.

Untrue messages can be impulsive and episodic. However, there is also a strategic distortion of information aimed at gradual manipulation and creation of the desired image in the eyes of a communication partner. In this case, the distortion of information is more complexly organized. Its relationship with truthful information is usually calculated in advance: special communicative combinations are formed, subordinated to a single manipulative goal. A person who uses false messages puts on the mask he needs and creates an image that is attractive to the target.

It also happens that distortion of information occurs not through the fault of the source of information, but during the process of its transmission, i.e. The source of misinformation is the transmission channel itself. People rarely think about how often the reason we misunderstand each other is due to errors that occur when transmitting a message. They remember mainly the meaning of the message, and not the words with which it was conveyed. If the meaning is misunderstood, then further errors will occur. Then at the input and output we have completely different information.

Another aspect of possible distortion of information is different interpretations of the same words depending on intonation, punctuation marks, context or associations that different people have with the same words. Some people are so good at constructing phrases that, while actually deceiving their interlocutor, they formally remain right. Let us at least recall the situation from the cartoon: “Execution cannot be pardoned.” Depending on where the comma is placed, the meaning of the phrase changes completely.

In order to instill in their interlocutor, manipulators use various means:

• formation of an appropriate reputation;
• creating an image of a truthful person;
• creating a certain legend that would ensure uncritical perception on the part of the victim;
• flattery;
• playing on individual personality characteristics;
• creating a sense of self-worth in a potential victim. Dale Carnegie also wrote that almost every person you meet considers himself in some way superior to you, and you will find the right way to his heart if you unobtrusively let him know that you recognize the important role that he plays in his little world, and acknowledge it sincerely.

Let's consider the main techniques that are used in manipulative processes of information distortion.

1. Silence (concealment). Transmission of incomplete true information, as a result of which the victim makes a mistake. The inductor hides some part of the information. He does not deceive in the full sense of the word. He just doesn’t say something, he’s keeping silent about something. All his words are true. Only reality itself is partially described. Something very important and significant is being overlooked. There is one subtlety here: most people believe that silence and lies are different things. That is why, if there is a choice about how to lie, people often prefer to remain silent about something, not talk, rather than openly distort the facts. After all, concealment has many advantages compared to outright falsification. The main thing is that you don’t need to invent anything. There is no risk of getting caught due to the fact that the entire “legend” has not been worked out in advance. It is easier to hide than to manipulate the facts.

Subsequently, if such a deception is discovered, it will be possible to justify it: I wanted to say about it later, but forgot... In such situations, a person does not go too far. Speaking about your forgetfulness, you don’t need to remember the entire legend. All you need to remember is your statement about poor memory. However, it is important not to overdo it. Memory loss can be referred to only when we are talking about insignificant things or supposedly insignificant from the point of view of the deceiver, or about something that happened quite a long time ago.

2. Selection. Selective pass to the victim only information beneficial to the deceiver. When competing with a business partner, it is sometimes much easier to hide some information from him than to tell the truth and then dispute it in a debate.

3. Jerking. This is a way of presenting information when attention is drawn only to those facts that are beneficial to the source of information. Facts that are negative for him are not even mentioned. This also includes creating an appropriate design that presents the issue from a certain angle.

4. Distortion. This technique consists of changing the proportions. This may be a clear understatement of something important, or, conversely, an exaggeration of something insignificant. A typical example of this technique is reports from battlefields. Psychologist F. Butler proposed a simple version of seemingly objective two-sided argumentation: he advised giving the strongest, most convincing arguments in favor of one’s position, and the weakest ones in favor of the other side. This way you can show the inconsistency of any opponent, any theory. You can also compare obviously unequal categories. Non-specialists won't even notice it.

5. Turning over. Change places, replacing “black” with “white”. Let us remember what the humorist writer Jerzy Lec wrote about this: “Never betray the truth! Change the truth! One example of this could be substitution of goals: when one’s own interest is presented as the interest of another person. Remember, for example, how Tom Sawyer painted the fence in Mark Twain’s famous work (“Painting a fence is cool”).

6. Disorientation. This is a blatant “waffling” of the issue. The manipulator communicates anything, but not the essence of the matter. His interlocutor is given a lot of information that is in no way related to the topic under discussion. He is literally drowning in this unnecessary information. This distracts him from the essence of the matter under consideration. This is why it is so important to “keep your goal” in negotiations.

7. Half-truths. Mixing outright lies and reliable information; one-sided reporting of facts; inaccurate and vague wording of the provisions under discussion; references to sources with a disclaimer such as: “I don’t remember who said...”; distortion of a reliable statement using value judgments, etc. The half-truth technique is most often used when it is necessary to avoid an undesirable turn in a dispute, when there are no reliable arguments, but one must certainly challenge the opponent, when it is necessary, contrary to common sense, to persuade someone to a certain conclusion. What is being said is true, but only partially.

8. Planting false evidence. It is known that people trust ideas that arise in their own heads much more than those that come from another person. Therefore, experienced communicators always try to avoid direct pressure on their victims, preferring indirect, unobtrusive influence. For example, like this: present the facts to the victim in such a way that they lead him to a certain conclusion that the manipulator needs. Conclusions based on planted facts are made by the victim completely independently. In this case, it is very important that one important principle be observed: evidence should be planted seemingly by accident, indirectly. Only then do they not arouse suspicion. There are many examples of this: from the events that Lermontov described in his drama “Masquerade” to Shakespeare’s Iago, who gradually, step by step, fueled Othello’s jealousy.

9. Creation of a non-existent reality. With the help of small but expressive details, an area of ​​​​false space is created around the victim, which should give the words and actions of the manipulators special persuasiveness. This technique was widely used by the notorious financial pyramids.

10. Camouflage. Represents an attempt to hide some essential information using some unimportant information. There are four main camouflage options:

• Masking essential lies with unimportant lies.
• Disguising an essential truth with an unimportant lie.
• Disguising an essential lie with an insignificant truth.
• Disguising essential truth with non-essential truth.

11. False conclusion. Another technique to avoid telling lies. It consists in allowing the interlocutor to draw a conclusion from what has been said himself, but at the same time leading him to the conclusion that this conclusion is false.

12. Change of context. A real life case is given, but it is transferred to a different context. This makes it possible to retain in memory many small details related to a given incident, which creates the illusion of the truthfulness of the story. There is no need to compose something and specifically remember it. For example, you and your friend went to a barbecue in the forest, and you told your wife that you were repairing a car in a friend’s garage. You actually had your car repaired only a week ago. When you get home, you describe to your wife your entire day of actually working on the car. There are many small details in your story that you don’t even need to invent, but only remember. The illusion of the veracity of the story is complete.

13. False explanation. A person may not hide his feelings, especially if he is unable to do so, but lie about their reason. While truthfully recognizing the emotion being experienced, he is misleading about the cause of its occurrence. For example, you are discussing your boss, and at this time he enters the room. You are confused. However, this embarrassment can be explained by anything.

14. Falsification (fraud). This is the transmission of deliberately false information on the essence of the issue under consideration. This may include perjury, false statements and refutations, fabrication of facts, documents, reference to non-existent sources, etc. Usually, falsification is resorted to when omission alone is not enough. In this case, the person already takes the next step: he not only conceals true information, but also presents false information as true. The real state of affairs is hidden, and deliberately false information is conveyed to the partner.

Interpersonal communications

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Introduction

1.1 Concept of information, types of information

Conclusion

Application

information transformation distortion verbal

Introduction

It is well known that the importance of information and communication in all spheres of human activity at the present stage is constantly increasing, which is associated with changes of a socio-economic nature, the emergence of the latest achievements in the field of technology and technology, and the results of scientific research.

The scientific and technological revolution has put forward information as the most important factor in the production process. The information process is necessary as an indispensable condition for the operation of modern technology, as a means of improving the quality of the workforce, as a prerequisite for the successful organization of the production process itself.

Therefore, the problem of integrity and reliability of information transfer from source to recipient is particularly acute.

The purpose of this work is to reveal the reasons for the distortion of information.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of problems:

· study the essence of the concept of information;

· consider the communication process as a means of transmitting information;

· analyze the reasons for the distortion of information.

The theoretical and methodological basis for writing this work were scientific works and publications, original works of leading experts in the field of information support for management.

Chapter 1. Information as a resource and product of a management system

1.1 Concept of information, types of information

Information is the external manifestation of communication, its result. Information plays a central role in human communication existence and acts as a means of communication.

If we consider an organization as a system, then the following types of information can be distinguished:

1) incoming information (coming from the external environment) - a resource of the system;

2) outgoing information is a product of the system.

In addition, in every organization there is a mass of information in the process of transforming it from a resource into a product.

Information moves within an organization from level to level through vertical communications. It can be transmitted downward, i.e. from higher levels to lower ones. In this way, subordinate levels of management are informed about current tasks, changes in priorities, specific tasks, recommended procedures, etc. In addition to downward communication, an organization needs upward communication.

Thus, the most striking example of the movement of information vertically is the relationship between manager and subordinate.

In addition to the manager-subordinate relationship in an organization, there is a manager-work group relationship. Since all members of the group participate in the exchange, everyone has the opportunity to reflect on new tasks and priorities of the department, how they should work together, upcoming changes and their possible consequences for this and other departments, recent problems and achievements, and proposals for improvement. .

1.2 The process of converting information in management

From the point of view of management, as a process of transforming information, information, first of all, is important for making management decisions. To do this, it must have certain characteristics (properties). These characteristics are:

1. The connection between information and meaning.

2. The value of specific information for making a specific decision.

3. Purpose of information.

4. Necessity and sufficiency of information for decision making.

Information about an object exists in the form of data. But data becomes information when its meaning is realized. For example, the numbers “0” and “1” in the “gender” column of a questionnaire become information only when it becomes known that “0” means “male” and “1” means “female.”

It is also useful to note that, unlike matter and energy, information can disappear. Information about an object can be considered as a representation of this object in some material system, which can exist independently of the object and regardless of the use of information.

In management systems, the value of information is determined by its significance for the correct choice of solution. Information that does not in any way influence the choice of decision is useless; it has no value. Moreover, diverting the attention and energy of the management system to at least comprehend its content, the simplest analysis in order to determine the possibility of its use in management, requires certain costs for its perception, creating so-called “information noise”. Such information does more harm than good.

The main means of determining the value of information for decision making is the model of the object (mostly a mathematical model). Based on the model, a list of input data necessary for decision-making and the necessary characteristics are determined - the frequency of their receipt, the requirements for reliability and accuracy, the form of presentation, etc.

Also, the means of determining the value of information for decision-making is determined, firstly, by the value of the decision itself, and secondly, by the degree of influence of information on decision-making.

The value of information for decision-making, in addition, depends on the method and speed of its transmission, timeliness, reliability, costs of obtaining, redundancy (increasing the volume of information without increasing the information content).

Very often, erroneous conclusions are made about the value of information for decision making due to ineffective use of information - information is useful if and only if it gets to the right place at the right time. The main cases of ineffective use of information:

1) transferring to nodes of a higher rank those tasks that could be solved in nodes of a lower rank;

2) an increase in the density of information flows and an increase in the volume of unused and duplicate information.

In this regard, we can formulate a hierarchy of functions of the management apparatus according to levels of information processing:

1) collection of primary data - identifying and recording information about an object (usually in digital form);

2) grouping and generalization of primary data in order to obtain aggregated indicators (for planning, management and accounting functions);

3) isolating the information necessary to solve management problems - a function of the management apparatus that is of the greatest interest for revealing the topic of this test: “only giving the information system the ability to isolate management information and effectively issue it to the consumer turns the information system into a qualitatively new, effective management tool ".

In the process of selecting information necessary for decision making, it is important to distinguish between information for planning and information for operational use (management). The distinctive features of these types of information are:

1) degree of generalization or scope of applicability - information for planning is rarely divided into specific functional tasks and serves as the basis for creating integrated plans; information for operational use (management) is divided according to functional tasks solved in the system and serves mainly to evaluate the activities of subsystems in comparison with planned indicators;

2) duration - information for planning reflects the general development trend and covers fairly large periods of time; it is not required as often as information for operational management;

3) degree of detail - unlike operational management, where detailed information is required, planning requires emphasis on the general characteristics of the external environment and processes within the system;

4) source of information - for operational management tasks, information is mainly used from sources internal to the system, and for planning tasks - from external ones;

Thus, resolving the communication problem affects the speed of information receipt, its timeliness and reliability, which contributes to more efficient operation of the enterprise.

1.3 Communication process as a means of transmitting information

The exchange of information between two or more entities is a communication process.

The main goal of the communication process is to ensure the transmission of reliable information that is the subject of exchange, i.e. messages.

There are four basic elements in the information exchange process.

1. Sender, a person who generates ideas or collects information and transmits it.

2. Message, actual information encoded using symbols.

3. Channel, means of transmitting information

4. Recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

When exchanging information, the sender and recipient go through several interconnected stages. Their job is to craft a message and use the channel to convey it in such a way that both parties understand and share the original idea. This is difficult, because each stage is also a point at which the meaning can be distorted or completely lost. These interconnected stages are:

· the birth of an idea.

· encoding and channel selection.

· transfer.

· Decoding.

Although the entire communication process is often completed in a few seconds, making it difficult to isolate its stages, let's analyze these stages to show what problems can arise at different points. This analysis is similar to carefully examining each frame of a short episode on film.

The birth of an idea.

Information exchange begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. Unfortunately, many communication attempts fail at this first stage because the sender does not spend enough time thinking about the idea. Keith Davis emphasizes the importance of this stage: “A bad message will not be improved on glossy paper or by increasing the power of the loudspeaker. The slogan of the stage is “don’t start talking before you start thinking.”

It is important to remember that the idea has not yet been transformed into words or acquired another form in which it will serve the exchange of information. The sender has only decided which concept he wants to make the subject of information exchange. To make an exchange effectively, he must take many factors into account. For example, a manager who wants to exchange information about performance appraisals must be clear that the idea is to communicate specific information to subordinates about their strengths and weaknesses and how their performance can be improved. The idea cannot be vague general praise or criticism of the behavior of subordinates.

Encoding and channel selection.

Before conveying an idea, the sender must encode it using symbols, using words, intonation and gestures (body language). This encoding turns an idea into a message.

The sender must also select a channel that is compatible with the type of symbols used for encoding. Some commonly known channels include the transmission of speech and written materials, as well as electronic communications, including computer networks, e-mail, video tapes and video conferencing. If the channel is not suitable for the physical embodiment of the symbols, transmission is not possible. A picture is sometimes worth a thousand words, but not when sending a message over the phone. Likewise, it may not be feasible to talk to all employees at once. Memos can be sent out prior to small group meetings to ensure the message is understood and buy-in to the issue.

Broadcast.

In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. We are talking about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistakenly mistake for the communication process itself. At the same time, as we have seen, communication is only one of the most important stages that must be passed through in order to convey an idea to another person.

Decoding.

When receiving information, the process of decoding information occurs.

Feedback.

When there is feedback, the sender and receiver switch communication roles. The original receiver becomes the sender and goes through all the stages of the communication process to transmit its response to the initial sender, who now plays the role of the receiver. Feedback can significantly improve the effectiveness of management information exchange. Several studies have shown that two-way communication (with opportunities for feedback) compared to one-way communication (no feedback), although slower, is more effective in relieving tension, is more accurate, and increases confidence in the correct interpretation of messages.

During the communication process, special attention should be paid to the problem of information distortion.

Chapter 2. Reasons for distortion of information

Information integrity - the existence of information in an undistorted form (unchanged in relation to some fixed state). More often, subjects are interested in ensuring a broader property - the reliability of information, which consists of the adequacy (completeness and accuracy) of displaying the state of the subject area and the integrity of the information itself, i.e. its undistortedness.

Feedback significantly improves the chances of effective communication by allowing both parties to cancel out the noise. In the language of information transmission theory, noise is what distorts the meaning.

Sources of noise that can create barriers to information exchange range from language (whether verbal or nonverbal), to differences in perception that can alter meaning in the encoding and decoding processes, to differences in organizational status between supervisor and subordinate. , which may make it difficult to convey information accurately.

Certain noises are always present, so at every stage of the information exchange process some distortion of meaning occurs. We usually manage to cut through the noise and get our message across. However, a high noise level will definitely lead to a noticeable loss of meaning and may completely block the attempt to establish an information exchange. From the position of a manager, this should lead to a decrease in the degree of achievement of goals in accordance with the transmitted information.

2.1 Verbal and non-verbal reasons for distortion of information

Communications as a connection (“connecting processes”) that unites all its component elements (functions, methods, organizational structure, etc.) into an enterprise management system are implemented through verbal and nonverbal means. These means can be used separately or in combination with each other (the latter increases the reliability of the transmission and perception of information). Verbal(from Latin verbalis --- verbal, oral) means are the transmission of information in ordinary language (voice, telephone, letter, telegraph, through television, video devices, e-mail, etc.). Nonverbal means are the expression of a transmitted message through gestures, facial expressions, signs, symbols, electrical, sound, light signals, etc.

Semantic barriers.

It was stated above that the purpose of communication is to ensure understanding of the information being exchanged, i.e. messages. By entering into information contact and using symbols, we try to exchange information and achieve its understanding. The symbols we use include words, gestures and intonation. It is these symbols that people exchange in the process of communication. The sender encodes the message using verbal and non-verbal symbols. In this discussion our focus is on the problems associated with the use of words as symbols.

Semantics is the study of the way words are used and the meanings conveyed by words. Because words (symbols) can have different meanings for different people, what someone intends to communicate will not necessarily be interpreted and understood in the same way by the recipient of the information. The Complete English Dictionary provides about 14 thousand possible definitions for the 500 most common words, 79 meanings for such a simple word as round(circle, round). Word tip(end) may, for example, be interpreted by a waitress as a tip, or by a gambler at a horse race as private information. For a printer, a lip is a special device, a tip. There is also a more common meaning - the “tip” of something, for example, an iceberg.

Semantic variations often cause misunderstandings because in many cases the exact meaning assigned to a symbol by the sender is not at all obvious. A manager telling a subordinate that a report appears "adequate" may mean that it is complete and fit for purpose. However, the subordinate may decode the word "adequate" to mean that the report is mediocre and needs significant improvement.

A symbol does not have a unique, inherent meaning. The meaning of a symbol is revealed through experience and varies depending on the context and situation in which the symbol is used. Since each person has his own experience and each act of exchanging information is to some extent a new situation, no one can be absolutely sure that another person will attribute the same meaning to the symbol that we gave it.

Semantic barriers can create communication problems for companies operating in multinational environments. For example, General Motors, having released the Chery Nova model onto the Latin American market, did not achieve the expected level of sales. After conducting research, the company discovered to its horror that the word “nova” in Spanish means “it doesn’t go”!

Nonverbal barriers.

Although verbal symbols (words) are our primary means of encoding ideas to be communicated, we also use nonverbal symbols to convey messages. Nonverbal communication uses any symbols other than words. Often, nonverbal communication occurs simultaneously with verbal communication and can enhance or change the meaning of words. Exchanges of glances, facial expressions such as smiles and expressions of disapproval, raised eyebrows in confusion, a lively or fixed gaze, a glance with an expression of approval or disapproval are all examples of nonverbal communication. Using a finger as a pointing finger, covering the mouth with one's hand, touching, and a sluggish posture are also nonverbal ways of conveying meaning.

Further improvement of communications is carried out through the use of modern information technologies, widely represented by constantly developing information and computer networks (ICS).

2.2 Reasons for distortion of information when using the latest information technologies

The reasons for the distortion of information and the appearance of errors in it during transmission over communication channels in most cases are:

Processing information in a computer using user software. Here, the reasons for the occurrence of errors are obvious - these are failures in the operation of the computer hardware and software. Firstly, erroneous operation of external drives. Secondly, processor malfunctions, for example, as a result of malware. Third, errors contained in the software code that erroneously respond to some combination of input data. And finally, the operator’s incorrect response to console messages from the operating system or user programs.

Outputting information from a computer. The causes of errors that occur at the output stage are: faulty operation of printing devices; inconvenient form of output data that can lead to making the wrong decision.

Most of the problems of modern computing systems are not associated with errors and miscalculations of developers, but with people trying to cause any harm or benefit from information located inside a computer network or computer. Security systems must successfully resist not only a well-prepared enemy from the outside, but also threats coming from within, from offended, dissatisfied or careless employees.

The purpose of distorting information can be different - it is a hooligan prank to read other people's electronic messages and a targeted attack to steal military or technological secrets.

All security issues can be divided into four interrelated areas: privacy, authentication, compliance and integrity.

Secrecy - allows you to prevent access to classified information by those for whom it is not intended.

Authentication - allows you to make sure that information is transmitted to the person for whom it is intended.

Ensuring strict compliance with obligations is the problem of electronic signature.

Integrity - preventing information from being distorted as a result of failures or intentional actions.

Statistics available to law enforcement agencies in various countries indicate that most attacks on security systems are launched from within - by envious or disgruntled employees.

To store information and transmit it over communication channels, various encryption algorithms are used, for this purpose cryptanalysis methods are used. The most famous and most used is the RSA algorithm, named after the initial letters of the names of its creators (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman). RSA is too slow for encrypting large amounts of data, but it is widely used for key distribution, followed by faster symmetric key algorithms such as AES or triple DES.

Chapter 3. Analysis of information security threats to the integrity of information assets. Basic countermeasures

Violation of the confidentiality of information that constitutes a trade secret, or information to which access must be restricted due to regulatory requirements (for example, personal data), can lead to very serious consequences. However, not all business-critical information requires ensuring its confidentiality, while a violation of its availability and, especially, integrity can cause colossal damage (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Violation of confidentiality of information

To do this, we carried out an analysis of information security threats that may cause a violation of the integrity or availability of information assets, and also listed the main measures to counter each of the identified threats. The results of the analysis are presented graphically in Appendix Figure 1.

Threat 1. Deliberate removal (distortion) of information by an unauthorized user.

The goal of an attacker carrying out unauthorized actions (AAC) on an information resource may be to violate not only confidentiality, but also the integrity of information. Moreover, the damage from deleting or modifying business-critical information can be significantly greater than in the event of its leak.

· protection against NSD;

· network perimeter protection;

Accidental or intentional distortion (deletion) or violation of the availability of information by an authorized user.

No user, even the most experienced and qualified, is immune from accidental actions that can cause distortion or deletion (less often, disruption of accessibility) of important information. In addition, we cannot exclude the possibility of deliberate deletion, distortion or disruption of the availability of information caused by dissatisfaction or selfish interest of an employee, which is especially important during times of crisis and mass layoffs.

Measures to counter this threat include:

· differentiation of access to information assets, excluding user access to information that is not related to his direct job responsibilities;

· restriction of powers, providing only the necessary minimum privileges for a given user;

· training users to work correctly with each information resource in order to minimize the number of possible errors;

· conducting personnel work, including a thorough screening of employees when hiring, maintaining a healthy atmosphere and good relationships within the team, identifying negatively inclined employees;

· information backup.

Loss (distortion) disruption of information availability as a result of malfunctions and failure of hardware components of information systems (IS).

A striking example of the threat of violation of information integrity is the failure of hard drives and their arrays. Given the capacity of modern hard drives, information loss and possible damage can be enormous, especially when it comes to servers with business-critical data.

Violation of the availability of business-critical servers as a result of malfunctions or failure of their hardware components (power supply, network and motherboard) is also a source of serious reputational and financial risks. Examples of such resources are: Bank-client server, mail server, domain controller.

Measures to counter this threat are:

· selection of reliable hardware components from reputable manufacturers;

· duplication and application of fault-tolerant solutions at various levels of information systems (IS) - duplication (redundancy at the level of individual devices (redundant power supplies, RAID arrays)), at the server level, at the level of individual information subsystems;

· information backup, creating system images for deployment on backup platforms.

Loss (distortion) disruption of information availability as a result of malfunctions in the operation of IS software components.

The causes of this threat can be errors in the software code, administrative errors at the stages of implementation and operation of the software.

Measures to counter this threat:

· selection of reliable licensed software;

· correct configuration and operation of the software, preliminary testing of the software on specially designated platforms, training of administrators in specialized courses;

Loss (distortion) disruption of information availability as a result of exposure to malware.

The threat of malware is traditionally one of the most likely and dangerous. The result of such impact may be the destruction, modification or encryption of important information; malfunctions and disruption of the availability of various services when affecting system and application software.

The main countermeasures in this case are:

· use of anti-virus software;

· backing up information, creating system images, creating backup copies of configuration data of configured subsystems.

Loss (distortion) disruption of information availability as a result of natural disasters, man-made accidents and disasters.

This threat involves the complete collapse of an information system or data processing center, including information and hardware, as a result of a natural or man-made disaster. If earthquakes and tsunamis do not occur everywhere, and the Large Hadron Collider threatens only data centers (data processing centers) located in Geneva, then the threat of a fire or flooding in a server room can be relevant for any enterprise. Often the probability of these events is extremely low, but still has a non-zero value.

A real life example is placing a server room in a room whose floor can hardly support the weight of the equipment placed in it, which means there is a threat of the entire server farm collapsing onto the ground floor with all the ensuing consequences.

Measures to counter this threat involve: taking into account the natural and man-made environment;

· placement of a server room or data center premises in the safest areas of the building, deployment and maintenance of fire alarm and fire extinguishing systems;

· deployment of a backup IS or data center at a remote site;

· backup of information and its storage on a remote site.

At the same time, the creation and maintenance of a remote backup data center will require colossal and not always justified investments, while almost any enterprise can afford to backup information to remote storage.

Violation of information availability as a result of failures in the operation of active network equipment.

In this context, active network equipment refers to network devices with their own operating system, such as managed switches, routers, hardware-based VPN gateways and firewalls. Malfunctions and failure of such equipment lead to disruption of the availability of network information resources, which is unacceptable when using modern distributed information systems.

In this case, the following countermeasures can be identified:

· selection of reliable network equipment;

· duplication and redundancy of network equipment;

· correct configuration and operation of network equipment;

· creating backup copies of network equipment configuration data.

The threat analysis showed that in each of the seven cases, backup is a mandatory addition to the set of basic countermeasures. At the same time, the “main” countermeasures are preventive in nature and are aimed at preventing the threat and reducing the likelihood of its implementation. Backup allows you to restore information lost or distorted as a result of a threat to integrity, if the main countermeasures did not help cope with the task. In addition, having a backup copy of the configuration or system image allows you to quickly restore the normal operation of an information system whose availability has been disrupted.

It should be noted that the above list of threats to the integrity and availability of information is not exhaustive, since it does not include threats for which backup is not a countermeasure. An example would be DoS attacks on public information resources, failure of passive network equipment, or power outages. Nevertheless, the threats considered represent a huge layer in a variety of information risks, and backup is an effective way to minimize them.

Conclusion

In the course of this work, we made the following conclusions.

1. Information is an external manifestation of communication, its result acts as a means of communication. From the point of view of management, as a process of transformation of information, information, first of all, represents the basis for making management decisions. The effectiveness of management decision-making and, as a consequence, the effectiveness of the organization’s activities directly depend on the reliability of information.

2. The reasons for the distortion of information and the appearance of errors in it during transmission via communication channels in most cases are:

· errors introduced by terminal sets of data transmission equipment;

· distortions introduced by the channel: channel noise, frequency distortion, loss of information due to temporary inoperability.

· most of the problems of modern computing systems are not associated with errors and miscalculations of developers, but with people trying to cause any harm or benefit from information located inside a computer network or computer.

3. The reliability of automated information processing and control systems (APIS) is determined by the reliability and timeliness of information delivered to the user, as well as the provision of protection from unauthorized access.

Thus, the goal of the work defined in the introduction can be considered fully achieved.

List of sources used and literature

1. Afanasyev S.V., Yareshchenko V.N. Efficiency of management information support. - M.: Economics, 2007. - P.217.

2. Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Workshop on the course "Management". - M.: Gardarika, 2009. - P. 196.

3. Goncharov V.V. Guide for senior management personnel. - M.: MNIIPU, 2008. - 116.

4. Ignatieva A.V., Maksimov M.M. Research of control systems: Textbook. - M.: Unity, 2010. - P.432.

5. Kabakov V.S., Porkhovnik Yu.M., Zubov I.P. Management: problems - program - solution. - L., 2009. - P.367.

6. Ladanov I.D. Practical management. Part 2. Managerial art. Secrets of modern business. - M.: Nika, 2008. - P.564.

7. Lunev V.L. Tactics and strategy of company management: Textbook. - M.: Finpress, NGAEiU, 2010. - P.275.

8. Organizational management. Textbook/Edited by Z.P. Rumyantseva and N.A. Salomatina. - M.: Infa-M, 2010. - P.543.

9. Mascon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management: Translated from English. - M.: Audit, UNITY, 2009. - 652.

10. Mamikonov A.G. Decision making and information. - M.: Science, 2008

11. Zverintsev A.B. Communication management. - St. Petersburg: "Union", 2005. - P. 275.

12. Zverintsev A.B. Communication management. - St. Petersburg: "Union", 2005. - P.317.

13. Kaimakova M.V. Communications in the organization. - Ulyanovsk, 2008

14. Magazine "Information Security/ Information Security" No. 3, 2009 - P.21-24.

15. www.management.ru posted on

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Captain to the adjutant: “As you know, tomorrow there will be a solar eclipse, and this does not happen every day. Gather the personnel at 5 o’clock in the morning on the parade ground, in marching clothes. They will be able to observe this phenomenon, and I will give them the necessary explanations. If it happens If it rains, it will not be easy to observe, in which case leave the people in the barracks.

Adjutant to the sergeant: “By order of the captain, tomorrow morning a solar eclipse will occur in marching clothes. The captain on the parade ground will give the necessary explanations, and this does not happen every day. If it rains, there will be nothing to observe, then the phenomenon will take place in the barracks.”

Sergeant to corporal: “By order of the captain, tomorrow morning at 5 o’clock there will be an eclipse on the parade ground of people in marching clothes. The captain will give the necessary explanations about this rare phenomenon if it rains, which does not happen every day.”

Corporal to the soldiers: “Tomorrow, very early, at 5 o’clock, the sun on the parade ground will eclipse the captain in the barracks. If it rains, then this rare phenomenon will take place in marching clothes, and this does not happen every day.”

It is precisely because the meaning of information is not distorted that the army repeats orders.

It can be seen that the very process of verbal formulation of thoughts and their understanding inevitably gives rise to a deformation of the meaning of the message.

The reliability of the transmitted information is influenced by the quality of its source, psychological traits and special skills of the individual, the circumstances of receiving the information, and the presence of various obstacles in the path of information. One can also identify a complex of psychological factors that influence the objectivity and reliability of information: mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual, communication barriers, stereotypes, etc.

Let's consider loss of information when reporting on the basis of a scheme developed by P. Micic.

When transmitting information, it is necessary to first formulate the idea that has arisen verbally in internal speech, then transfer it from internal speech to external speech, i.e. express. This statement must be heard and understood.

It is intended to convey 100% of the information to the interlocutors.

According to a certain limit of imagination, information has acquired verbal forms.

The active language filter has turned on - 80% of the information has been expressed to the interlocutors.

Language barrier prevents vocabulary - 70% of information is heard.

The filter of imagination and desire works - 60% of the information is understood.

The interlocutors have a limited amount of memorization - 24% of the information remains in memory.

At each stage, information loss and distortion occur. The magnitude of these losses is determined by the general imperfection of human speech, the inability to fully and accurately translate thoughts into verbal forms, as the Russian poet F. Tyutchev figuratively said: “A thought expressed is a lie,” and the presence or absence of trust in the interlocutor, and personal goals and aspirations (when what is desired is taken as reality), and by coincidence or mismatch of vocabulary, and many, many others.

And yet people understand each other. Understanding is constantly being adjusted, since communication is not just the transfer of information (knowledge, factual information, instructions, orders, business messages, etc.), but an exchange of information that involves feedback.