In the Middle Ages the study magnetic phenomena acquires practical significance. This occurs in connection with the invention of the compass.
Already in the 12th century. In Europe, the compass became known as a device with which you can determine the direction of parts of the world. Europeans learned about the compass from the Arabs, who by this time already knew the property of a magnetic needle. Even earlier, this property was probably known in China.
The practical application of magnetic phenomena led to the need to study them. A number of properties of magnets were gradually revealed.
Gilbert's research.
In 1600, the book of the English scientist Gilbert “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet - the Earth” was published. In it, the author described the already known properties of a magnet, as well as his own discoveries.
Gilbert assumed that the Earth was a large magnet. To confirm this assumption, Hilbert performed a special experiment. He carved a large ball from a natural magnet. By bringing a magnetic needle closer to the surface of the ball, he showed that it is always installed in a certain position, just like the compass needle on the earth.
Gilbert described the phenomenon of magnetic induction, methods of magnetizing iron and steel, etc. Gilbert's book was the first scientific study of magnetic phenomena.
In his book, Gilbert also touched on electrical phenomena. It should be noted that although at that time magnetism and electricity were considered as phenomena of different natures, nevertheless, very long ago scientists noticed many similarities in them. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many studies simultaneously studied magnetic and electrical phenomena. In particular, the study of magnetism sparked interest in the study of electrical phenomena.
Gilbert discovered that not only amber, but also diamond, rock crystal and a number of other minerals can be electrified. Unlike a magnet, which can only attract iron (other magnetic materials they didn’t know at that time), an electrified body attracts many bodies.
Guericke's research.
A new step towards the study of electrical phenomena was made by the German scientist Guericke. In 1672, his book was published, which described experiments on electricity. Guericke's most interesting achievement was his invention of the "electric machine." The “electric machine” was a ball made of sulfur and mounted on an iron pole. Guericke rotated this ball and rubbed it with the palm of his hand. Subsequently, the scientist improved his “machine” several times.
Despite the simplicity of the device, Guericke was able to make some discoveries with it. Thus, he discovered that light bodies can not only be attracted to an electrified ball, but also repel from it.
Development of ideas about electricity in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
In the 18th century the study of electrical phenomena progressed faster. In the first half of this century new facts were discovered.
In 1729, the Englishman Gray discovered the phenomenon of electrical conductivity. He found that electricity can be transmitted from one body to another through a metal wire. Electricity did not spread along the silk thread. In this regard, Gray divided all bodies into conductors and non-conductors of electricity.
Then the French scientist Dufay, five years later, found out that there are two types of electricity. One type of electricity is obtained by rubbing glass, rock crystal, wool and some other bodies. Du Fay called this electricity glass electricity. The second type of electricity is obtained by rubbing amber, silk, paper and other substances. Du Fay called this type of electricity resin. The scientist found that bodies electrified by one type of electricity repel, and by different types they attract.
Subsequently, glass electricity was called positive, and resin electricity - negative. This name was proposed by an American scientist and public figure Franklin. At the same time, he proceeded from his views on the nature of electricity.
A very important step in the development of the doctrine of electricity was the invention of the Leyden jar, i.e., the electric capacitor.
The Leyden jar was invented almost simultaneously by the German physicist Kleist and the Dutch physicist Muschenbroek in 1745 - 1746. It got its name from the city of Leiden, where Muschenbroek first performed experiments with it to study electrical phenomena.
Soon the Leyden jar was improved: the outer and inner surfaces of the glass vessel began to be covered with metal foil. A metal rod was inserted into the lid of the jar, which ended at the top with a metal ball, and the lower end of the rod was connected to the inner lining using a metal chain.
The Leyden jar (Fig. 1.) is a common capacitor. When the outer lining is grounded and the metal ball is connected to a source of electricity, a significant electrical charge accumulates on the linings of the can and a significant current can flow when it is discharged. Obtaining large charges with the help of a Leyden jar significantly contributed to the development of the study of electricity.
First of all, the equipment for studying electrical phenomena, in particular electric olives, has been improved. These were, like Guericke's first machine, devices in which an electric charge
rice. 1 was obtained by rubbing a glass or ebonite disk with leather or other similar materials.
Then the first electrical measuring device appeared - the electrometer. Its history begins with the electric pointer created by Richmann shortly after the invention of the Leyden jar. This device consisted of a metal rod, from the upper end of which a linen thread of a certain length and weight was suspended. When the rod was electrified, the thread deviated. The angle of deflection of the thread was measured using a scale attached to the rod and divided into degrees.
After the invention of the Leyden jar, when scientists were able to observe relatively large sparks during an electrical discharge, the idea arose about the electrical nature of lightning.
The famous American scientist and public figure Benjamin Franklin (1706 - 1790) expressed this idea in a letter to the Royal Society of London in 1750.
In this letter, he explained how to verify the assumption made. He proposed putting a booth on the tower, with an iron pole on the roof. A person placed inside the booth in the event of a thunderstorm could produce electric sparks from the pole.
That same year, in the summer, Franklin performed a similar experiment in America.
After the electrical nature of the thunderstorm was clarified, the idea arose of installing a lightning rod to protect buildings from fires as a result of lightning striking them.
Lightning rods quickly came into practice. This was the first practical use teachings about electrical phenomena. It contributed to the development and popularization of the science of electricity.
Along with the accelerated development experimental research electrical phenomena, and theories of these phenomena arise.
Of course, even before the middle of the 18th century. there were some considerations about the nature of electricity. But they were very primitive. In most cases, electrical actions were explained by the presence of certain electrical atmospheres around charged bodies.
In the middle of the 18th century. More meaningful theories of electrical phenomena are appearing. These theories can be divided into two main groups.
The first group is theories of electrical phenomena based on the principle of long-range action.
The second group is theories based on the principle of short-range action.
Let us first dwell on the development of the theory of long-range action, which received in the 18th century. almost universal acceptance. The founders of the theory of long-range action were Franklin and the St. Petersburg academician Epinus.
Franklin back in the 40s of the 18th century. developed a theory of electrical phenomena. He suggested that there is a special electrical matter, which is a kind of thin, invisible liquid. Particles of this matter have the property of repelling from each other and being attracted to particles of ordinary matter, i.e., to particles of matter, according to modern concepts.
Electrical matter is present in bodies in certain quantities, in which case its presence is not detectable. But if an excess of this matter appears in the body, then the body becomes positively electrified; on the contrary, if there is a lack of this matter in the body, then the body will become negatively electrified. The name (“positive and negative electricity,” which remained in science, belongs to Franklin.
Electrical matter, according to Franklin, consists of especially thin particles, so it can pass through matter. It passes especially easily through conductors.
From Franklin's theory follows a very important point about the conservation of electric charge. Indeed, to create, for example, a negative charge on any body, you need to take away from it a certain amount of electrical fluid, which must go to another body and form a positive charge of the same size there. After connecting these bodies, electrical matter will again be distributed between them so that these bodies become electrically neutral.
Franklin's theory was developed by Franz Aepinus (1724 - 1802). At the same time, Apinus seemed to take Newton's theory of gravitation as a model.
Newton proposed that long-range forces act between all particles of ordinary bodies. These forces are central, i.e. they act in a straight line connecting the particles.
Aepinus assumes that central long-range forces also act between particles of electrical matter. Only gravitational forces are attractive forces, while the forces acting between particles of electrical matter are repulsive forces. In addition, between particles of electrical matter and particles of ordinary matter, just like Franklin, there are attractive forces. And these forces, similar to the gravitational forces, are long-range and central. Epinus compared the forces of gravity and electrical forces. He suggests that the forces acting between particles of electrical matter “vary inversely with the square of the distance. This can be assumed with some plausibility, because such a dependence is apparently supported by an analogy with other natural phenomena.” This supposed analogy makes it possible for Apinus to construct a theory of electrical phenomena.
One of his interesting works was a study electrical induction. Epinus showed that if a charged body is brought close to a conductor, then electric charges appear on the conductor. In this case, the side of it, to which the charged body is brought, is electrified by a charge of the opposite sign. And vice versa, on the remote part of the conductor a charge of the same sign is formed as on the brought body.
Epinus also confirmed the law of conservation of electric charge. He wrote: “If I want to increase the amount of electrical matter in any body, I must inevitably take it outside it and, therefore, reduce it in some other body.”
Simultaneously with the theory of electrical phenomena, based on the concept of long-range action, theories of these phenomena appear, which are based on the principle of short-range action. Lomonosov can be considered one of the founders of this theory.
Lomonosov was an opponent of the theory of long-range action. He believed that the body cannot act on others instantly through empty or filled space.
He believed that electrical interaction is transmitted from body to body through a special medium that fills all empty space, in particular the space between the particles that make up “considerable matter,” substance.
Electrical phenomena, according to Lomonosov, should be considered as certain microscopic movements occurring in the ether. The same applies to magnetic phenomena.
Another St. Petersburg academician, L. Euler, also supported the point of view of short-range action in the theory of electricity and magnetism. In the middle of the 18th century, like Lomonosov, he advocated the theory of short-range action. He assumed the existence of an ether, the movement and properties of which explained the observed electrical phenomena.
After the discovery of Coulomb's law, the theory of long-range action completely replaces the theory of short-range action. And only in the 19th century. Faraday revives the theory of short-range action. However, its universal recognition begins with the second half of the 19th century c., after experimental proof of Maxwell's theory.
We are accustomed to the conquests of civilization. There seems to be nothing surprising when you flip the switch and the light comes on; you press the button and expose your face to the cool breeze generated by the fan blades; You plug the plug into the socket, and the iron heats up to the desired temperature in a matter of seconds. It is difficult to imagine that in ancient times people did not know electricity. Or maybe they knew him after all?.. SUN STONE Millions of years ago, a giant glacier cap hung over Europe, and the climate was completely different. The vegetation was somewhat reminiscent of modern taiga with a variety of coniferous trees. Under the scorching sun, relict spruce and pine trees, broken by storms, were thickly bleeding with resin. Over time, the resinous secretions acquired stone hardness. This is how amazing amber was born. Jewelry and amulets were already made from it thousands of years ago. History has not preserved the name of the unknown shepherd who accidentally rubbed petrified resin on a sheep's skin. A slight crackling sound was heard, and the hairs stood on end... Millennia passed, and already the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus purposefully carried out various experiments with “electron”, which in Greek means “amber”. We don't know too much about these simple experiments. It is more or less known that the philosopher carved various figures from amber - sticks, plates, balls and cubes, which he then rubbed with all kinds of fabrics, skins and wool. So he explored the “kinship” of objects and materials and the “divine power of the electron.” For a long time it was believed that this was man's only (not counting lightning) acquaintance with electricity, but history loves to present surprises. “THE BAGHDAD BATTERY” One day in 1936, during the construction of the southeastern section of the Baghdad railway, workers stumbled upon an ancient Parthian tomb. Yellow-brown clay vessels dating back two thousand years were found in it. Inside were sheets of copper rolled into a cylinder, corroded iron rods and pieces of bitumen - natural asphalt. It appears that bitumen coated the top and bottom of a copper cylinder, within which an iron rod was placed.
Bituminous sealant and signs of corrosion suggest that the vessels contained some kind of caustic liquid, such as wine vinegar. So, maybe this is a real battery? This is exactly what the director of the National Museum of Iraq, Wilhelm König, thought. This prominent archaeologist came to the sensational conclusion that the contents of the vessels are very reminiscent of galvanic cells. However, most archaeologists are confident that here they simply encountered ordinary cases for storing papyrus scrolls, because similar artifacts were found near the city of Seleucia on the Tigris and the capital of the Parthian kingdom, Ctesiphon. There, in the “Seleucian vases,” they found a scroll of papyrus and rolled sheets of bronze, more like a pencil case for rolled sheets of papyrus. “Seleucian vases” could contain sacred scrolls made of parchment or papyrus, on which certain ritual texts were written. During their decomposition, organic acids could be released that corrode copper and iron, which explains the traces of corrosion on internal metal parts. At the same time, the bitumen sealant made it possible to store the contents of the jug for a long time. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN “LAMPS” The sensationalism of the possible use of “Seleucian vases,” despite the objections of academic scientists, caused a wave of interest in “electrical” artifacts. Enthusiasts for studying the secrets of ancient Egyptian “temple science,” Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck even wrote a book, “The Light of the Pharaohs,” where they examined the issue of the use of electricity in ancient times.
They suggested that the “temple scientists”, who were part of the priestly caste, knew how to make certain “djed pillars”, one of the components of the energy supply system. The authors also claim that during the excavations of the pyramids, models of all kinds of “spotlights” with copper wires were discovered.
The conclusions of the “Egyptian light” researchers are based on unusual ancient Egyptian temple frescoes. First of all, the mysterious bas-reliefs of the underground temple of Dendera stand out here. In one of the stone chambers of unknown purpose, human figures are depicted next to certain objects shaped like a flask. These flasks, or bubbles, are very reminiscent of giant electric lamps with bizarre wriggling snakes inside. The heads of the snakes are topped with lotus flowers, somewhat reminiscent of lamp sockets. Something similar to a cable is connected to a box, near which there is a symbol of power - a “djed pillar”, also attached to snakes.
True, a significant dose of imagination is required to imagine the servants of the pharaoh holding in their hands some mysterious devices that resemble lamps or even spotlights connected by wires to a number of battery vessels. There are also critical arguments, because the image is accompanied only by hieroglyphs of some religious hymn dedicated to the sun god Ra. This allowed Egyptologists to discard all informal hypotheses and confidently explain the pictograms as depicting a temple mystery with the heavenly boat of the sun god Ra. According to Egyptian beliefs, the sun dies every day in the evening and is resurrected at dawn. Here he is symbolized by a snake, which, as was believed in the land of the pharaohs, is reborn every time it sheds its skin.
By the way, German physicist Frank Derenburg calculated the parameters of the battery according to the “Baghdad version”, and it turned out that such a design for lighting Egyptian dungeons should weigh tens, or even hundreds of tons. Which clearly contradicts common sense. ON THE WAY TO THE SOLUTION - “LIVING BATTERIES” The riddle of “Baghdad batteries” and “Egyptian electricity” can be solved in an unexpected way. Historians of medicine of the Ancient world are aware of paradoxical methods of treatment using... “animal electricity”. In principle, there is nothing unusual here, because individual representatives of the Nile electric catfish are indeed capable of striking with 400-volt pulses at ampere current, which is very significant for modern electromedicine. There are descriptions by European ethnographers of the 18th century that the same Abyssinians used “electroshock therapy” in an unusual and very successful way. During severe attacks of swamp fever, they tied the patient tightly to a wooden platform, doused him with a saline solution of brine (salt lake water) and touched his navel with a live electric catfish wrapped in dry papyrus. Electric shocks continued until the feverish attack stopped.
TO end of the XVIII century, the topic of “living electricity” became popular among British doctors and biologists. Anatomist John Walsh proved electrical nature impact of the stingray, showing that electrical impulses are transmitted not by “air fluids”, but by direct contact and “conducting affinity of substances.” Then Scottish surgeon John Hunter examined the structure of the electrical organ of this unusual fish. Walsh and Hunter's research was published in 1773 and a few years later reached the Italian physician and physiologist Luigi Galvani. Galvani began experimenting with the effects static electricity. One day, his assistant accidentally touched a frog's leg with a scalpel that had accumulated an electrical discharge. The paw twitched convulsively, and a new area of research opened up before Galvani.
While studying “animal electricity,” Galvani concluded that muscles are a kind of batteries, which are controlled by the central nervous system through electrical signals. nervous system. Using the famous medical principle of “like is like,” he suggested that many muscle diseases, spasms and “cramps” could be treated with electrical discharges. So, maybe both low-current Egyptian and Sumerian “electrical devices” had a medical purpose? This seems possible during electroacupuncture procedures, when biologically active points(BAT) supply small current pulses. By the way, electrical influence on BAP can also lead to an analgesic effect. So, whether “electrical” artifacts existed or not, historical science does not yet know, because after the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, thousands of papyrus scrolls that kept the secrets of “temple science” disappeared. Maybe some very unusual ones are still waiting for us archaeological finds“cryptoelectric” artifacts that will open new pages in the history of science and technology. Oleg FAYG
I haven’t believed in Ilyich’s Light Bulb for a long time, nor in the new ones energy saving light bulbs Skolkovo nanotechnologists, but I believe that our ancestors used to have wireless electricity. How long ago I created a thread and wanted to add masterpieces to it, but I still couldn’t get down to it, but then I came across THE USE OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PAST. http://sibved.livejournal.com/214868.html,
Thank you very much for the article - it’s nice that I wasn’t the only one who dug up wireless electricity before the Revolution. After all, no one will believe me alone, without support. Yes, after the Revolution, Electricity was taken away from us and not given to us. They decided to plunge us into darkness, destroying temples that initially did not have crosses but had antennas and balls for storing electricity. They put on the crosses later and immediately took them off and stole the gold by removing and destroying the crosses, at the same time removing the wireless lighting system - in order to charge us taxes for selling light, although before that we received it for free.
How we survived after all the destruction, wars and revolutions, I can’t imagine!
St. Petersburg "Illumination on the Moika embankment." Watercolor V.S. Sadovnikova. 1856 The magnificent electric illumination of the Yusupov Palace is absolutely amazing.
When I was on a tour of the Yusupov Palace, I clearly remembered that the wiring there had remained in place since time immemorial and was two centuries old. Well done for not changing the wires and maintaining priority. After all, it was we who had the first illumination of the Mariinsky Theater, the seat numbers, which were first invented by our Prince Yusupov for ticket sales.
His light bulbs at the beginning of the century before last created a very beautiful effect and festive mood. And the effect of LED lighting amazes the Chinese.
In the same way, the Peter and Paul Fortress, Moscow, was illuminated on the day of the coronation of Alexander II
I saw exactly the same Illuminations on old engravings in Peterhoff and Venice. If I come across illustrations, I’ll show you or give you a link - I’ve already posted them, but they banned me then and now they won’t let me write. So we got to the bottom of the Truth. 
In front of the temples there were tall stellas that distributed and accumulated current
I have already shown wireless lights on the Spit of Vasilievsky Island and all over St. Petersburg there were churches without Crosses but with balls.
All around Russia. 
In Venice, exactly these balls still remain and even more powerful antennas - with clusters of balls - The Venetians were great, they did not remove this system.
The pyramids in Egypt made it possible to accumulate and accumulate sufficient quantity Solar Electricity and transmit to rainy St. Petersburg
But Numerous churches in St. Petersburg themselves attract rain, which intensifies
and the columns, monolithic columns with cores, made it possible to hold electricity to illuminate the Winter Palace - there are no Candles there and there was electricity immediately after the fire. That’s why the ceilings remained snow-white and not smoky. 
The tallest Monolithic Column in the World - Alexandria Pillar - Alexandria Lighthouse;-) it is now an Angel there, but it is not a fact that he was there from the very beginning. All these columns, including the columns of St. Isaac's Cathedral - the main Temple of the Empire, which fed the entire central part of the city
Alexander Column - Rostov-on-Don
Definitely, in the Rostral columns, cores and Beacons shone for ships from batteries, as well as for the Trinity Bridge, 
in Columns around the world and in Venice on San Marco Square there are also cores and served as Lighthouses until the construction of the San Marco Tower - the tallest Lighthouse. 
Venice also has lighting due to the Tower and Column.
It’s not for nothing that there were so many spiers and temples throughout St. Petersburg, but the tallest building was dismantled - the Bell Tower of the Smolny Cathedral. Because nothing should have been higher than the royal palace, so that no one could take more electricity than the king.
there was a law that it was impossible to build higher than the royal palace. 
In Petropavlovka there are balls on the turrets and on the spire, and the lighting there was also electric for a very long time. 
A device for obtaining Atmospheric Electricity, including a receiving unit with an antenna element connected by a current conductor to a discharge element, characterized in that the receiving unit contains, below the antenna element, a system of conductive dome-shaped triboelements oriented vertically and communicating with each other, to the edge of the lower of which a needle electrode is attached discharge element, and its other electrode is made in the form of a grounded metal disk.
The capacitor chamber 1 is limited by a housing 2, configured in the form of a body of revolution with a conical upper part. The body is made of dielectric (concrete, limestone). At the top of the body 2 there is a lower metal dome-shaped tribological element 3, which has a long metal “nose” 4, on which dome-shaped tribological elements are rigidly fixed in series (by means of the metal “nose”), the cavities of which and the chambers are connected. A cross-shaped antenna 6 is fixed to the upper dome-shaped triboelement; a needle 10 is lowered vertically from the edge of the lower dome-shaped triboelement. On the base of the chamber 7 there is a lower disk-shaped metal electrode 8, which has a ground connection 9.
The device works as follows.
Dome-shaped triboelements, located vertically and connected to a cross-shaped antenna, make it possible, with a minimum volume, to create a maximum surface for triboelectrification by various atmospheric factors, similar to the electrification of aircraft bodies. The result is a potential difference between the upper electrically charged needle electrode and the lower electrode.
During periods of snowstorms, rain, thunderstorms, this process (accumulation electric charges) is significantly enhanced by the use of the developed surface of the domes.
The increase in voltage between the electrodes also depends on the height of the upper electrode (with the antenna and dome-shaped triboelements), since Ez the vertical component of the Earth’s electric field is up to 200 V/m from the Earth’s surface, increasing during periods of disturbances (rain, blizzard, thunderstorm). The needle allows the field strength to be concentrated as much as possible to break down the discharge gap." 
the main thing is how harmoniously all these functional Columns fit into the city and how they fed the lighting throughout the Palace Square 
But the most gigantic thing in St. Petersburg is St. Isaac's Cathedral - this masterpiece was clearly created much earlier 
Colonnade and Pyramid for energy generation 
Leftovers Great Empire. Even now we are not able to make these columns. 
Now they put a column in front of the Station, but they couldn’t move it and raise it - they had to saw it and now in place of the cut there is a crown in the form of a laurel wreath - it covers the cut 
The tallest building at that time was in St. Petersburg - the Peter and Paul Cathedral and, of course, there was the most powerful antenna in St. Petersburg, in Russia and Europe.
I am beginning to respect our great ancestors more and more.
A feeling of pride for the Country. Overwhelms.
Venice, Northern Venice One Country.
Exactly the same Double-Headed Eagles in the Coat of Arms and in exactly the same way they were deprived of History and exactly the same freedom-loving people - now they will definitely achieve separation from Italy and make their own republic again. 
The Baghdad battery is a mysterious Mesopotamian artifact of the Parthian and Sassanian periods, which, following Wilhelm Koenig - director of the National Museum of Iraq - is sometimes regarded as an ancient voltaic cell created 2000 years before the birth of Alessandro Volta.
According to modern history The electric battery was invented in 1800 by Alexander Volta. The scientist noticed that when two dissimilar metal probes were placed into the tissue of a frog, a weak electric current appeared. Moreover, current also flowed when the electrodes were placed not in a living environment, but in some chemical solutions. Actually, this is where work on electricity began. However, the discovery of the Baghdad battery suggests that Volta did not invent the electric battery.
The first “battery,” discovered by Koenig near Baghdad in June 1936 (some sources say that in 1938), was a 13-centimeter vessel, the neck of which was filled with bitumen, and an iron rod with traces of corrosion was passed through it. Inside the vessel was a copper cylinder containing an iron rod inside.
Nowadays, the Baghdad battery is located in the National Museum of Iraq and is a clay vessel the size of a man's fist. Wilhelm Koenig in his book "In paradise lost" gives the following description of the Baghdad battery: "The upper end of the rod protruded about a centimeter above the cylinder and was covered with a thin, light yellow, but completely oxidized layer of metal, similar in appearance to lead. The lower end of the iron rod did not reach the bottom of the cylinder, on which there was a layer of asphalt about three millimeters thick."
Wilhelm Koenig suggested that the Baghdad battery, filled with acid or alkali, could create an electric current of one volt. Koenig reviewed the exhibits of the Baghdad Museum of Antiquities. He was surprised by silver-plated copper vases dating back to 2500 BC. e. As Koenig suggested, the silver on the vases was deposited using the electrolytic method.
Koenig's version that the find is a battery was confirmed by Professor J.B. Perchinski from the University of North Carolina. He created an exact copy of the “battery” and filled it with five percent wine vinegar. A voltage of 0.5 volts was recorded.
German Egyptologist Arne Eggebrecht proves through experience that galvanization was known more than 2000 years ago. To confirm this, he used a figurine of Osiris. Using 10 vessels similar to the Baghdad battery and a salt solution of gold, in a few hours the scientist confirmed his guess - the figurine was covered with an even layer of gold.
In 1947, American physicist Willard F. Gray made an exact replica of the Baghdad battery using copper sulfate as an electrolyte. The battery produced an electric current with a voltage of about 2 volts. Afterwards, many similar experiments were carried out, but the voltage turned out to be approximately the same: from 0.8 volts to 2 volts. In the program “MythBusters” the same result was obtained - galvanization occurred, although it was ineffective. To achieve sufficient voltage for galvanization, it was necessary to connect 10 vessels in series. There was also a theory put forward that the battery might have been used for medical purposes.
"Electric lighting was still available in ancient Egypt"say Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck, who dedicated their book to proving this idea. Their main argument is a relief from the temple of the goddess Hathor in Dendera, created in 50 BC, during the time of Queen Cleopatra. This relief shows an Egyptian priest holding in his hands is an oblong object resembling the bulb of an electric lamp. Inside the bulb, a snake wriggles, its head turned to the sky.
The strange object is a lamp, and the snake allegorizes the filament. With the help of such lamps, the Egyptians illuminated dark corridors and rooms. This is, for example, why there is no soot on the walls of the rooms where artists worked, which would have remained if they had used oil lamps.
According to Egyptologists, the relief in Dendera depicts the heavenly barge of the sun god Ra. According to Egyptian beliefs, the sun dies every day in the evening and is resurrected at dawn. Here he is symbolized by a snake, which, as was believed in the land of the pharaohs, is reborn every time it sheds its skin. The most controversial element of the image is the notorious “flask”. Even Egyptologists don't know how to interpret it. Perhaps it means "horizon".
Erich von Däniken continues: “The concept that I present here is still based on shaky foundations. Although we have working batteries and separate wires, we also need insulators to manipulate electricity. These insulators are available in various variations. Egyptologists call them “djed pillars.” Only initiates could handle them. They were discovered already under the most ancient pyramid - Djoser.
Modern researcher Andrew Thomas, who has studied the East for many years and has visited India several times, writes: “During my stay in India, I became acquainted with an ancient document stored in the library of Ujjain - “Adastya Samhita.” Incredibly, there I found instructions on how to make an electric battery!
It looks like this: “...place a well-cleaned copper plate in a clay pot. Cover it first with copper sulfate and then with wet sawdust. Next, a zinc plate amalgamated with mercury should be placed on top. The contact of these plates will give energy which is known as Mitra-Varuna.
This energy splits water into Pranavaya and Udanavaya - oxygen and hydrogen. A battery made from hundreds of these pots provides a very active and efficient force." Today we call Mitra-Varuna anode and cathode. It is known that in ancient india They also knew about electrical conductivity.
They knew about mysterious bright inextinguishable light sources back in the ancient times. Plutarch wrote about a lamp that burned at the entrance to the temple of Jupiter-Ammon for several centuries. The Greek satyr Lucian (120-180 AD) wrote about the same bright source of light that burned in the head of the statue of Hera in the city of Herapolis (Syria). Pausanias (2nd century AD) spoke about an amazing golden lamp in the temple of Minerva, which burned unquenchably for a century.
On the other hand, skeptical archaeologists note that the very demonstration of the possibility of using the find as a source electric current does not prove that it was actually used that way. In addition, the asphalt layer completely covers the copper cylinder, which eliminates the possibility of connecting wires from the outside.
No associated electrical equipment was found that could use "batteries", not even current conductors were found. There are also no known examples of this time plated with gold using electricity, all of which were gilded by the well-known process of amalgamation. In addition, the Baghdad battery is almost identical to vessels found from nearby Seleucia with a known function, they were used to store scrolls.
On the other hand, one should not underestimate one's ancestors. Everything is forgotten. And some of the peak achievements of a particular culture, amazing secrets, are lost after several centuries. Wars, fires, and the destruction of written monuments only increase oblivion. And now, when archaeologists find an unusual artifact, they do not know how to explain its appearance. It becomes an unsolvable riddle, a phrase from a book that has long been burned.
ELECTRICITY IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
Temple of the goddess Hathor in Dendera.
Alexander Shimbalaev
Keeps many secrets ancient world. Most modern people are inclined to think that our ancestors were primitive and poorly educated. However, archaeologists, in contrast to this opinion, find from time to time amazing evidence of the wisdom of those who lived thousands of years before us. The temples and majestic structures alone, which are spread throughout the world, from Egypt to Stonehenge in England, fascinate and evoke admiration for the skill and strength of the ancient builders.
It would seem that it is common knowledge: electricity was discovered in 1820 by Oersted* . However, today some researchers dispute this opinion. Why? During archaeological excavations in Iran, archaeologists discovered mysterious vase-shaped objects that, during further research, turned out to be... completely functional galvanic batteries! Incredibly, their creation dates back to 250 BC. e. Each device consists of a long, approximately 12 cm, cylinder made of copper plate and coated with a layer of tin. The cross-section of the cylinder is exactly 2.5 cm, and at the bottom it is tightly closed with a copper cap treated with bitumen mass. Inside there is an 11 cm long iron rod, the end of which is insulated with resin and extends out. To ensure the safety of the device from external influences, it is placed in a terracotta case. The “vase” measures 18 cm. If this copper-iron structure is placed in wine, vinegar, citric acid, we get a galvanic cell. Another interesting fact is that the structure of the Babylonian battery is identical to the one that Luigi Galvani used 2 thousand years later** .
"Electric lamps" on the bas-reliefs of the Temple of Hathor.
Several years ago in Germany, in the city of Hildesheim, an experiment was carried out that left experts very perplexed: each of the batteries connected to the measuring instruments showed a voltage of 0.5 volts. This proved that the copper elements found in Chuyut Rabuah in Seleucia above the Tigris, or in neighboring Ctesiphon, are indeed ancient electric batteries. There is even a question whether ancient peoples had similar technologies.
There is evidence to answer this question in the affirmative. Let us take as an example the country of the pharaohs -Egypt. Did the priests - ancient scientists - know the secrets of electricity? How did the beautiful wall paintings appear in underground shrines or in the Valley of the Kings? What light source was used for painting?
The first thought that comes to mind suggests that these were most likely candles or oil lamps. But a study of the ceilings and walls of the underground chambers shows that there are no traces of soot. Torches and lamps should have been left on the ceilings, walls, columns. Archaeologists would have noticed this even after many centuries.
However, there is nothing like it. Maybe smart priests came up with a system of mirrors that delivered sunlight underground? No, practical research showed that it should have dispersed by following long tunnels. It turned out to be impossible to create lighting in this way. The assumption that the ancient Egyptians used non-smoking lamps or torches was also not confirmed. No one has yet discovered such technology until today. The ancient Egyptians themselves gave us a clue, leaving us a message in the form of numerous bas-reliefs on the walls of their temples. At a distance of 60 kilometers north of Luxor you can find a structure that attracts the attention of tourists traveling around Egypt. This is the temple of the goddess Hathor, located in Dendera.
The ruins and monumental ruins located nearby clearly indicate that the temple itself is only part of a huge architectural complex.
24 thick columns in the lobby of enormous size, the remains of 3-meter thick walls are only the above-ground part, representing a small fragment of the entire complex. The rest of the structure - 12 long, narrow and inaccessible crypts*** - is a vast underground structure. Hidden here are fascinating bas-reliefs, which have no equal anywhere in the world, neither in Egypt itself nor in other countries. And the hieroglyphs placed in many places have not yet been read.
An electric lamp restored from drawings from the Temple of Hathor. Approximately such electric lamps burned in ancient Egyptian temples.
The temple complex we see was built in Hellenistic Egypt, from 54 BC. e. to 60 AD e. However, the crypts mentioned above date back to ancient times. Old texts discovered on the walls date back to the reign of the pharaohs Pepi II (6- I dynasty, from 2175 BC BC), Khufu (4th dynasty, from 2675 BC) and Thutmose III (18th dynasty, from 1480 BC e.). The temple cemetery contains graves from the earliest dynastic times (3100 - 2890 BC)
The bas-reliefs show human figures located next to objects shaped like cylinders. Without much mental effort, they are associated with huge electric lamps. The snakes curling in them are electric arcs, the color of the lotus creates a frame from which a wire emerges, connected to a rectangular container. Everything is on a column, which to any technician will seem like an insulator used in high voltage lines. This design, which has the length of outstretched arms, is indicated by the hieroglyph" djed ", which means stability, duration.
Isn't it worth looking for the real meaning of this mystical support, relying on the direct meaning of this word? The entire huge library carved into stone consists of information encoded in a language known only to high-ranking priests. Symbols, signs, numbers were invented in order to preserve knowledge and at the same time hide it from the uninitiated. Every significant monument of Egyptian civilization is a storehouse of wisdom. For example, the Cheops pyramid looks more like a repository of knowledge than the tomb of a pharaoh.
Many questions of antiquity can be solved by turning to the experience of other cultures. In one of the Indian books, Kumbhadwaba Agadsyonumi , there is a description of the manufacture of an element that produces current. Let us quote a fragment of this text: “After you place a piece of pure copper in a clay vessel that does not allow water to pass through, you need to make a hole directed towards the top and add vitriol, blue like a peacock feather. Then fill the jug with sawdust and put it on top "a block of zinc rubbed with pure silver. From this combination will arise a force called Mithra, as well as light arising from the combination of copper and zinc. One hundred of these earthen vessels will give great power." An interesting fact is that this text appeared many centuries before the birth of Christ and long before the emergence of the so-called “dry batteries” from Baghdad.”
In this document one can also find a coincidence with the hieroglyphs and bas-reliefs presented on one of the walls of the Temple of Hathor in Egypt. Artists and carvers of the country of the pyramids depicted electricity in the guise of snakes for a reason. Symbolism and reality are unambiguously intertwined here: the snake is fast as lightning, it can be deadly and, in addition to everything, it is a creature that inspires fear. The sounds that an electric discharge makes, the crackling of sparks, are associated with its hissing.
But where did the Egyptians get their energy? What sources created the current? Today it is impossible to answer this question unambiguously. Analysis of the sources discussed requires attention to several possibilities. The Austrian electrical engineer Walter-Garn, who worked with archaeologists to resolve this problem, writes: “The series connection of many of these elements makes it possible to obtain a very high voltage, just as in modern batteries. It can also be obtained using dust or smoke, although such phenomena are considered undesirable, and it is better to enhance it using grounded copper plates. Another method allows you to use an electrostatic machine that runs on water energy. High voltage can also be obtained chemically. After all, it is difficult to know all the ways that lead to the production of electric current "One can only remember the stingray - a fish that strikes its prey with thousands of volts."
To get beyond the theoretical considerations, Garn constructed two working models of "light bulbs", relying solely on the instructions placed in the temple of Hathor. The first of them produced an electric arc that intensely illuminated objects in the darkness. The second, more interesting, was a glass flask 40 cm long and 12 cm wide at its thickest point. At one end there was an electrode reinforced with resin, the second narrow one was also filled with resin. The “snake” connected to the lamp was carefully isolated from the flow of air. This model has been presented publicly many times.
It is worth remembering here that the ancient Egyptians were great masters in glass production. An example is a burial discovered 25 km south of Cairo, dating back several thousand years. A magnifying lens made of rock crystal was found there. Scientists are again faced with another mystery. What equipment did the ancients use to make optical lenses? Maybe this secret will be revealed someday. Studying the bas-relief located on the southern wall of the eastern room allows us to solve the riddle of obtaining a vacuum in ancient Egyptian lamps. The four men shown in the image are spraying some kind of liquid similar to water located in the device they are servicing.
Today it is known that by using so-called electrodes, or water pumps, a relatively high vacuum can be obtained, especially if they are operated in a cascade system. At a pressure of 40 mm of mercury, realized inside a glass flask with two metal plates placed there, already at very low voltages a filament of light appears, connecting them. If you reduce the pressure inside the vessel, the luminous snake expands, gradually filling the entire volume. And this exactly corresponds to the paintings in the underground corridors of the temple of the sky goddess Hathor in Dendera.
Today there are other explanations for the bas-reliefs of the Temple of Hathor, based on ancient Egyptian mythology. However, they do not provide answers to the questions posed. How did Pharaoh's subjects illuminate their dungeons? And the experiments of scientists who reproduced ancient electrical devices indicate that people who lived in the country of the pyramids several thousand years ago could use them.
Many fans of sensations immediately believe that all the wonders of technology were brought to Earth by aliens from outer space. This hypothesis seems far-fetched to us. One must dislike humanity very much in order to immediately attribute all its significant achievements to the influence of alien intelligence. If in our time earthlings have achieved significant success in the development of science and technology, why could not similar discoveries be made earlier? Science says that man has not changed biologically throughout his existence. The miracles of antiquity testify to the high intelligence of our ancestors. Even today we cannot reproduce much of what people did in the past.
Why haven’t the achievements of ancient technology been preserved to this day? There are many reasons for this. Science has established for sure that there have been floods on Earth more than once. The Bible says that the ancient sages achieved great mastery in various arts. However, we got too carried away technical progress, which destroyed them. In addition to natural disasters, humanity was constantly shaken by wars. From time to time, masses of uneducated barbarian tribes invaded civilized countries and destroyed all the knowledge accumulated over thousands of years. Today, scientists are trying with great difficulty to unravel all the complex knots of human history.
*Electricity- a set of phenomena caused by the existence, interaction and movement of electric charges. The term was introduced by the English naturalist William Gilbert in his essay “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet - the Earth” (1600), which explains the operation of a magnetic compass and describes some experiments with electrified bodies. He found that other substances also have the property of being electrified.
Electricity was one of the first to attract the attention of the Greek philosopher Thales in the 7th century BC. e., who discovered that amber rubbed with wool (ancient Greek.ἤ λεκτρον: electron) acquires the properties of attracting light objects. However for a long time knowledge of electricity did not go further than this idea. In 1600, the term electricity itself (“amber”) appeared, and in 1663, Magdeburg burgomaster Otto von Guericke created an electrostatic machine in the form of a sulfur ball mounted on a metal rod, which made it possible to observe not only the effect of attraction, but also the effect of repulsion. In 1729, Englishman Stephen Gray conducted experiments on transmitting electricity over distance, discovering that not all materials transmit electricity equally. In 1733, the Frenchman Charles Dufay established the existence of two types of electricity, glass and resin, which were revealed by rubbing glass on silk and resin on wool. In 1745, the Dutchman Pieter van Musschenbroek created the first electric capacitor - the Leyden jar.
The first theory of electricity was created by the American B. Franklin, who views electricity as an “immaterial liquid,” a fluid (“Experiments and Observations on Electricity,” 1747). He also introduces the concept of positive and negative charge, invents a lightning rod and, with its help, proves the electrical nature of lightning. The study of electricity became an exact science after the discovery of Coulomb's Law in 1785.
Further, in 1791, the Italian Galvani published “A Treatise on the Forces of Electricity in Muscular Movement,” in which he describes the presence of electric current in the muscles of animals. Another Italian, Volta, in 1800, invented the first direct current source - a galvanic cell, which was a column of zinc and silver circles separated by paper soaked in salted water. In 1802, Vasily Petrov discovered a voltaic arc.
In 1820, the Danish physicist Oersted experimentally discovered electromagnetic interaction. Closing and opening a circuit with current, he saw vibrations of a compass needle located near the conductor. The French physicist Ampere in 1821 established that the connection between electricity and magnetism is observed only in the case of electric current and is absent in the case of static electricity. The works of Joule, Lenz, and Ohm expand the understanding of electricity. Gauss formulates the fundamental theorem of the theory of electrostatic fields (1830).
Based on the research of Oersted and Ampere, Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction in 1831 and created on its basis the world's first electricity generator, pushing a magnetized core into a coil and recording the occurrence of current in the turns of the coil. Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction (1831) and the laws of electrolysis (1834), introduces the concept of electric and magnetic fields. An analysis of the phenomenon of electrolysis led Faraday to the idea that the carrier of electrical forces is not any electrical liquid, but atoms - particles of matter. “The atoms of matter are somehow endowed with electrical forces,” he claims. Faraday's studies of electrolysis played a fundamental role in the development of electronic theory. Faraday also created the world's first electric motor - a wire with current rotating around a magnet. The culmination of electromagnetism research was the development of the theory of electromagnetic phenomena by the English physicist D. C. Maxwell. He derived equations linking together the electric and magnetic characteristics of the field in 1873.
In 1880, Pierre Curie discovered piezoelectricity. In the same year, D. A. Lachinov showed the conditions for transmitting electricity over long distances. Hertz experimentally records electromagnetic waves (1888).
In 1897, Joseph Thomson discovered the material carrier of electricity - the electron, whose place in the structure of the atom was later indicated by Ernest Rutherford.
In the 20th century, the theory of Quantum Electrodynamics was created. In 1967, another step was taken towards the study of electricity. S. Weinberg, A. Salam and S. Glashow created a unified theory of electroweak interactions.
**Luigi Galvani(Italian Luigi Galvani, September 9, 1737 - December 4, 1798) - Italian doctor, anatomist, physiologist and physicist, one of the founders of electrophysiology and the study of electricity, the founder of experimental electrophysiology. He was the first to study electrical phenomena during muscle contraction (“animal electricity”). Detected the occurrence of a potential difference upon contact different types metal and electrolyte.
One of Galvani's followers was his nephew Giovanni Aldini, who was one of the first to apply Galvani's theoretical knowledge in practice. He began to conduct experiments related to electrical phenomena during muscle contraction, or rather on the corpses of executed criminals.
***Crypts- secret underground crypts, some for initiation purposes, others for burial.