Lexical norms are norms that regulate the rules for using and combining words in speech. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning - the content that reflects our knowledge and understanding of an object, phenomenon, property or process.
When using a word in speech, we must ensure that, firstly, its lexical meaning is implemented appropriately and correctly, and secondly, that the word expresses our attitude, that is, it is expressive. In accordance with this, lexical norms have two aspects: accuracy and expressiveness. In addition, the use of words in speech is determined by the sphere of their existence and the changes occurring in the language over time.
To achieve accuracy of speech, you must first of all have a clear understanding of the subject of speech itself, as well as knowledge of the meaning of the word used in modern language. Often, speech errors arise precisely when the speaker or writer cannot adequately express his thought, using words in a meaning that is unusual for them. Let us give several examples of such errors from applicants’ essays: “Pechorin goes to Persia, not finding a use for his mind and his resourcefulness (?)”; “He created around himself an area (?) of a well-read person”; “Matryona lives alone in an old hut. Her only companions(?) are a cat, mice and cockroaches”; “Andrei Bolkonsky comes into contact (?) with Kutuzov and becomes his adjutant.”
Closely related to the problem of accuracy of speech (subject and conceptual) is the ability to distinguish between so-called paronyms, i.e. words (most often with the same root), similar in sound, but having different meanings and used differently, for example: enter - act, present - provide, distant - distant, human - human - human, etc. Failure to distinguish between paronyms also leads to annoying and absurd mistakes, examples of which, alas, are numerous in the same works of applicants: “Lermontov showed the futility (sterility?) of the activities of his hero.”; “The harmony of nature gives rise to thoughts about the inviolability of the moral structures (foundations?) of this world.”; “Tatiana is contraindicated (opposed?) to Onegin and Lensky.”; “Pushkin was tied with strong knots (ties?) with the Decembrists.”
Introduction as the most important component of an oratorical speech.
The success of a public speaking largely depends on how the speaker started speaking and how much he managed to interest the audience. An unsuccessful start reduces listeners’ interest in the topic and scatters attention. Scientists have proven through numerous experiments that what is best learned and remembered is what is given at the beginning or end of a message. In psychology, this is explained by the action of the law of first and last place, the so-called “law of edge”. Therefore, the speaker should pay great attention to developing the introductory part of the speech.
The introduction emphasizes the relevance of the topic, its significance for the given audience, formulates the purpose of the speech, and briefly outlines the history of the issue. Before the introduction of an oratorical speech, there is an important psychological task - to prepare listeners to perceive this topic.
It is known that listeners are in different moods before the speech begins, as they are guided by different motives. Some come because they are interested in the topic of the speech, they want to expand and deepen their knowledge on this topic, and hope to get answers to their questions. Others are present out of necessity: being members of this team, they are obliged to be at this event. The first group is ready to listen to the speaker from the very beginning, the listeners of the second group sit with the attitude “not to listen”, but to do “their” business (read, talk, do crossword puzzles, etc.). But the speaker needs to win the attention of the entire audience, make all listeners work, including those who do not want to listen. And this is undoubtedly not easy to do. Therefore, in the introduction, special attention is paid to the beginning of speech, the first phrases, the so-called beginning.
What techniques can be used in the introductory part of a speech to attract the attention of the audience?
It arouses interest in the speech, helps to listen carefully and a story about any significant events relevant to the given audience and the topic of the speech.
An effective means of gaining the attention of listeners is questions. They allow the speaker to involve the audience in active mental activity and set the audience in a certain mood.
Subject accuracy constitutes knowledge of the subject of speech and is based on the extra-linguistic connection between speech and reality. That is, all objects, phenomena, events of reality must be clearly presented in speech.
Conceptual accuracy is achieved through the ability to accurately select words to define an object and is based on the connection between speech and thinking. Conceptual accuracy of speech is expressed in the use of words in accordance with their linguistic meanings.
Cicero said: “He who thinks clearly, speaks clearly.” V.G. Belinsky noted: “A person expresses himself clearly when he is in possession of a thought, but even more clearly when he is in possession of a thought.”
For the speech to be accurate, the speaker must know the subject of speech, the language, its system and capabilities, and be able to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a specific act of communication.
Associated with speech accuracy logic: Imprecise speech cannot be logical. Logic characterizes speech in terms of its content, the relationship of parts and components, and the sequence of presentation. We can say that consistency is expressed in the construction of the composition.
Like accuracy, logic happens substantive and conceptual.
Subject logic presupposes the correspondence of semantic connections and relationships between language units in speech and the connections and relationships of objects and events in reality.
Conceptual logic reflects the structure of logical thought and its logical development in the semantic connections of language elements in speech.
Purity of speech– this is freedom of speech from any elements that pollute it. Pure speech does not contain words and phrases alien to the literary language, as well as anything that is rejected by the norms of morality and morality. Thus, the frequency of speech is based on two relationships: speech - literary language; speech is consciousness.
Elements that can clog speech:
1) dialect words (words characteristic not of the common language of the people, but of local dialects);
2) professional words;
3) speech cliches, clericalisms (words, phrases and sentences used in business (“clerical”) documents);
4) jargon, i.e. words and verbal expressions that arose and are used in jargons - narrow group “branches” from the folk language;
6) linguistic elements rejected by moral norms (vulgarisms - words roughly denoting any objects or phenomena).
7) foreign words, in this case foreign words should be divided into:
A) necessary words that have no equivalents in Russian;
b)“weeds” are words that can be replaced with Russian equivalents without changing the meaning.
T Full-time speech is speech in which words are used in full accordance with the meanings assigned to them in the language system.
The following contribute to the creation of speech accuracy:
Exact choice of word from a synonymous series;
Accurate selection of the meaning of a polysemantic word;
Delineation of homonyms( Homonyms(ancient Greek ὁμός - identical + ὄνομα - name) - words, morphemes and other units of language that are different in meaning, but identical in sound and spelling. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Should not be confused with homophones, homographs, homoforms and paronyms), paronyms (Cases of mixing words that are close in sound, but distant in meaning or divergent in their meanings (such words are called paronyms) are found in speech quite often. You may have heard a bus driver, addressing passengers, say: “Citizens who have entered, please pay the fare.” Is it acceptable to “pay for travel”? No, you need to say: pay or pay the fare or pay the fare. _);
Taking into account the meanings of words of a narrow sphere of use - foreign, professional, archaic, terminological, etc.
L Speech is called logical in which the connection between words in a sentence and the connection between individual statements in the text is clearly and correctly expressed.
The condition of consistency is that the combination of one word with another must be consistent.
The reasons for illogicality and even absurdity of speech can be:
Speech alogisms - a combination of incompatible, contradictory concepts (joyful grief); comparison of incomparable concepts (The speech of Sholokhov’s heroes differs from all other heroes);
Omitting the necessary words (the random factor can also play here);
Inclusion of unnecessary, redundant words (partially or completely identical in meaning) - pleonasms (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) (There were about twenty people at the stop);
Substitution of concepts as a result of incorrect word usage (Many years have passed since the first publishing of M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”);
Unreasonable narrowing or expansion of the meanings of concepts, confusion of generic and specific concepts (Due to heavy rainfall, I had to stay at home);
Inconsistency between premise and consequence;
Poor word order in a sentence.
WITH the combination of contradictory concepts can be used as a stylistic device. There is a special figure of speech - an oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid), a combination of words that are incompatible in meaning, figuratively revealing the contradictory essence of what is depicted.
Speech can be considered good only when it is understandable to the addressee. Therefore, compliance with the criterion of intelligibility is one of the main conditions that must be taken into account when assessing the quality of speech.
Speech can be called understandable only when it reflects the communicative intention of the speaker as fully as possible, but at the same time, the conveyed thought must also be adequately perceived by the listener. Therefore, the implementation of the “understandability” criterion is ensured by two qualities of good speech: accuracy and clarity (see section “Clarity of Speech”).
In order to get an initial idea of how accuracy is violated in speech, consider the following statements.
Your fiction is bad.
It’s too early for us to sing a memorandum.
In the examples given, the speaker, to express his thoughts, chose words that are not assigned in the language to designate the concept that needed to be named. So, in the first sentence, the speaker, judging by the context, evaluates not ideas and images created by the imagination, but the addressee’s ability to invent, imagine something, therefore, to adequately convey his thoughts, he had to use the word fantasy, but not fantastic(cf. fantasy: ‘the ability to invent, imagine something; creative imagination', fantastic: ‘representations, images created by the imagination, depiction of the phenomena of reality in an exaggerated and supernatural form’).
The second sentence talks about the speaker’s fears about unjustified enthusiasm, for which there is an expression in Russian sing praises, the speaker - by consonance - selects a word from the lexical set provided to him by the language memorandum, which means ‘a diplomatic document setting out the government’s views on a matter’.
Thus, we can state that there are violations of the accuracy of speech in these examples, since accurate speech is one in which the thoughts and feelings of the speaker are conveyed using those linguistic means that in a given language are assigned to designate a certain reality of the surrounding reality. Therefore, for speech to be accurate, words should be used in full accordance with the meanings assigned to them in the language [Golovin: 126].
When a thought is clearly expressed, the words fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning, and the wrong choice of word distorts the meaning of the statement.
Therefore, accuracy includes the ability
accurately reflect reality in speech;
accurately express thoughts and formalize them using linguistic means.
Accuracy is a communicative quality of good speech, which predetermines the correspondence of the methods of expression to the described reality and is manifested in the ability to explicate a thought using such a selection of linguistic means that would most fully correspond to the expressed concept.
Accuracy as a quality of speech is associated primarily with the lexical level in the language system, which means that accuracy can be understood as compliance with the norms of word usage in speech. But in this case, it would be necessary to classify accuracy as a variant of correctness (a completely different quality of speech).
How to differentiate accuracy And right?
It should be noted that these qualities characterize speech in different aspects.
Right How does speech quality represent the relationship? language - speech. It relies solely on linguistic factors. Correct speech is the structure of which corresponds to the norms of the literary language.
Accuracy how the quality of speech is based on other relationships: this category is based on connection speech - reality.
Conditions conducive to the creation of accurate speech:
knowledge of the subject of speech (extralinguistic condition),
knowledge of the language system (linguistic condition),
the ability to correlate knowledge of a subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a specific act of communication.
These conditions presuppose strict correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena) of reality. Consequently, the speaker must take care of the correct choice of a linguistic means (in particular, a word), which would most accurately correspond to the object or phenomenon of reality that requires designation
Speech can be characterized as understandable if the speaker, in the process of uttering, made the only correct choice from the possibilities provided to him by the language. When choosing an exact nomination, one should not only take into account the presence of several lexical paradigms, but also make an accurate choice of the desired option from a number offered by the language (for example, choosing a synonym from a synonymous series or choosing a paronym from a paronymic pair). The wrong choice of language option leads to a violation of factual or communicative accuracy.
Researchers identify several types of accuracy. In particular, B.N. Golovin proposes to distinguish between its two varieties [Golovin: 129].
But the terms “subject accuracy” and “conceptual accuracy”, for all their advantages (brevity, uniformity), also have disadvantages. An objection of this kind would be absolutely fair: isn’t substantive precision also conceptual? After all, the speaker in the process of communication conveys not a concept (separate, isolated, logically cleared of everything unimportant), but a complex-representation, which includes not only the signs of the concept, but also emotional, volitional aspirations, i.e. he broadcasts the content formed by him while understanding the realities of the surrounding world [Muchnik: 83]. Another term - “subject accuracy” - also narrows the area that it is intended to designate. After all, not only objects can be reflected, but also, for example, processes.
It seems that A.E. Milchin’s term “actual accuracy” would therefore be more adequate. Instead of the expressions “subject accuracy” - “conceptual accuracy” B.S. Muchnik suggests using a couple of terms: actual accuracy – communicative precision[Muchnik: 83].
Actual Accuracy- a property inherent in the correct (adequate, true) reflection of the world by the author’s thought.
Communicative Accuracy- a property that arises when expressing the author’s thought, when this thought is adequately captured in words and transmitted to the addressee. This is a complete correspondence of a fragment of speech with the author’s thoughts, even in the case when the word is used in a non-normative meaning 20 (see how V. Lugovskoy analyzes an example from Gogol: ““– I remembered, I remembered! - he shouted in terrible joy and, swinging the ax, threw it with all his might at the old woman. A two-inch ax ran into the oak door" Listen to the word ran in determines the terrible force of the blow; It would seem a strange word for an axe, but what significance does it give to the whole phrase”).
Thus, we should not talk about the accuracy of word usage, but about the exact expression of thought, or the communicative accuracy of speech. When achieving communicative accuracy, it is important to keep in mind how consistent “the meaning of the statement, actualized by the author, is with the conveyed meaning” [Muchnik: 87].
The difference between the two types of accuracy is presented in the following table.
|
Actual accuracy |
Communicative Accuracy |
example |
a comment |
|
communication is broken accuracy |
Katerina jumped (vv. threw herself) from a cliff into the Volga. Obviously, the author did not mean that Katerina jumped off a cliff to, for example, swim. Therefore the word he used jumped inaccurately conveys his (correct, accurate) thought. | ||
|
fact violated. accuracy |
I have a real boomerang, made in Australia by Bedouins 21 Thought is inaccurate in relation to reality. | ||
|
There are no errors that impair the accuracy of speech. |
An impeccable reflection of reality and an impeccable expression of thought. |
||
|
This combination is observed only in exceptional cases: Where the grass is withered They did not throw the ears, The wheat will rustle The golden sea. Is it herbs? throwing an ear of corn? Only wheat can do this, and even then - not throw, but Vs throw(‘to release a shoot, inflorescence, etc.’), because throw– ‘throw, throw; throw with the aim of hitting smb., sth.’. |
Examples
Today on TVcoronation the president will be shown(vm. inauguration). Violation of factual accuracy.
Meanwhilewere approaching joyful events(vm. were approaching). Impaired communicative accuracy.
Let us consider the reasons for the violation of accuracy in more detail.
The specified quality of speech may be impaired as a result of inaccurate selection of a lexeme from the antonymic paradigm.
This error is called mixing antonyms .
Shesupine fell to the ground, only her shuddering shoulder blades were visible.
From an antonymous pair supine – prone the speaker chose a nomination that incorrectly reflected reality, and this is clearly evident from the context: if a person fell backward, that is, on his back, face up, then the observer could not see the shuddering shoulder blades of the fallen person. Consequently, to accurately reflect reality, the speaker had to choose from the antonymic pair supine – prone lexeme prone, i.e. ‘face down’.
The described quality of speech can also be impaired as a result of inaccurate selection of a lexeme from a synonymous or paronymic paradigm, which entails the appearance of an error called inaccurate choice of synonym/paronym .
Knowledge of synonymous possibilities allows you to select the right word from a synonymous series and thereby achieve strict compliance of speech with the conveyed content, and therefore achieve accuracy of expression. It must be remembered: in order to choose the only correct word from a synonymous series, you need to take into account its semantic and stylistic shades.
Yes, in a sentence Ilya Murometsfought with the Nightingale the Robber speakers do not take into account the difference in meaning conveyed by words fight/fight: ‘to beat each other’ / ‘to engage in combat, single combat’. It seems that in this context, to more accurately convey the meaning, it is necessary to use the lexeme fight, since it, unlike the lexeme fight, belongs to the conceptual field hero, and implements many associative connections of this concept. Wed: Tyoma fought so desperately with the black man, it was breathtaking!
The mechanism for selecting a paronymic variant from the existing paradigm in the language is similar. Yes, in a sentence If a strike occurs, the air transport schedule will bebroken the speaker incorrectly selected an option from a paronymic pair broken/broken. Broken– participle from break(‘to overcome, defeat someone or suppress, overcome something’) – does not accurately reflect the author’s idea: it is impossible to suppress the air transportation schedule, it can be break. Therefore, in this sentence it was necessary to use the form broken– participle from break(‘decisively throw away something that is established, rooted; destroy, destroy’).
A special case in a series of errors leading to a violation of accuracy is the speaker’s incorrect choice of a lexical unit from a set of units belonging to one lexical-semantic group that explicates a certain conceptual space.
The reason for the error is that the speaker, in the process of spontaneous communication, makes an inaccurate choice from words that have nothing in common in sound, but relate to the same subject area. The main paradigmatic feature of such lexical units is that “their meanings have a single categorical lexical seme. This seme forms the semantic basis of the group and is specified in each individual word with the help of differential semes” [Kuznetsova: 75].
The mechanism of this error is as follows: the speaker must choose a specific word imposed on him by the extralinguistic and linguistic situation from a group of lexemes belonging to the same semantic field. These words are united by the fact that their meanings have a common integral seme, but the differentiating semes are different. The speaker in the process of communication (when he must simultaneously take into account many conditions, both extralinguistic and linguistic) mistakenly selects a lexeme, the differentiating component of the meaning of which does not correspond to the given situation of the utterance.
The resulting speech error is called confusion of words belonging to the same conceptual area as a result of incorrect actualization of the differentiating component of meaning .
Let us analyze a sentence in which the speaker violated accuracy by mistakenly choosing a word with an incorrect actualization of the differentiating seme.
V. Putin spoke about the liquidation of the leader of bandit formations Sh. Basayev: There are people worthy of such retribution. It is too little for him to simply be destroyed. It seems that the word worthy used by the speaker inaccurately: it is impossible to be worthy of retribution, since the lexeme worthy when implementing syntagmatic relations, it requires a lexeme with a positive component of meaning. Should have said deserves such retribution.
Basic qualities of speech 3
Speech Accuracy 3
Speech intelligibility 5
Purity of speech 8
Expressiveness of speech 8
Richness and variety of speech 10
Conclusion 13
References 14
Introduction
The expedient and uncomplicated use of language for communication purposes ensures the quality of “good” speech: accuracy, purity, logic, expressiveness, richness, appropriateness.
Accuracy– correspondence between the semantic content of speech and the information that underlies it. The accuracy of speech is associated with the accuracy of word usage, with the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms. The most important condition for accuracy of speech is compliance with lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects those words and constructions that more accurately than others convey shades of meaning that are essential specifically for a given utterance.
Purity means the absence in speech of elements alien to the literary language (dialectal, professional, slang, etc.)
Logic- this is the expression in the semantic connections of the components of speech of the connections and relationships between the parts of the components of thought.
Expressiveness speech is the quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive capabilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can be created by linguistic units of all levels. In addition, there are specific figurative properties of language (tropes, stylistic figures) that make the statement vivid, figurative, and emotional. Expression is also created through the use of catchphrases, proverbs and sayings. The speech experience of each of us suggests that speech is not the same in terms of the degree of impact on our consciousness. Two lectures given on the same topic have completely different effects on a person. The effect depends on the degree of expressiveness of speech.
Wealth- this is the wide and free use of linguistic units in speech, allowing for optimal expression of information.
Relevance- this is the use in speech of language units that correspond to the goals, situation, conditions, and content of communication.
Basic qualities of speech
Speech is considered meaningful if it has internal meaning. It is no coincidence that in the Old Russian language one of the meanings of the word sense was “reason, reason, intellect.” In this meaning it remained known in the 19th century. Let us remember the lines from “Ruslan and Lyudmila” by A. S. Pushkin: “Ruslan languished in silence, And lost his meaning and memory.” Thus, the content of speech depends on the degree of mental development of the speakers, on their intelligence. This is confirmed by the proverb “The field is red with millet, but conversation is with the mind.”
Hence the warning that defines the attitude towards words, speech, language: “When you speak, think”, “The word is not spoken in vain”, “Don’t throw words to the wind”, “You shouldn’t waste words”, “You can’t hold a horse on the reins, but You can’t take the words out of your mouth.” And in these proverbs there is concern about the content side of speech: think about what you want to say; Choose words according to their meaning.
There is so much humor and irony in the proverb “Pour from empty to empty.” An empty matter is like an empty conversation. There is no benefit from either one. “They said that they had made a lot of money, but look - there is nothing”, “In a lot of talk there is not without idle talk”, “He talks day until evening, but there is nothing to listen to”, “A lot has been said, but little has been said.” As we see, proverbs condemn meaningless speeches, conversations that give nothing to either the mind or the heart.
In order for the speech to be meaningful, informative, enrich listeners, and attract their attention, it is important, while working on the text, to comprehend:
What provisions will be developed;
What new is being introduced to resolve the issue;
What remains controversial and requires further thought;
How well-reasoned are the thoughts expressed?
Speech Accuracy
Accuracy of speech is most often associated with accuracy of word usage.
The accuracy of word usage depends on how much the speaker knows the subject of speech, how erudite he is, whether he knows how to think logically, whether he knows the laws of the Russian language, its rules.
Thus, speech accuracy is determined by:
Knowledge of the subject
Logic of thinking,
The ability to choose the right words.
Violation of the logical sequence, lack of logic in the presentation leads to inaccuracy of speech.
Let us consider in what cases the accuracy of speech is impaired as a result of insufficient knowledge of the features of the language. The most typical of them are:
Using words in a meaning that is unusual for them;
Polysemy that is not eliminated by the context, giving rise to ambiguity;
Mixing of paronyms and homonyms.
Each significant word performs a nominative function, that is, it names an object or its quality, action, state. This obliges speakers to pay attention to the meaning of words and to use them correctly. A careless attitude towards language can lead to misunderstanding, incorrect actions, conclusions, violation of speech ethics, and sometimes even to a quarrel.
For example, in the Russian language there are verbs: go out, go out, get down, get out, go down. What action does each of them call? How do they differ in meaning? How to ask:
- (on the boat) Are you at the next pier...?
- (on the train) Are you at the next station...?
- (on a bus, trolleybus, tram) Are you at the next stop...?
When a steamship or boat moored to the pier, a gangplank was laid down and passengers disembarked along it. When you travel by train or electric train, you have to go down the steps. Therefore, in both cases it is customary to say: “I’ll go, you go.” In a bus, trolleybus, or tram there is an entrance (back door) and an exit (front door), so those traveling on public transport enter and exit. However, we can also ask the question: “Are you getting off at the next stop?”, since in this case, too, you have to go down the steps.
The accuracy of speech is reduced by ignorance of the existence of paronyms and homonyms in the language, and the inability to neutralize these phenomena in speech.
Paronyms(para - nearby, onima - name) are words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. For example: addressee - addressee, excavator - escalator, quorum - forum, contract - contact, fact - factor, slip - unsubscribe, extracurricular - extraclass.
Paronyms are also found among proper names: Eisenstein - Einstein, Capri - Cyprus, Sweden - Switzerland.
Austrian geographer Ludwig Krenek, recalling his stay in India, says: “We stopped calling ourselves Austrians a long time ago, because no one here had any idea about Austria, and everyone immediately started talking about Australia.” In this case, the paronyms will be: Austria is Australia, Austrians are Australians.
The presence of paronyms in the language leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is mistakenly used instead of another. Here are the facts of mixing paronyms given by A. M. Gorky:
“Return your luggage step legs, advises one poet, without noticing some dissimilarity between feet legs and step stairs... The prose writer writes: He clicked ankle wickets instead latch. When B. Pilnyak writes that “his daughter is three years old age caught up with my mother,” we need to convince Pilnyak that age And height not the same thing."
The use of homonyms in speech, that is, words that have different meanings, but are identical in spelling and sound, can also lead to semantic inaccuracy and ambiguity of the statement. For example, the sentence “A law was issued to abolish transport courts” sounds ambiguous due to the presence of homonyms in the language; ships- genitive plural form of a noun court And ships- genitive plural form of a noun vessel. The question arises: what was abolished - transport courts or transport courts? The unsuccessful use of homonyms can lead to a comic effect. Thus, the phrase “joint recreation, like work, makes people drunk” necessarily causes an undesirable reaction.
Syntactic homonymy is also dangerous in speech. For example, the sentences “The appointment of the chairman seemed successful to everyone” and “Klimov’s characterization exactly corresponded to reality” contain a double meaning. It is not clear: the chairman was appointed or the chairman appointed someone; characteristic given to Klimov or Klimov? The sentence “Newspapers reported about the departure of a guest from England (departure of an English guest or a person visiting England) can also be perceived differently.”
Speech intelligibility
Among the requirements for the language of a speaker or writer, the requirement of intelligibility stands out. M. M. Speransky (1772-1839) in “The Rules of High Eloquence” emphasized that speaking in such a way that we are not understood “is an absurdity that surpasses all measures of absurdity.”
Compliance with this requirement is important because it is associated with the effectiveness and efficiency of the spoken word.
According to researchers, the general intelligibility of a language is determined primarily by the selection of speech means, namely the need to limit the use of words that are on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language and do not have the quality of communicative universal significance.
The huge dictionary of the Russian language from the point of view of the scope of use can be divided into two large groups - vocabulary of an unlimited sphere of use, which includes commonly used words that are understandable to everyone, and vocabulary of limited use, which includes professionalisms, dialectisms, jargon, terms, i.e. ... words used in a certain area - professional, territorial, social.
Accuracy- this is a communicative quality of speech that presupposes compliance of its semantic side (plan of content) with the reflected reality and is manifested in the ability to find an adequate verbal expression of a concept.
Accuracy, therefore, includes the ability to: 1) correctly reflect reality and 2) correctly express thoughts and formulate them using words. There are two types of accuracy: subject(actual) and conceptual(speech, communication).
Subject accuracy is created due to the correspondence of the content of speech to the fragment of reality reflected in it. It is based on the relationship between speech and reality. The main condition for substantive accuracy is knowledge of the subject of speech, without which it is impossible to give correct information about reality.
Violation subject accuracy occurs relatively infrequently. In everyday life, we usually talk about such a person that he himself does not know what he is saying. Example from the essay: Chapaev and his squad stopped at one of the nearby collective farms. There is a violation of substantive accuracy: during the Civil War there were no collective farms. Or an essay that literally amazed everyone with its, to put it mildly, inaccuracy. The girl wrote the following in her essay about Pushkin: At the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, Pushkin met Anna Akhmatova (!!!), who had a great influence on him as a poet. And further: Pushkin loved his wife very much, but, unfortunately, he rarely saw her, but he often talked to her on the phone. (This is in the nineteenth century!). True, sometimes it is necessary to talk about the correspondence of thoughts to reality in a very conditional manner. The speaker (writer) does not always convey to the addressee thoughts that reflect actually occurring events (for example, many thoughts expressed in works of art). From a linguistic point of view, it is important that thoughts (adequate or inadequate to the reflected reality) are correctly expressed and arouse an adequate thought - a copy - in the consciousness of the addressee.
In order for speech to be accurate, subject accuracy alone is not enough; it is also necessary that the content corresponds to the system of concepts that is indicated in it, i.e. conceptual precision is needed.
Conceptual accuracy relies on the connection: word-concept and consists in the correspondence of the semantics of the components of speech to the content and scope of the concepts they express. It presupposes the ability to accurately denote with a word the idea that has arisen, to find the only correct word.
Conceptual accuracy depends primarily on the ability to choose words correctly and use them in precise meanings, i.e. in those meanings that are assigned to them in the literary language system and recorded in special reference literature. This allows us to consider the accuracy of speech as lexical-semantic correctness, i.e. as compliance with the lexical and semantic norms of the literary language. However, accuracy, unlike correctness, which is based only on linguistic factors, is also based on extralinguistic factors; it is based on the connection: speech ¾ reality, word - concept. A statement may be correct in terms of format, but not accurate in terms of content.
Errors at level conceptual precision , unfortunately, much more:
Firstly, this ignorance of word meanings . Oh, how often we want to show off our intellect, to introduce a beautiful, most often imported, word, but the result is a blunder, because we know the word, but not its meaning.
For example, What can a person stoop to! The word “descend” has the meaning of “favorably, to pay attention to something or someone,” and in the above sentence it was necessary to use the word “to reach.” Most often, these types of errors relate to the use of borrowed words in speech. Considering that they have recently poured into us in a wave, we can say that we, as native speakers, simply cannot cope with this flow. For example, Parents often face a dilemma about which book to buy for their child. The word "dilemma" suggests a global choice between two opposing possibilities. Well, which book to buy for a child (and even with such a variety) is, of course, not a dilemma at all, but simply the difficulty of choosing. It happens that the desire to express oneself beautifully takes a person so far that he “weaves” foreign words into contexts in which they simply cannot exist.
Even more often, we generally imagine the meaning of a word, but we do not distinguish the subtle semantic shades of this meaning . For example, Chekhov's story “Ionych” shows the transformation of a person. Indeed, transformation is a major change, but a change for the better, and Chekhov’s Startsev has degraded as a person, where is the change for the better?
The third mistake concerns the use paronyms - words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning. The error arises because we think that if it sounds almost the same, it means the same thing. For example, a business traveler and travel money; a well-fed man and a hearty soup; drizzle (rain) and rime (frost). Our ice team showed excellent results on the hockey field (ice instead of ice).
Another common error is a violation of the lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to stand next to each other. It is enough to name, for example, the word “good”. And what can’t be good with us! But only a nut can be walnut, only eyes can be brown, and only a friend can be a bosom. This is limited lexical compatibility. That's why you can so often hear has a role or plays a role instead of has a role and plays a role. Often we want to raise a toast instead of offering one. The same can be said about the combinations pay for travel and pay for travel, which are also constantly confused.
Precision in speech is achieved only when its purpose is completely clear. In written speech, more stringent requirements for accuracy are due to the fact that the writer is usually not able to fill in the information if the reader perceives a lack of it, therefore written speech requires greater detail, completeness and certainty in the presentation of thoughts.
Linguistic means of achieving accuracy.
Similar words.
The young man quickly mastered the material (instead of mastered it).
They were only fulfilling their position (instead of a duty).
Synonyms.
I arrived in Paris - it was raining a lot (necessarily - heavily).
Everyone is dissatisfied with the small amount of salaries (necessarily - insufficiency).
Paronyms.
Finally, the remains of the royal family were discovered (need - remains).
In order to visit the theater more often, I bought a subscription (you need a subscription).
Confusion of generic and species concepts.
There were paintings hanging on the walls of the office (must be paintings or reproductions).
The thought in the sentence is insufficiently complete and clear.
This is a difficult question here, and it cannot be said in a nutshell.
Ambiguity or vagueness at the sentence level.
Four machines serve several thousand people.
Speech means of achieving accuracy.
Accuracy is also a means of creating brevity of speech, when a small volume arises not due to incompleteness, but due to the “density” of the text.
“It’s short and clear, and that’s why it’s great.”
Accuracy is also composure, thoughtfulness, lack of verbosity, accuracy of formulations and speech in general.
In the process of speech activity, accuracy turns out to be correlated with three types of text - narration, reasoning and description.
Narration requires exact correspondence to reality (reality within a given text), which is associated with the exact name (description) of the characters in the narrative, a detailed description of the stages of actions, events, etc., i.e. accuracy of subject, factual or event.
Reasoning, which is associated with the handling of concepts, with the use of terms, requires conceptual accuracy, which presupposes accuracy in the disclosure of concepts, accuracy of formulations, conclusions, generalizations.
IN description The accuracy of details in verbal (non-verbal) depiction, comparisons, analogies, etc. is important. Accuracy is also characterized by the degree of detail, the details of the image of the subject of speech.