The appearance of alphabets was a true breakthrough compared to other types of writing. Pictographic writing, built on images of specific objects, is too complex, not always understandable and cannot convey either grammatical rules or the structure of the text. Ideographic writing, where signs denote concepts, is no less complex. For example, the number of hieroglyphs was in the thousands! It is not surprising that the scribe was a respected person in ancient Egypt.
There are much fewer sounds in any language than words, concepts and even syllables. By inventing signs to represent individual sounds, it was possible to create a writing system that would accurately record speech and at the same time be quite easy to learn. Writing, to a certain extent, ceased to be a “privilege of the elite” and turned into a convenient “working tool.”
The emergence of alphabets
The first prototype of the alphabet appeared in Ancient Egypt. The hieroglyph system did not allow for word changes, as well as foreign words. For this purpose around 2700 BC. developed a set of hieroglyphs denoting consonant sounds, there were 22 of them. However, this could not be called a full-fledged alphabet; it occupied a subordinate position.
The first real alphabet was the Semitic one. It was developed on the basis of ancient Egyptian writing by the Semites living in this country and brought to Canaan - to the west of the Fertile Crescent. Here the Semitic alphabet was adopted by the Phoenicians.
Phenicia was located at the intersection of trade routes, which contributed to the spread of the Phoenician alphabet in the Mediterranean. Its “descendants” were the Aramaic and Greek alphabets.
The Aramaic alphabet gave rise to the modern Hebrew, Arabic and Indian alphabets. The descendants of the Greek alphabet are Latin, Slavic, Armenian and some other alphabets that are not in use today.
Types of alphabets
Alphabets are divided into consonantal, consonantal-vocalic and syllabic. The latter, in which the signs denote not sounds, but syllables, are classified as alphabets with a large degree of convention; they occupy an intermediate position between ideographic writing and alphabets themselves. This was the Sumerian cuneiform script, the Mayan writing system. Currently, logographic Chinese writing has the features of a syllabary.
In consonantal alphabets, there are signs only to indicate consonant sounds, and the vowels have to be “thought out” by the reader. Contemporaries coped with this without any problems, but it is not easy for modern scientists deciphering ancient writings. This was, for example, the Phoenician alphabet and many other systems of the Ancient World.
In consonantal-vocalic alphabets there are signs to indicate both consonants and vowels. The first alphabet of this kind was Greek, and so are its descendants - Latin and Slavic.
The number of characters varies from alphabet to alphabet. Today, the “record holders” are the alphabet of the Khmer language (the main language of Cambodia) and the alphabet of the Rotokas language, which is spoken on one of the islands in Papua New Guinea. The Khmer alphabet contains 72 characters, while the Rotokas alphabet has only 12.
Type of Indian script), but can be completely different (for example, kana); in the narrow sense may not be considered an alphabet.
The use of signs for individual phonemes leads to a significant simplification of writing as a result of reducing the number of signs used. Also, the order of letters in the alphabet is the basis of alphabetical sorting.
The South Semitic alphabet, which outwardly resembled the Phoenician, apparently did not originate from it, but from a hypothetical common ancestor with the Phoenician; A descendant of the South Semitic script is the modern Ethiopic script.
The Greek alphabet and its descendants
Around the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. (possibly a little earlier) the Phoenician alphabet of 22 letters was borrowed by the Greeks, who significantly transformed it, turning the ancient Greek alphabet into a complete system. The correspondence between letters of the alphabet and phonemes became one-to-one: all signs of the alphabet were used to write the phonemes to which they corresponded, and each phoneme corresponded to a letter of the alphabet. The Etruscan alphabet, closely related to the ancient Greek, and the Asia Minor alphabets in Asia Minor of ancient times, which have common features with it, have these same features. Chronology of the creation and development of all alphabets at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. remains controversial.
Aramaic alphabet and its descendants
The Aramaic alphabet, descended from the Phoenician in the 1st millennium BC. e., laid the foundation for many Eastern writings. The diversity of religions and states in the East, as well as the diversity of written materials, led to the fact that the descendants of the Aramaic alphabet were quickly modified, changing beyond recognition in a short time.
According to one version, the main descendants of the Aramaic alphabet are:
- Brahmi and the very numerous (more than 100) alphabets of India and Southeast Asia derived from it
- kharosthi (dead-end branch in the development of Indian writing)
- Syriac script and its many descendants, including Mongol script
- Nabataean script and its descendant - Arabic script
It is generally accepted among Indian scholars that the Brahmi script is of Indian origin. Some scientists refer to monuments of proto-Indian writing (III-II millennium BC), discovered during excavations of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (according to one hypothesis, the writing of the Indus Valley is, like Brahmi, an alphabetic syllabary ).
Letter names
In all known alphabet systems, each letter has its own name. Letter names are mainly preserved in related systems and when borrowed from one system to another (from West Semitic to Greek). The names of letters in many Semitic traditions, except Ugaritic (obviously, for ease of memorization and learning), were formed from words denoting objects that begin with the corresponding phonemes (“alef” ‘bull’, “bet” ‘house’, etc. ).
Numeric value
The signs of the oldest known alphabets, in particular Ugaritic, were not used to represent numbers. Later in the West Semitic alphabets of the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the Greek alphabet the first letter in order [for example, Greek. α (alpha)] can be the sign for the first integer of the natural series after zero (that is, “α” meant the number 1), the second for the second (“β” meant the number 2), etc. This principle has been retained in many systems , based on the Greek model, in particular, in the Old Slavonic and Old Russian. When the shape of a letter changes, its ordinal place in the alphabet and its numerical value are most often preserved, therefore, for studying the history of alphabets, methods of designating numbers are of great importance.
List of alphabets
- Greek alphabet
- Cyrillic
- Latin alphabet
- "Summary alphabet" for the languages of the USSR
Authors, time of creation of alphabets
see also
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Notes
Literature
- Gamkrelidze T.V. Origin and typology of the alphabetic writing system // Questions of linguistics. 1988. No. 5-6.
- Dieringer D. Alphabet. M., 1963.
- // Yates Fr. The art of memory. St. Petersburg, 1997
- Lundin A. G. On the origin of the alphabet // Bulletin of ancient history. 1982. No. 2.
- The World's Writing Systems/Eds. Daniels P.T., Bright W.N.Y., 1996.
Links
- (in English)
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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An excerpt characterizing the Alphabet
From that first evening, when Natasha, after Pierre's departure, told Princess Marya with a joyfully mocking smile that he was definitely, well, definitely from the bathhouse, and in a frock coat, and with a haircut, from that moment something hidden and unknown to her, but irresistible, awoke in Natasha's soul.Everything: her face, her gait, her gaze, her voice - everything suddenly changed in her. Unexpected for her, the power of life and hopes for happiness surfaced and demanded satisfaction. From the first evening, Natasha seemed to have forgotten everything that had happened to her. Since then, she never once complained about her situation, didn’t say a single word about the past and was no longer afraid to make cheerful plans for the future. She spoke little about Pierre, but when Princess Marya mentioned him, a long-extinguished sparkle lit up in her eyes and her lips wrinkled with a strange smile.
The change that took place in Natasha at first surprised Princess Marya; but when she understood its meaning, this change upset her. “Did she really love her brother so little that she could forget him so quickly,” thought Princess Marya when she alone pondered the change that had taken place. But when she was with Natasha, she was not angry with her and did not reproach her. The awakened force of life that gripped Natasha was obviously so uncontrollable, so unexpected for her that Princess Marya, in Natasha’s presence, felt that she had no right to reproach her even in her soul.
Natasha gave herself over to the new feeling with such completeness and sincerity that she did not try to hide the fact that she was no longer sad, but joyful and cheerful.
When, after a nightly explanation with Pierre, Princess Marya returned to her room, Natasha met her on the threshold.
- He said? Yes? He said? – she repeated. Both a joyful and at the same time pitiful expression, asking for forgiveness for her joy, settled on Natasha’s face.
– I wanted to listen at the door; but I knew what you would tell me.
No matter how understandable, no matter how touching the look with which Natasha looked at her was for Princess Marya; no matter how sorry she was to see her excitement; but Natasha’s words at first offended Princess Marya. She remembered her brother, his love.
“But what can we do? she cannot do otherwise,” thought Princess Marya; and with a sad and somewhat stern face she told Natasha everything that Pierre had told her. Hearing that he was going to St. Petersburg, Natasha was amazed.
- To St. Petersburg? – she repeated, as if not understanding. But, looking at the sad expression on Princess Marya’s face, she guessed the reason for her sadness and suddenly began to cry. “Marie,” she said, “teach me what to do.” I'm afraid of being bad. Whatever you say, I will do; teach me…
- You love him?
“Yes,” Natasha whispered.
-What are you crying about? “I’m happy for you,” said Princess Marya, having completely forgiven Natasha’s joy for these tears.
– It won’t be soon, someday. Think about what happiness it will be when I become his wife and you marry Nicolas.
– Natasha, I asked you not to talk about this. We'll talk about you.
They were silent.
- But why go to St. Petersburg! - Natasha suddenly said, and she quickly answered herself: - No, no, this is how it should be... Yes, Marie? That's how it should be...
Seven years have passed since the 12th year. The troubled historical sea of Europe has settled into its shores. It seemed quiet; but the mysterious forces that move humanity (mysterious because the laws determining their movement are unknown to us) continued to operate.
Despite the fact that the surface of the historical sea seemed motionless, humanity moved as continuously as the movement of time. Various groups of human connections formed and disintegrated; the reasons for the formation and disintegration of states and the movements of peoples were prepared.
The historical sea, not as before, was directed by gusts from one shore to another: it seethed in the depths. Historical figures, not as before, rushed in waves from one shore to another; now they seemed to be spinning in one place. Historical figures, who previously at the head of the troops reflected the movement of the masses with orders of wars, campaigns, battles, now reflected the seething movement with political and diplomatic considerations, laws, treatises...
Historians call this activity of historical figures reaction.
Describing the activities of these historical figures, who, in their opinion, were the cause of what they call the reaction, historians strictly condemn them. All famous people of that time, from Alexander and Napoleon to m me Stael, Photius, Schelling, Fichte, Chateaubriand, etc., are subject to their strict judgment and are acquitted or condemned, depending on whether they contributed to progress or reaction.
In Russia, according to their description, a reaction also took place during this period of time, and the main culprit of this reaction was Alexander I - the same Alexander I who, according to their descriptions, was the main culprit of the liberal initiatives of his reign and the salvation of Russia.
In real Russian literature, from a high school student to a learned historian, there is not a person who would not throw his own pebble at Alexander I for his wrong actions during this period of his reign.
“He should have done this and that. In this case he acted well, in this case he acted badly. He behaved well at the beginning of his reign and during the 12th year; but he acted badly by giving a constitution to Poland, making the Holy Alliance, giving power to Arakcheev, encouraging Golitsyn and mysticism, then encouraging Shishkov and Photius. He did something wrong by being involved in the front part of the army; he acted badly by distributing the Semyonovsky regiment, etc.”
It would be necessary to fill ten pages in order to list all the reproaches that historians make to him on the basis of the knowledge of the good of humanity that they possess.
What do these reproaches mean?
The very actions for which historians approve of Alexander I, such as: the liberal initiatives of his reign, the fight against Napoleon, the firmness he showed in the 12th year, and the campaign of the 13th year, do not stem from the same sources - the conditions of blood , education, life, which made Alexander’s personality what it was - from which flow those actions for which historians blame him, such as: the Holy Alliance, the restoration of Poland, the reaction of the 20s?
What is the essence of these reproaches?
The fact that such a historical person as Alexander I, a person who stood at the highest possible level of human power, is, as it were, in the focus of the blinding light of all the historical rays concentrated on him; a person subject to those strongest influences in the world of intrigue, deception, flattery, self-delusion, which are inseparable from power; a face that felt, every minute of its life, responsibility for everything that happened in Europe, and a face that is not fictitious, but living, like every person, with its own personal habits, passions, aspirations for goodness, beauty, truth - that this face , fifty years ago, not only was he not virtuous (historians do not blame him for this), but he did not have those views for the good of humanity that a professor now has, who has been engaged in science from a young age, that is, reading books, lectures and copying these books and lectures in one notebook.
But even if we assume that Alexander I fifty years ago was mistaken in his view of what is the good of peoples, we must involuntarily assume that the historian judging Alexander, in the same way, after some time will turn out to be unjust in his view of that , which is the good of humanity. This assumption is all the more natural and necessary because, following the development of history, we see that every year, with every new writer, the view of what is the good of humanity changes; so that what seemed good appears after ten years as evil; and vice versa. Moreover, at the same time we find in history completely opposite views on what was evil and what was good: some take credit for the constitution given to Poland and the Holy Alliance, others as a reproach to Alexander.
It cannot be said about the activities of Alexander and Napoleon that they were useful or harmful, because we cannot say for what they are useful and for what they are harmful. If someone does not like this activity, then he does not like it only because it does not coincide with his limited understanding of what is good. Does it seem good to me to preserve my father’s house in Moscow in 12, or the glory of the Russian troops, or the prosperity of St. Petersburg and other universities, or the freedom of Poland, or the power of Russia, or the balance of Europe, or a certain kind of European enlightenment - progress, I must admit that the activity of every historical figure had, in addition to these goals, other, more general goals that were inaccessible to me.
But let us assume that so-called science has the ability to reconcile all contradictions and has an unchanging measure of good and bad for historical persons and events.
Let's assume that Alexander could have done everything differently. Let us assume that he could, according to the instructions of those who accuse him, those who profess knowledge of the ultimate goal of the movement of mankind, order according to the program of nationality, freedom, equality and progress (there seems to be no other) that his current accusers would have given him. Let us assume that this program was possible and drawn up and that Alexander would act according to it. What would then happen to the activities of all those people who opposed the then direction of the government - with activities that, according to historians, were good and useful? This activity would not exist; there would be no life; nothing would have happened.
If we assume that human life can be controlled by reason, then the possibility of life will be destroyed.
If we assume, as historians do, that great people lead humanity to achieve certain goals, which consist either in the greatness of Russia or France, or in the balance of Europe, or in spreading the ideas of revolution, or in general progress, or whatever it may be, it is impossible to explain the phenomena of history without the concepts of chance and genius.
If the goal of the European wars at the beginning of this century was the greatness of Russia, then this goal could be achieved without all the previous wars and without an invasion. If the goal is the greatness of France, then this goal could be achieved without revolution and without empire. If the goal is the dissemination of ideas, then printing would accomplish this much better than soldiers. If the goal is the progress of civilization, then it is very easy to assume that, besides the extermination of people and their wealth, there are other more expedient ways for the spread of civilization.
Why did it happen this way and not otherwise?
Because that's how it happened. “Chance made the situation; genius took advantage of it,” says history.
But what is a case? What is a genius?
The words chance and genius do not mean anything that really exists and therefore cannot be defined. These words only denote a certain degree of understanding of phenomena. I don't know why this phenomenon happens; I don't think I can know; That’s why I don’t want to know and say: chance. I see a force producing an action disproportionate to universal human properties; I don’t understand why this happens, and I say: genius.
For a herd of rams, the ram that is driven every evening by the shepherd into a special stall to feed and becomes twice as thick as the others must seem like a genius. And the fact that every evening this very same ram ends up not in a common sheepfold, but in a special stall for oats, and that this very same ram, doused in fat, is killed for meat, should seem like an amazing combination of genius with a whole series of extraordinary accidents .
But the rams just have to stop thinking that everything that is done to them happens only to achieve their ram goals; it is worth admitting that the events happening to them may also have goals that are incomprehensible to them, and they will immediately see unity, consistency in what happens to the fattened ram. Even if they do not know for what purpose he was fattened, then at least they will know that everything that happened to the ram did not happen by accident, and they will no longer need the concept of either chance or genius.
Only by renouncing the knowledge of a close, understandable goal and recognizing that the final goal is inaccessible to us, will we see consistency and purposefulness in the lives of historical persons; the reason for the action they produce, disproportionate to universal human properties, will be revealed to us, and we will not need the words chance and genius.
One has only to admit that the purpose of the unrest of the European peoples is unknown to us, and only the facts are known, consisting of murders, first in France, then in Italy, in Africa, in Prussia, in Austria, in Spain, in Russia, and that movements from the West to the east and from east to west constitute the essence and purpose of these events, and not only will we not need to see exclusivity and genius in the characters of Napoleon and Alexander, but it will be impossible to imagine these persons otherwise than as the same people as everyone else; and not only will it not be necessary to explain by chance those small events that made these people what they were, but it will be clear that all these small events were necessary.
Having detached ourselves from knowledge of the ultimate goal, we will clearly understand that just as it is impossible for any plant to come up with other colors and seeds that are more appropriate to it than those that it produces, in the same way it is impossible to come up with two other people, with all their past, which would correspond to such an extent, to such the smallest details, to the purpose that they were to fulfill.
The main, essential meaning of European events at the beginning of this century is the militant movement of the masses of European peoples from West to East and then from East to West. The first instigator of this movement was the movement from west to east. In order for the peoples of the West to be able to make the warlike movement to Moscow that they made, it was necessary: 1) for them to form into a warlike group of such a size that would be able to withstand a clash with the warlike group of the East; 2) so that they renounce all established traditions and habits and 3) so that, when making their militant movement, they have at their head a person who, both for himself and for them, could justify the deceptions, robberies and murders that were accompanied this movement.
We are so accustomed to using the alphabet that we don’t even think about how convenient the order of letters is. Many ancient peoples knew what an alphabet was; the alphabet was modified as written language improved, and the alphabets of various countries acquired their final form in our time.
Definition of alphabet
What is the alphabet? Modern linguists identify three features that distinguish each ordered letter system. This:
A certain order of constructing letters denoting sounds;
A system of diacritics and superscripts that change the reading of the same letter or modify the characteristics of sound;
Names of letters and signs. For example, the letter “A” in the Old Slavonic alphabet was read as “az”, in modern English - as “ey”.
Previously, another feature of the alphabet was the use of letters as numbers when counting. Sometimes we even now use letters instead of serial numbers. But in the vast majority of cases, using numbers is much more convenient.
The number of letters is approximately equal to the number of the most commonly used phonemes in the language. Nevertheless, the language changes and lives its own life, introducing new or foreign words into speech and removing outdated idioms and expressions from use. The totality and order of the letters of the alphabet changes extremely rarely.
Religion and the alphabet
According to many religions of the world, writing is a gift from the Gods. For example, the legends of the Phoenicians say that writing was given to them by the god of wisdom Tautu, and the great Anubis taught the ancient Egyptians how to write letters. But even ancient legends cannot answer what the alphabet is and why it arose. To solve the riddle of the alphabet, you need to look for answers from historians and linguists.
The most ancient alphabets
According to scientific data, the first alphabetic letter dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. It arose at the intersection of the most ancient written cultures - Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics. This was an era of great migrations and resettlement - the exodus of the ancient Israeli people from Egypt, the destruction of Troy and the decline of the Hittite kingdom.
The first alphabets used various sound components, which denoted both sound and concept at the same time. The main written signs of the ancient peoples were closely related to their religious and ideological ideas about the world around them. Later, this connection was lost, and the primary letters of the alphabet became the basis for a universal tool for fixing any dialect and language. Thus began the victorious march of the alphabet around the world. The oldest alphabet found belongs to the Phoenicians. It had 22 letters. The language of this forgotten people became the ancestor of Aramaic and Greek writing.
What are the alphabets?
Linguists divide alphabets based on the naming of sounds in a particular language. Thus, there are vocalic, consonantal and neosyllabic alphabets.
The letters of the Russian alphabet, like the letters of most European languages, belong to the vocal group. Here, each sound is represented by one or two letters. For example, the letters “e”, “yu”, “ya” can actually mean individual syllables. But in general, the vocal alphabet clearly reflects the spoken sounds in writing.
The letters of the alphabet of the consonantal group in writing represent only syllables or consonant sounds. Vowel sounds are indicated by various diacritics or so-called matres lectionis - these are letters that indicate semivowels or aspirated sounds. These languages include Arabic, Phoenician and Hebrew.
The alphabet of the language of the Ethiopians or the Indian Devanagari people belongs to the third, neo-syllabic group. The writings of these languages use syllables with the same composition, but with different pronunciation of vowels. The length of the vowel sound and its vowel sound become significant. Neosyllabic writing has a special structure in which each sound is not only read in a certain order, but is also pronounced differently.
Signs of written structure
Any writing system actively uses, in addition to the alphabet, the following techniques:
Graphic arts. This is the name for the methods of depicting letters and signs when writing;
Punctuation. This is the customary name for systems of signs that separate words from each other and give the written form a finished look and a more complete meaning;
Spelling. This is a collective designation of the correct spelling of certain words, as well as rules and techniques for checking such spelling.
Alphabets based on Greek
Not everyone knows what an alphabet based on the Greek language is. It’s worth saying a few words about this separately. The Greek alphabet was the first to introduce vowel patterns into writing. In the Greek language, a letter order was first proposed, part of which is found in all modern alphabets. Greek writing developed in two directions - eastern, which was used by the inhabitants of Hellas and the city-polices of Asia Minor and the Black Sea region, and western, which was widespread in Italy, Sardinia, on the southern coasts of Spain and France. From Western Greek writing, Etruscan writing first developed, and then Latin, which laid the foundation for all written structures of Western Europe. The eastern part of the Greek alphabet was transformed into Coptic and then into Byzantine writing, on the basis of which the letters of the Russian alphabet were developed. These are the ways of developing written language.
So the question of what an alphabet is includes many interesting points, some of which were outlined in this article. For more serious and scientifically based answers, one should turn to the works of historians of the ancient world and linguists of various countries.
Literature
Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. Ed. 6th, revised and expanded. – M., 1984.
Gorbachevich K.S. Changing the norms of the Russian literary language. – L., 1971. – P. 90-107.
Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of modern Russian literary language. – M., 1989. – P. 110-131.
Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. – M., 1983.
Russian stage pronunciation / Answer. ed. CM. Kuzmina. – M., 1986.
Graphic arts
Concept of graphics
Graphic arts(Greek graphikē, from graphō - I write, draw, draw) - this is, firstly, a set of means of writing, a system of relationships between letters and sounds (phonemes), as well as the outline of letters and signs themselves; secondly, a branch of linguistics that studies the outline and sound meanings of written signs, primarily letters.
As mentioned earlier, in transcription, which is a special type of writing, other graphic signs are also used (sign of softness, longitude, syllabicity, etc.).
The degree of perfection of the graphic system of a language is determined by the correspondence of letters to sounds (phonemes). The ideal graphic system is a system that provides a one-to-one correspondence between a letter and a sound (phoneme).
Modern Russian graphics are divided into handwritten and printed. Handwritten graphics of the Russian language are based on Old Russian writing. The foundations of printed graphics were laid by the reform of Peter I, as a result of which a civil font with a rounded outline of letters and without superscripts was introduced.
Origin and main stages of development of writing.
The importance of writing in the history of the development of society
Letter is a symbolic speech recording system that allows you to transmit information in space and time.
The primary method of communication is oral speech, which arose approximately 500 thousand years ago. The secondary method of communication is descriptive writing, which appeared about 6 thousand years ago (ancient Egyptian writing has been known since the end of the 4th millennium BC, Cretan, Chinese - from the 2nd millennium BC, etc.) ; alphabetic writing has existed for about 3 thousand years.
Writing is the greatest invention of mankind, consolidating the achievements of science, technology, culture, and turning out to be the basis of civilization.
Subject writing as background
descriptive writing
Two stages in the development of writing can be distinguished: 1) writing not related to language, with its vocabulary, grammar and phonetics - subject writing, symbolic or conditional signaling; 2) writing related to language - descriptive writing.
Initially, subject writing arose, in which objects, animals, birds, etc. were the means of communication.
Writing not related to language, object writing, is divided into symbolic and conditional signaling.
With symbolic signaling, the object turns out to be a symbol. An example of symbolic signaling is the message of the Scythians to the Persians, mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC. The Scythians sent a frog, a mouse, a bird and five arrows; this message warned the Persians against the possibility of being showered with arrows when entering the land of the Scythians, if the Persians did not learn to jump through the swamps like frogs, hide in holes like mice, and fly like birds.
With conditional signaling, objects themselves are not symbols, but conventional signs, the meaning of which is agreed upon in advance. Examples of conditional signaling include the Peruvian letter quipu, which consists of a stick to which laces of different colors and sizes with knots are tied; North American Indian writing; Iroquoian wampum script, which used a belt or staff with shells of various colors and sizes.
The meaning of lace knots and shell combinations was usually known to the priests. In this way, schematic, predetermined information was transmitted, for example, a disaster warning.
Methods of transmitting messages using objects that have conditional meaning:
a – wampum; b – kippa; c – tags (whole and split).
Elements of writing can be considered arrows showing the direction of the path, semaphores, traffic lights, sea and river signals with flags, lanterns; offering bread and salt as a sign of hospitality among the Slavs, throwing a glove as a challenge to a duel, pumpkin as a refusal of marriage in Ukraine; the use of the color of objects: white as a symbol of purity, red as a symbol of love, black as a symbol of mourning and sadness; using the number of objects: an even number of flowers - for the deceased, seven - a symbol of a good family.
Descriptive writing, i.e. writing itself is associated with the use of special graphic characters and has greater opportunities for communication and communication of information than subject writing.
Stages of development of descriptive writing
The first stage of descriptive writing is pictography, i.e. writing with drawings (from Latin pictus - picturesque and Greek graphō - writing). Archaeologists and ethnographers have discovered examples of pictographic writing on the walls of caves, on rocks, and stones.
R 
SIOUX INDIAN INVESTIGATORY LETTER
This inscription with drawings apparently reads: four men caught a buffalo. One stopped him by throwing a lasso around his neck. Another exclaimed: “I threw a lasso over his front legs.” The third shouted: “I will cut off his head with an axe.” The fourth shot four arrows at the buffalo. At this time, the woman says to her husband: “Here is your bow and arrows, help them kill the buffalo.”
A pictogram is a schematic drawing of a certain life situation (hunting, battle, trip, etc.), conveying a whole message that is not divided into words. In a pictogram, artistic expressiveness is not important, but what is important is the extent to which the drawing reflects the meaning of the message.
For example, such pictograms are known as the “diary” of an Eskimo hunter; it tells about a man’s hunt for two animals, about a meeting with another hunter, with whom he moved to the dwelling on a boat; in the “petition” pictogram the Indians conveyed an appeal to the president of seven tribes (crane, three martens, bear, sea man and sea cat) regarding the right to fish in some lakes (see figure on p. ____).
Rock paintings of military campaigns, peaceful labor, and warnings about danger in the mountains made by the Indians were also discovered. Paintings in churches telling about the creation of the world, the birth, life and death of Christ are also a kind of pictograms. Pictograms help to understand the reasons for the emergence of fine art as a way of reflecting reality and transmitting information to contemporaries and descendants.
In pictography everything concrete is well reflected; it is much more difficult to reflect the abstract. The transition from pictography to ideography was caused primarily by the need to convey abstract concepts in writing - love, friendship, fatherland, etc.
Petition sent by seven Indian tribes to the United States Congress regarding fishing rights in certain lakes. The lines connecting the eyes and hearts of the animals show that all seven tribes are unanimous with the main tribe of Oshkabavi, which is represented in the form of a crane; the line connecting the crane's eye to the lakes in question (below, left) and the line going forward towards Congress indicate the request the tribes are making.
Currently, pictography is used as a means of clarity (this is of particular importance for an illiterate or semi-literate person, for a foreigner). Pictograms are pictures on signs - a bagel, candy, a boot; some road signs, for example, with the image of a knife and fork, a bicycle; pictures in ABC books that children become familiar with before they begin to read; image of a waiter, cleaning lady, etc. at call buttons in hotels.
With the development of abstract thinking, a concept arises to express a concept. ideography, i.e. writing with concepts (from the Greek idea - idea and graphō – writing).
An ideogram, like a pictogram, at the beginning of the development of ideography remains the same drawing, so often the same writing samples are regarded as either pictograms or ideograms. But an ideogram, unlike a pictogram, does not designate an object, a fact of life, but a concept, that is, a drawing (graphic sign) becomes a symbol, a sign of a concept. So, for example, the image of a snake as an emblem of medicine is associated not with the animal itself, but with the healing function belonging to snake venom; the drawing appears as if in a figurative meaning. The sign begins to correlate with the word, therefore the ideogram is also called a logogram (from the Greek logos - word).
An increase in the size of the text led to the need to speed up writing, and consequently to the schematization of drawings, which turned into hieroglyphs (from the Greek hieroglyphoi - sacred writing, carving of priests). As a result, the sign lost its specificity and became conventional.
With the development of writing, there is a change in both the material used for writing and the writing instruments. If at first inscriptions were made on rocks, stones, and tree bark, then later papyrus, Nile reed, and parchment (specially treated leather) began to be used; paper was subsequently invented in China. The tools used to make scratches on tree bark were replaced by writing instruments - a brush, a pen. The simplification of the writing method led to further simplification and schematization of hieroglyphs.
Hieroglyphic writing was widespread in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.
Ideography is more convenient than pictography, since hieroglyphs convey concepts. Ideographic writing is not associated with the transmission of words in their grammatical and phonetic form, understandable to speakers of different dialects of the same language.
But when writing ideographically, it is necessary to remember a large number of characters, since each concept has its own designation. So, for example, in the modern Chinese language there are about 40 thousand characters, however, from 2 to 6 thousand are actually used.
Elements of ideography are currently used in road signs: exclamation point - caution, rectangle - no passage, cross - intersection, etc.; in cartography and topography: designation of settlements, minerals, railways, etc. Hieroglyphs are numbers, scientific symbols: mathematical - +,,,:,<, >, , chemical - Na, Cu, O, H, H 2 O, HCl, chess - Fv3-d5, etc.
The use of ideography in scientific terminology is explained by the need to express a scientific concept accurately and briefly.
With the development of trade and the establishment of statehood, the need arose to make writing simpler and accessible to an increasing number of people.
One direction in simplifying writing was related to vocabulary and arose in Chinese writing. To designate a concept they began to combine signs; for example, the concept “bark” was denoted by combining the signs “dog” and “mouth”. This way of reducing the number of ideograms was unproductive, since combinations of signs were difficult to understand and required additional memorization.
Another direction was related to grammar, but it could only be used in languages with morphemic division of words. In this case, roots were indicated by existing hieroglyphs, and affixes – by new ones. But this method also did not reduce the number of ideograms, since the number of roots is infinite, and affixes require the introduction of more and more new hieroglyphs.
The third stage in the development of writing was phonography, in which graphic signs began to reflect the sound side of the language.
Phonography originated with the Egyptians and Assyro-Babylonians.
The initial stage in the development of phonography was syllabic, or syllabic, writing, common among the Assyro-Babylonians and Indians. In it, the hieroglyph denoted a syllable. The graphic sign here was not a letter conveying a sound (phoneme), but a syllabeme corresponding to a syllable. Such a letter significantly shortens the alphabet, since the number of syllables is determined by tens or hundreds (100-300 characters). The use of writing does not require grammatical knowledge. Elements of syllabic writing in Russian graphics are used when vowel letters indicate the hardness-softness of preceding consonants and in the use of iotated letters.
The next stage of phonography was sound writing, common among the ancient Jews and Phoenicians. It was consonantal in nature: letters denoted consonants, and vowels were denoted by diacritics, that is, various superscript and subscript marks. Essentially, this type of writing was a transitional stage from syllabic writing to letter-sound writing. Initially it had the character of a consonantal syllabic letter. The alphabet becomes even more economical: for example, the Arabic script had 28 letters for consonants and several superscripts for vowels.
Consonantal writing thus arose from syllabic writing. There were variations in the syllabic writing: combinations of various consonants with vowels could be transmitted, as in the Japanese kana script; combinations of various consonants with certain vowels could be transmitted, and superscripts were used to indicate the combination of consonants with other vowels or without vowels, as in the modern Indian Devanagari script.
The last, most advanced stage in the development of phonography is alphabetic writing, in which both consonants and vowels began to be expressed in letters. This type of writing was first used by the Greeks at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Graphic signs denoting consonants were taken from the Phoenicians, and to denote vowels, signs of Phoenician consonants, which were absent in the Greek language, were used (Phoenician consonants aleph, heh, vav, ayn correspond to Greek vowels alpha, epsilon, upsilon, omicron); special letters were invented for Greek aspirated consonants (tata, fi, hee).
The Greek alphabet served as the basis for Latin, Slavic and other alphabets.
Modern Russian graphics
The graphics of the modern Russian language, to one degree or another, reflect all stages of the history of writing.
Pictography is used as an auxiliary means of communication, for example, in road signaling (image of children, meaning “Caution, children!”; drawing of a hand with an outstretched index finger as a direction sign, etc.), in signs at exhibitions, at international competitions and etc. Pictography plays an important role in conditions of multilingual or illiterate populations, as well as as an artistic medium (children's and humorous stories in pictures).
Ideography is used as part of auxiliary writing subsystems: numbers, signs of four arithmetic operations (+, , , :), algebraic and chemical formula signs, some road signs (a rectangle - a “brick”, indicating that travel is prohibited; a zigzag as a sign of a steep turn; cross as a sign of intersection of roads, etc.).
Syllabic writing is used when denoting the hardness and softness of consonants with vowel letters and when representing a syllable with iotated letters.
Letter-sound (consonantal) writing is reflected in spellings such as SPb (St. Petersburg).
The main type of graphics in the modern Russian language is phonography.
Types of alphabets
I. Alphabet(alphabet) is a collection of letters arranged in a certain order. The word "alphabet" is formed from the names of the first two Greek letters: alpha (α) And beta, in modern Greek vita(β). The word "alphabet" is formed from the names of the first two Slavic letters: az(a) and beeches(b).
II. Letters- written signs that convey the sound appearance of the words of a language, its individual sound elements.
Depending from There are three types of alphabets for designating vowels: 1) vowels are designated by special letters - Greek, Latin, alphabets of Slavic, Romance languages, alphabets of most languages of the world; 2) vowels are indicated by separate diacritics (superscript or subscript) - Arabic, Hebrew and other alphabets; 3) vowels are indicated by diacritics attached to the letters denoting consonants - Indian, Ethiopian and other alphabets.
All modern alphabets go back to the Phoenician (ancient Semitic) alphabetic consonantal letter.
Initially, each of the 22 characters of the Phoenician script was perceived as corresponding to the combination of a certain consonant with any vowel, and subsequently - as corresponding only to a certain consonant. Purely consonantal writing made it difficult to understand the texts, and therefore already in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. began to resort to the use of signs corresponding to consonants close in place of formation to vowels.
The Phoenician letter was borrowed by the peoples surrounding the Phoenicians: Hebrew and Arabic letters, the writings of Central Asia and India go back to it; it was adopted and improved by the Greeks, and from the latter it was borrowed by the Romans.
Before the advent of alphabetic writing, the Greeks used syllabic writing.
The Greek alphabetic writing supposedly arose in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. In the Greek letter, in contrast to the Phoenician letter, in addition to letters denoting consonants, letters appeared to convey vowel sounds, which was a new stage in the development of writing and played an important general cultural role. Alphabetical Greek writing was divided into two branches: Eastern Greek writing and Western Greek. Eastern Greek writing developed into classical ancient Greek and Byzantine writing; it formed the basis of the Slavic Cyrillic, as well as Armenian, and partly Georgian writing. Western Greek writing became the source for Latin writing.
The classical pan-Greek alphabet had 27 letters; The modern Greek alphabet has 24 letters. Initially, the Greeks, like the Phoenicians, wrote from right to left, then alternately, and only then from left to right.
Latin script is an alphabetic script used by the ancient Romans and which formed the basis for the writing of most peoples of Western Europe. The name comes from the name of the ancient tribe of Latins who inhabited the region of Latium, the center of which was Rome. The oldest Latin inscriptions date back to the 7th century. BC e. The art of writing was brought to Latium by the Greeks from the Peloponnese; they settled on the Palatine Hill in the center of the future Rome in the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In Greece, syllabic writing was still used at that time. The Greek alphabetic writing developed slowly in Italy; The Latin alphabet itself developed in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC.
In the oldest Latin inscriptions, the writing direction is both right to left and left to right; the “boustrophedon” method was also used: the first line from right to left, the second from left to right, etc.; from 4th century BC. The direction of writing from left to right was firmly established. There were no punctuation marks in ancient writing. There was no division into uppercase and lowercase letters. Words were usually separated from each other by word-separating signs, which were placed at the level of the middle of the letters. In Latin writing, most of the Trans-Greek letters retained their original meaning. But not all Greek letters were included in the Latin alphabet; some letters changed their meaning and style; new letters appeared. So, in the 2nd century. the type W appeared; in the 16th century the letters J and U were introduced.
In post-antique times, a division of letters into uppercase and lowercase arose, and punctuation marks appeared.
Latin writing acquired an international character back in the era of the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, Latin became the liturgical language in all Western European countries and the language of science. On the basis of the Latin script, the modern writing systems of the peoples of Western Europe (German, English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, etc.), the writing systems of America, Australia, most of the alphabets of Africa, and some alphabets of the peoples of Asia were formed.
In national writing systems that were based on the Latin script, its adaptation to the corresponding phonetic systems was carried out mainly through the introduction of diacritics, for example: ö, ä, ü in German, Polish and Lithuanian, ñ in Spanish. Individual sounds (phonemes) began to be transmitted by combinations of letters, for example: ch, sh, th, ph, ea, ou in English; ch, sch, tsch - in German.
The modern Latin alphabet has two typographical types: Latin (or serif) and Gothic (or Fraktur); the first type, close to the ancient one, is dominant.
Latin alphabet
Uppercase | Lowercase | Titles | Pronunciation |
Modern writing uses all the techniques developed over the centuries-old history of writing.
Pictography is used: 1) either for an illiterate or semi-literate reader - these are pictures on signs: boot, primus stove, kalach; or signs of fire duty in villages: boards with the image of a bucket, hook, ax, etc., nailed at the entrance to the house; in ABC books, where children must first “read” the picture and then “spell by letter” [566]; 2) or when the reader’s language is unknown, for example, drawings of a cleaning lady, a waiter, etc. on call buttons in Intourist hotels.
Ideography (both pictorial and hieroglyphic) is used as road signs[ 567 ] (zigzag as a turn sign, cross as a crossroads sign, exclamation mark as a “caution” sign, etc.), or skull and crossbones signs on high voltage power grids , or emblems of medicine in pharmacies: a snake and a bowl of poison; Ideography includes a variety of conventional signs in cartography and topography (signs of minerals, circles and dots to indicate settlements, etc.) [568].
Hieroglyphics include numbers that express the concept of number, special symbols of sciences, for example, mathematical signs, which can be numbers, letters, and special images:
2d, >,<, S, √ ;
or chemical:
H, O, Ca, H2SO4;
or chess:
Kh6: f7x, QbZ - d5!!
In spellings such as 1st, 2nd, 10th, etc., a combination of a numerical hieroglyph (1, 2, 10) and a grammatical determiner (th, - go, - mu) is used, indicating the part of speech and case-numeric form.
The need for science in ideography is explained by the fact that science needs to express the concept: 1) precisely (not water “in general”, but the chemical concept of water H2O), 2) laconically, that is, briefly and economically (you just have to try to “rewrite in words” the mathematical formula to ensure the brevity of the hieroglyphs), 3) make the writing international, since as a hieroglyph it is not associated with a given language, which allows any specialists: technicians, doctors, chess players to use literature published in any country.
Of course, ideographic writing is writing “for the initiated”; you need to know the signs corresponding to this field of knowledge.
But the main type of modern writing is phonemic phonography, although other techniques are also used along with this. Thus, in Russian writing, along with the normal use of letters as graphic signs for the phonemes of the language, there is also the syllabic use of graphic signs (ya [ya], ei [yeyu], etc.). Such writings as in NKPros (in Narkompros), in St. Petersburg (in St. Petersburg), show the use of the consonantal method of writing (cf. the signature of the late composer S. S. Prokofiev: SPrkfv).
§ 71. ALPHABET
An alphabet, or alphabet, is a set of signs adopted to designate speech sounds in the written system of a language and arranged in a certain order. The word "alphabet" comes from the first two Greek letters: "alpha" and "beta". In the past, in Russia, instead of the name “alphabet,” they used the word “alphabet,” which came from the first two letters of the Russian alphabet: “az” and “buki.” The characters of the alphabet are called letters. An alphabet whose letters have a common pattern in their designs is called a font.
The letters of the alphabet are not random figures arbitrarily designated by the inventor. Each letter of our modern alphabets is the result of a long, sometimes very complex development, and its form has deep historical roots. In most cases, the prototype of the modern letter style is the image of a specific material, animate or inanimate object. Changes in the development of the alphabet occurred relatively slowly, as new demands appeared from the developing language.
The font, as a specific embodiment of the alphabet, is directly related to the tools and materials with which writing is carried out. To a greater extent than the alphabet, it is determined by the material culture of society and its aesthetic norms, as a result of which, along with them, the font constantly undergoes noticeable changes.
Even at the dawn of his development, man sought to record the manifestations of the reality around him and his attitude towards it. At first, various objects associated with a particular event and reminiscent of it served for this purpose.
Later they began to use various conventional signs in the form of shells, pebbles, knots, notches, sticks, etc. Over time, the system of combinations of these signs became more precise and complicated, turning into the so-called object writing (knotted, made from shells, etc.).
Among a number of peoples, at an early stage of their development, figurative-pictorial or pictographic writing became widespread. In this writing system, certain events were depicted in the form of a drawing, primitive and very conventional. In particular, picture writing was used by the North American Indians until very recently.
Gradually, to speed up the writing process, simplified images of a particular object were developed. Such signs-symbols in their form often had nothing in common with the type of objects that they designated. Signs corresponding to abstract concepts appeared. This type of writing is called figurative-symbolic or ideographic.
The earliest ideographic writing is cuneiform, created in the fourth millennium BC by the Sumerians. Later, cuneiform began to be used in Assyro-Babylonia, Armenia and other peoples.
In the 6th century BC, cuneiform was adopted by the Persians. Along with the designation of whole words, they began to designate individual speech sounds with certain figures, but did not move on to the alphabet.
Figurative-symbolic writing also includes Chinese characters (from the Greek word hieroglyphoi - sacred carving), the appearance of which is noted in the third millennium BC. The basis of Chinese characters were simplified images of various objects. This is especially clear in ancient Chinese writing. To denote abstract concepts and verbs in ancient Chinese writing, combinations of hieroglyphs depicting material objects were widely used. So, for example, the verb “tear” was indicated by the sign “tree” and the sign “hand” located above it (19, 21), the word “light” was depicted by the signs “sun” and “month” (22.25), the verb “sing” " - with the signs "mouth" and "bird" (26-29), "listen" - with the signs "door" and "ear" (30, 31).
Hieroglyphic writing has survived to this day and exists in three countries of the world - China, Japan and Korea.
Hieroglyphic writing was also created in Ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphic inscriptions are already found on monuments and pyramids built by the Egyptians around three thousand years BC. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, as a rule, represent signs whose outline accurately reproduces the shape of the designated object.
Gradually, the form of hieroglyphs was simplified and images of objects became increasingly conventional. Thus, the so-called hieratic letter created by the priests appeared. Finally, the most simplified form of Egyptian hieroglyphs was demotic writing - civil cursive writing, the signs of which only vaguely resembled the objects they denoted.
The features of each of the three types of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing are clearly visible when comparing the “owl” signs. The left sign, which reproduces the shape of the object in more detail, belongs to hieroglyphic writing, the middle, simplified one, to hieratic writing, and the right one, which has almost lost connection with the original form, to demotic writing.
The ancient Egyptians almost solved the problem of the transition from figurative-symbolic writing to sound - phonetic. Over time, hieroglyphs began to be used to designate syllables, and then sounds. For this purpose, hieroglyphs were used, the initial sounds of which coincided with the required sound. In total, the Egyptians had up to twenty-five such letters, but they did not make a complete transition to phonetic writing.
In 1904-1906. The so-called Sinai inscriptions dating back to the 13th-14th centuries BC were discovered. The signs of these inscriptions were in many ways reminiscent of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but their system represented a complete alphabet. The creators of this most ancient alphabet were the Hyksos, a semi-nomadic proto-Semitic people. They conquered Egypt and dominated there for several centuries until they were expelled by the strengthened Egyptians. The Hyksos adopted the high Egyptian culture and, on the basis of Egyptian hieroglyphs, which were already sufficiently prepared for this, created their own writing, the basis of which was the alphabet.
The ancient Semites, who adopted the Hyksos writing system and improved it, have long been considered the first creators of the alphabet. The basis for this was a stone found in 1869 with an inscription of the Moabite king Mesha, dating back to 896 BC (the Moabites are one of the branches of the Hebrew people who lived east of the Dead Sea). The Phoenicians, who traded with many countries, significantly improved the ancient Semitic writing, making it exclusively phonetic.
The Greeks became acquainted with Semitic writing back in the second millennium BC and around the 10th century BC they created their own alphabet based on the Phoenician. They introduced designations for vowel sounds that were absent in the Phoenician alphabet. The origin of the Greek alphabet from the ancient Semitic is confirmed by the surviving names of many letters. For example, the Greek letter “alpha” in the Semitic alphabet corresponds to the letter “alef”, the letter “beta” - “bet”, “delta” - “dalet”, etc. Greek writing was at first left-handed, as is the case in Semitic writing.
The Greek colonies in Italy transferred their writing there, on the basis of which various versions of the Latin alphabet were created. The oldest monument of Latin writing is the so-called Douin vessel, dating back to the 5th century BC. The inscription on the vessel is also made in the left direction.
After the unification of Italy by Rome in the first century BC, a single Latin alphabet was introduced, which has remained virtually unchanged to this day. The new alphabet eliminated the additional symbols found in early Latin alphabets, which complicated writing and made reading difficult. The Latin alphabet began to spread in Western Europe and soon became the main alphabet there.
40. Lexicology. The word as the central unit of lexicology. Word and object. Token.
The word is the central unit of language: language is, first of all, a system of words. Acting as the main nominative unit, it at the same time reveals the grammatical properties of the language, being its grammatical unit. A word as a nominative unit is called a lexeme; a word as a grammatical unit is called a word form.
The science of words as lexemes, the vocabulary of a language, and the nominative means of language is called lexicology. It is divided into onomasiology and semasiology. Onomasiology is
a branch of lexicology that studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination. Semasiology is a branch of lexicology that studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of words.
Lexicology is one of the young and rapidly developing linguistic sciences. Its conclusions and factual material influence the modern theory of the external and internal structure of language.
Lexicology considers a word as a lexical unit, as a unit of the vocabulary of a language. Therefore, along with “individual words,” lexicology also studies combinations of words that are equal in meaning to one word (lexicalized combinations, phraseological units, idioms).
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language.
Of course, the nomination in a word is not associated with a direct relationship: this word is this thing. A word, when naming, has in front of it not one thing, but a class of things. Thus, the word table can serve as the name of any individual table, but it is intended in the language to name any tables, a whole class of things.
A lexical word, or lexeme, is a significant word; it points to objects and denotes concepts about them; it is capable of acting as a member of a sentence and forming sentences.
A word as the name of a thing Lexical meaning is characterized by subject orientation: words point to things and name them; therefore, the lexical meaning is also called the real meaning of a word. An object (or thing) in the lexicological sense is not only real objects and things, but animals and people, the properties of objects and things, as well as phenomena, events, actions and their properties.
For example, the words table, horse-, slave, white, hardworking, rose, walk, quickly, etc. significant words, they have a subject orientation, have a denominative (nominative) function.
The subject of naming can be specific objects and phenomena (general and individual, for example Volga, Yaoslav, Peter, Cinderella, “Izvestia”). Invented objects, phenomena and persons are also given names: Scarlet Sails, Angel, Devil, Dwarf, Plyushkin, etc. The presence of different types of naming objects gives rise to the specificity of lexical meaning according to subject orientation. Lexical meanings can be concrete and abstract, general (common nouns) and singular (proper)
41. Lexical meaning of the word and concept. Types of lexical meanings of words.
The word is not a sign of each individual thing. A word is a name that denotes a concept about an object. The generalization function is an essential property of naming and lexical meaning. Like concepts, lexical meanings reflect the properties of things and indicate their common and distinctive features.
Lexical meaning is not identical to concept, although both of them have the function of reflection and generalization. The content of a concept is formed by the general and distinctive features of an object that are essential for its understanding; the characteristics of a concept include it in one or another system of knowledge and establish a certain hierarchy between concepts. Lexical meaning also consists of general and distinctive semantic features.
Lexical meaning denotes and points to an object. Knowledge of the lexical meanings of words is not yet knowledge of concepts about objects of reality. A person understands the world with the help of concepts, although words introduce him to the world of things and concepts - right and wrong. The generalizing function of naming is to designate concepts and ideas; the generalizing function of concepts is to display the essential properties of objects and include them in the system of scientific knowledge. This difference in the purpose of words and concepts creates a certain freedom of connection between lexical meaning and concept:
a) a word can have several lexical meanings, each of which denotes its own concept;
b) the same concept can be expressed in several words, which is manifested in the phenomena of conceptual synonymy and the presence of special words to express concepts of different
branches of knowledge - terms;
c) the non-identity of the meaning of a word and a concept is also manifested in the fact that concepts can be expressed by a combination of words - compound names, for example: Karelian birch, complex sentence, sulfuric acid, square root, socialist realism.
If the lexical meaning is a set of semantic features that ensure the subject-conceptual attribution of a word, then the significance of a lexeme is a set of semantic differential features identified when comparing words belonging to the same lexical-semantic group or synonymous series with each other.
According to the method of nomination, that is, according to the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the object of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished - direct, or basic, and indirect, or figurative. Direct meaning is called because the word that has it directly points to an object (phenomenon, action, quality, and so on), that is, it is directly correlated with the concept or its individual characteristics.
A figurative meaning appears as a result of the transfer of the direct (main) designation of an object to a new object. Portable meanings are private, they are called secondary.
Nominative meanings of words can be those that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities, actions, and so on.
42. Polysemy. Types of figurative meanings.
Polysemy, i.e. “polysemy,” is characteristic of most ordinary words.
This is quite natural. Words as names can easily move from one thing to another or to some sign of this thing or to its part. Therefore, the question of polysemy is, first of all, a question of nomination, i.e., changing things with the same word.
The first question of polysemy: what is direct and what is figurative meaning?
A figurative meaning of any type is explainable (motivated) through the direct, but the direct meaning of non-derivative words of a given language, where this word exists, is inexplicable. In fact, why is the bow of the boat called that? Because this part of the boat, which is in front and has the sharp shape of a prominent object, is similar to that part of a person’s face or an animal’s muzzle, which is also in front and has the corresponding shape.
And why the nose of a person or animal is called that, based on the given language, cannot be explained. Non-derivative words of direct meaning in one language or another are given, but inexplicable; it’s just that “this” in Russian should be called the mouth, in English the mouth, in French la bouche, in German der Mund, in Kyrgyz ooz, in Mordovian (moksha) kurga, etc.
And “why it is called that” - this language in its modern state does not give an answer.
In language dictionaries, figurative meanings are registered, since these are facts of the language that are mandatory for all speakers of a given language, and tropes are not registered.
Types of portable values:
1. Metaphor (gr. metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on any similarity of their characteristics. Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the talk of a stream.
2. Metonymy (gr. metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. For example: 1) the name of the material for the product from which it is made (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); 2) names of the place (room) for the groups of people who are there (class, audience - The class is preparing for a test; The audience listens attentively to the lecturer).
3. Synecdoche (Greek synekdoche - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, a pear is a fruit tree and a pear is the fruit of this tree; head - part of the body and head - a smart, capable person; ripe cherry - fruit; We are simple people - talking about ourselves.
Transfers of meaning in such expressions as, for example, the feeling of an elbow, a faithful hand, a helping hand, a kind word, a flight of thought, etc., are based on synecdoche.
4. Transfers based on similarity of functions arise when objects perform the same functions: janitor - “a person who cleans the yard” and “a windshield wiper on a car”; The heart valve is a pump valve. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct. It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context
43. Homonymy.
Homonymy is the sound coincidence of linguistic units of different meanings.
1. Lexical-sound match of a sound unit of one part of speech.
2. Word formation - coincidence of grammatical forms.
3. Syntactic - coincidence of syntactic structures.
4. Phonetic - coincidence of units having different coincidences.
Rose-rose, onion-meadow, cat-code...
5.Graphic – coincidence of units with different pronunciations.
CASTLE-LOCK, flour-flour..
44. Synonyms.
Synonyms are words that sound and are written differently, but the meaning is the same or very close (this word itself comes from the Greek synonymos, which means “same name” or “same name”). Examples of synonyms: moment - moment, scold - scold, huge - enormous, in vain - in vain.
Classification:
Contextual (speech) - coincide in the context.
Linguistic - coincide without context.
2. According to the degree of semantic proximity.
Partial (relative) - coincide in meaning and use. *small - tiny
Semantic (pometic) *blizzard - blizzard - blizzard - storm!
Stylistic - words with the same lexical meaning, but differ in the scope of use.
45. Antonyms. Paronyms.
ANTONYMS-
Words that belong to the same part of speech, but have opposite lexical meanings, but are related to each other.
* day Night
Antonyms are always limited to 2 terms of opposition, but are united on the basis of a general somatic (I don’t know what kind of word) component:
*up-down (space)
Classification:
1. Depending on the context:
Contextual (speech) - arising in a certain context (to check the presence of this type, you need to reduce them to a language pair) - (gold - half copper, that is, expensive - cheap)
Linguistic (fixed in a dictionary) - existing in the language system (rich - poor)
2. By the number of units of participation. In antonymy:
Intraword - opposition within a word
* borrow
Between words:
Contrary (stepwise) - expressing polar opposites within one essence in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation; they are in a relation of gradual opposition. *black (- gray -) white, old (- elderly - middle-aged -) young, large (- average -) small.
Complementary (contradictory) - limited strictly to two terms, the negation of one gives us the other.
Conversion - opposite direction
*sell - buy, husband - wife, teach - study.
PARONYMS-
Consonant words with the same root that are structurally similar, but differ in their meaning, completely or partially.
* general - general, addressee - addressee, subscription - subscriber, economic - economical - economical.
46. Vocabulary composition of the language. Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the language.
All words (Vocabulary) of any language (including neologisms, dialect vocabulary, jargon, terminology, etc.). Volume and composition of S. s. I. depend on the nature and development of the economic, social, cultural life of native speakers. S. s. I. is a system organized in a certain way (see Linguistic system), where words are combined or contrasted in one or another meaningful relationship (Synonyms, Homonyms, Antonyms, lexical fields, see Semantic field).
S. s. I. is continuously replenished with the development of society according to the word-formation laws of the language, as well as through borrowing. Into the Russian vocabulary. a language based on words of common Slavic and original Russian origin, words from Scandinavian, Finnish, Turkic, Old Church Slavonic, Greek, and later from Latin, Romance, and Germanic languages entered at different stages of development. The vocabulary of the German language includes words from Latin, French, Italian, English and some other languages. These layers of borrowed vocabulary in S. p. I. reflect the cultural and historical connections of peoples, being one of the evidence (sometimes the only) of contacts of ancient peoples. S. s. I. are recorded (not completely) in explanatory dictionaries. Vocabulary composition of the Russian language
The set of words of the modern Russian language, as a designation of objects, phenomena and concepts, forms its vocabulary, or vocabulary. Vocabulary is the subject of study of the corresponding branch of linguistics - lexicology.
Words are characterized by a certain specificity: they differ from each other in their origin, the degree of their activity, the sphere of use and their stylistic affiliation. Taking these features of linguistic units into account makes it possible to substantiate the general principles of vocabulary classification:
According to its origin, vocabulary is divided into native Russian and borrowed (from Old Church Slavonic and other languages of the world);
According to the degree of use, vocabulary is divided into active and passive vocabulary (the first includes regularly and often reproduced units, the second includes outdated and new vocabulary: historicisms, archaisms and neologisms);
In terms of the sphere of use, commonly used vocabulary is opposed to vocabulary limited territorially (dialectisms), professionally (terms and professionalisms) and socially (jargonisms);
In terms of stylistic characteristics, neutral (inter-style) vocabulary is contrasted with the stylistically marked high, official, scientific vocabulary of book speech and colloquial and colloquial vocabulary of oral speech. Original Russian vocabulary.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language contains more than 90% of native Russian words. From the point of view of the formation of native Russian vocabulary, several historical layers can be found in it. Native Russian words include Russian words proper, specific to the Russian language and known among other Slavs only as Russian borrowings. Some of the actual Russian words may contain a foreign root, but are formed according to Russian word-formation models. These are words such as: lace, flirt, start, etc.
49. Phraseology. Types of phraseological units.
PHRASEOLOGY (from Greek and), a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic (in the broad sense) phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units of a particular language is also called its phraseology.
There are three types of phraseological units.
1. Phraseological adhesions are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, that is, they are not motivated by them from the point of view of the current state of vocabulary: get into trouble, play dumb, without hesitation, eat a dog, from the bay - floundering, out of the blue, it was not, no matter what and under. We don’t know what a “prosak” is (that’s what a machine for weaving nets was called in the old days), we don’t understand the word baklushi (wooden blanks for spoons, the production of which did not require skilled labor), we don’t think about the meaning of outdated grammatical forms (not at all), hesitating (doubting). However, the holistic meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person. Thus, etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation for the semantics of modern phraseological fusion. However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin [See. for example, differences in the interpretation of phraseological units are cowardly celebrated by B. A. Larin and N. A. Meshchersky in the book: Mokienko V. M. Slavic phraseology. M., 1989. S. 18-19].
Phraseological adjunctions can include obsolete words and grammatical forms: it’s a joke to say (not a joke!), the boron cheese flared up (not raw!), which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of phrases.
2. Phraseological unities - stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning: come to a dead end, hit the key, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it in your hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units can have “external homonyms,” that is, phrases coinciding with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning: We had to float down the river for five days. I was thrown so hard by the bump that I bit my tongue and was in pain.
Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological unities are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. Thus, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons (like a bath leaf, like on needles, like a cow licked its tongue, like a cow’s saddle), metaphorical epithets (tinned throat, iron grip), hyperboles (golden mountains, a sea of pleasure, as far as the eye can see), litotes (about the size of a poppy seed, grasping at a straw). There are also phraseological units that are periphrases, i.e. descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word: distant lands - “far”, there are not enough stars from the sky - “close-minded”, slanting fathoms in the shoulders - “mighty, strong” .
Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to the pun, the joke underlying them: a hole from a donut, from a sleeve from a vest, not oneself, a week without a year, stabbing without a knife. The expressiveness of others is based on the play of antonyms: neither alive nor dead, neither give nor take, neither a candle to God nor a damn poker, more or less; at the clash of synonyms: from the frying pan into the fire, the mind has gone beyond the mind, pouring from empty to empty, around and around. Phraseological unities give speech special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.
3. Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: to lower one’s gaze (head) (there are no stable phrases in the language “to lower one’s hand”, “to lower one’s foot”). The verb to lower in the meaning “to lower” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words. Another example: a sensitive issue (situation, position, circumstance). The adjective ticklish means “requiring great caution, tact,” but the possibilities of its compatibility are limited: you cannot say “ticklish proposal,” “ticklish decision,” etc.
The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We say velvet season, but we won’t say “velvet month”, “velvet autumn”; general epidemic, but not “widespread morbidity”, “widespread runny nose”; general arrests, but not “total rehabilitation”, “total conviction”, etc.
Phraseological combinations often vary: frown - frown; touch a feeling of pride - hurt a feeling of pride; to win - to gain the upper hand, to fail - to fail (defeat); fear takes - anger (envy) takes, burn with impatience - burn with shame, etc. In speech, there are cases of contamination of the components of phraseological combinations: “plays meaning” - “has a role” (instead of meaning - plays a role), “undertake measures" - "take steps" (instead of take measures - take steps), "pay attention" (from pay attention - give importance), "give importance" (from give attention - give importance). Such errors are associative in nature and are perceived as a sharp violation of the norm.
This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by highlighting, following N.M. Shansky so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, i.e., they are distinguished by semantic division: Happy people do not watch the clock; To be or not to be; It's a fresh idea, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes catchphrases, proverbs, and sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but entire sentences.
The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units themselves encourages linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions. Clarifying the concept, sometimes it is proposed to include not all proverbs and sayings in combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized figurative metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to the actual phraseological units: a man in a case, from a ship to a ball, after the rain on Thursday , finest hour, etc.
Thus, in identifying the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not achieved unity and certainty. The discrepancies are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the linguistic units themselves, which are traditionally included in phraseology.
Another classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features. At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units of the Russian language are proposed.
1. Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:
1. combination of an adjective with a noun: cornerstone, enchanted circle, swan song;
2. combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case: point of view, stumbling block, reins of power, bone of contention;
3. a combination of a noun in the nominative case with nouns in the indirect cases with a preposition: blood and milk, soul to soul, the trick is in the bag;
4. a combination of the prepositional-case form of a noun with an adjective: on a living thread, for old time’s sake, on a short leg;
5. combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition): glance at, sow doubts, pick up, take up the mind, lead by the nose;
6. combination of a verb with an adverb: get into trouble, walk barefoot, see right through;
7. combination of a gerund with a noun: carelessly, reluctantly, headlong.
2. Typology based on the correspondence of the syntactic functions of phraseological units and the parts of speech with which they can be replaced. The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:
1. nominal phraseological units: cornerstone, swan song. In a sentence they perform the functions of subject, predicate, and object; by the nature of connections with other words, in combination they can control any member and be controlled;
2. verbal phraseological units: lead by the nose, look around. In a sentence they act as a predicate; in combination with other words can agree, control and be controlled;
3. adjectival phraseological units: oblique fathom in the shoulders, on one’s mind, blood with milk, on fish fur. They have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, appear in a sentence as a definition or a nominal part of the predicate;
4. adverbial or adverbial phraseological units: on a live thread, carelessly, reluctantly, face to face. They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of an action and play the role of circumstances in a sentence;
5. interjection phraseological units: no fluff or feather!; hell no!; neither bottom nor tire!; Good morning! Like interjections, such phraseological units express will and feelings, acting as separate undivided sentences.
50. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries.
Lexicography (gr. lexikon - dictionary + grapho - write) is a branch of linguistics that deals with the issues of compiling dictionaries and their study.
Basic types of dictionaries
There are two types of dictionaries: encyclopedic and philological (linguistic). The first explains realities (objects, phenomena), provides information about various events: Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Literary encyclopedia, Children's encyclopedia, political dictionary, philosophical dictionary. Secondly, words are explained and their meanings are interpreted.
Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: bilingual (less often multilingual), i.e. translation ones, which we use when studying a foreign language, when working with foreign language text (Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc. ), and monolingual.
Dictionaries
The most important type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary, which contains words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The first proper explanatory dictionary was the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published in 1789-1794. and contained 43,257 words taken from modern secular and spiritual books, as well as from ancient Russian writing. The 2nd edition entitled “Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order” was published in 1806-1822. and contained 51,388 words. The 3rd edition of the academic dictionary was the four-volume “Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language”, published in 1847, which included 114,749 words.
A valuable lexicographical manual was published in 1863-1866. four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl (8th edition - in 1981-1982). By basing the dictionary on folk speech, including vocabulary in common use, dialect, and books. Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language (about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs and sayings). The weak side of Dahl’s activities was his desire to prove the uselessness of most words of foreign origin, an attempt to introduce non-existent words that he himself composed as their equivalents, a tendentious explanation of the meanings of many words of socio-political vocabulary.
In 1895, the first volume of the new academic dictionary, edited by J. K. Grot, was published, containing 21,648 words. Then the dictionary was published in separate editions until 1930.
The most important role in the history of lexicography of the Soviet era was played by the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940. In the dictionary, which contains 85,289 words, many issues of normalization of the Russian language, ordering of word usage, formation, and pronunciation have been resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, and scientific literature. In 1947-1948 The dictionary was republished photomechanically.
On the basis of the dictionary edited by D. N. Ushakov in 1949, S. I. Ozhegov created a one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” containing over 52 thousand words. The dictionary has been reprinted several times, starting with the 9th edition, it is published under the editorship of N. Yu. Shvedova. In 1989, the 21st edition of the dictionary, expanded and revised (70 thousand words), was published.
In 1950-1965 The seventeen-volume academic “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (including 120,480 words) was published. The meanings of words and the peculiarities of their use are illustrated in it with examples from the literature of the 19th-20th centuries. various styles and genres. The grammatical characteristics of words are given, the peculiarities of their pronunciation are noted, normative stylistic notes are given, information on word formation is provided, and etymological information is given.
In 1957-1961. A four-volume academic “Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, containing 82,159 words, covering commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian literary language from Pushkin to the present day. The 2nd, revised and expanded edition of the dictionary was published in 1981-1984. (editor-in-chief A.P. Evgenieva).
In 1981, the “School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by M. S. Lapatukhin, E. V. Skorlupovskaya, G. P. Svetova, edited by F. P. Filin.
Phraseological dictionaries
The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language was expressed in the publication of a number of phraseological collections.
In 1890, S. V. Maksimov’s collection “Winged Words” was published. The collection was republished in 1899 and 1955.
In 1892, another collection by S. V. Maksimov, “Winged Words (An Attempt to Explain Current Words and Expressions),” was published, containing an interpretation of 129 words and expressions (stable combinations of words, sayings, etc.).
In 1955, the collection “Winged Words. Literary Quotations. Figurative Expressions” by N. S. Ashukina and M. G. Ashukina was published (4th edition - in 1988). The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions, arranged in alphabetical order.
The most complete (over 4 thousand phraseological units) is the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” published in 1967 under the editorship of A.I. Molotkov (4th edition in 1986). Phraselogisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meaning is given, and forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotes from fiction and journalism. In some cases, etymological information is provided.
In 1980, V.P. Zhukov’s “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, containing about 2 thousand of the most common phraseological units found in fiction and journalistic literature and in oral speech. Much attention is paid in the book to historical and etymological references. In 1967, the 2nd edition (1st - in 1966) was published by the same author, “Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings,” which includes about a thousand expressions of this nature.
The most complete collection of such material is the collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” by V. I. Dahl, published in 1862 (republished in 1957 and 1984)
In 1981, R. I. Yarantsev’s “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published, containing about 800 phraseological units (2nd edition - in 1985).
Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and dictionaries of new words
The first Russian dictionaries of synonyms were “The Experience of a Russian Estates Man” by D. I. Fonvizin (1783), which contained 32 synonymous rows, and “The Experience of a Dictionary of Russian Synonyms” by P. F. Kalaidovich (1818), which contained 77 synonymous rows. In 1956, the “Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by R. N. Klyueva was published, intended for school practice, containing about 1,500 words (the 2nd edition was published in 1961, the number of words was increased to 3 thousand). More complete is the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by Z. E. Alexandrova (1968), containing about 9 thousand synonymous series (5th edition - in 1986). The two-volume "Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" under the main editorship of A. P. Evgenieva (1970-1971) meets modern scientific requirements. In 1975, on the basis of this dictionary, the one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms. Reference Guide” was created under the same editorship.
In 1971, our first “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by L. A. Vvedenskaya was published, containing over a thousand pairs of words (2nd edition, revised, in 1982). In 1972, the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by N. P. Kolesnikov, edited by N. M. Shansky, was published, containing over 1,300 pairs of antonyms. In 1978, the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M. R. Lvov, edited by L. A. Novikov, was published, containing about 2 thousand antonymic pairs (4th edition, supplemented, in 1988). The same author published in 1981 the “School Dictionary of Antonyms in the Russian Language,” which includes over 500 dictionary entries.
In 1974, the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by O. S. Akhmanova was published in our country (3rd edition in 1986). It lists homonymous pairs (rarely groups of three or four words) in alphabetical order; where necessary, grammatical information and stylistic notes and certificates of origin are given. In 1976, the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by N. P. Kolesnikov, edited by N. M. Shansky, was published (the 2nd, revised edition, containing more than 3,500 clauses, was published in 1978).
In 1968, a dictionary-reference book by Yu. A. Belchikov and M. S. Panyusheva, “Difficult cases of using cognate words in the Russian language,” was published, which can be considered the first experience in creating a dictionary of paronyms. It contains about 200 pairs (groups) of cognate words, the use of which in speech practice is observed to be mixed. The second most recently published was “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” by N.P. Kolesnikov (1971), containing over 3 thousand similar-sounding words of the same root and different roots, divided into 1432 nests. Dictionaries of paronyms are available in the books by O. V. Vishnyakova: “Paronyms in the Russian Language” (1974) and “Paronyms of the Modern Russian Language” (1981 and 1987). In 1984, the “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” by the same author was published as a separate publication.
In 1971, a dictionary-reference book “New Words and Meanings” was published, edited by N. Z. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin, containing about 3,500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that were not included in previously published dictionaries. A new edition of the dictionary, containing about 5,500 new words, meanings and combinations of words, was published under the editorship of N. Z. Kotelova in 1984. These dictionaries reflect the material of the press and literature of the 60s and 70s.
Dictionaries of compatibility (lexical), grammatical dictionaries and dictionaries of correctness (difficulties)
An example of a publication of the first type is the “Training dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language”, edited by P. N. Denisov and V. V. Morkovkin (1978), containing about 2,500 dictionary entries with the title word - noun, adjective, verb (2nd edition , corrected - in 1983).
The most complete grammatical dictionary is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A. A. Zaliznyak, which includes about 100 thousand words (1977, 3rd edition in 1987). It comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection (declension and conjugation).
In 1978, N.P. Kolesnikov’s “Dictionary of Indeclinable Words” was published, containing about 1,800 indeclinable nouns and other inflexible words.
In 1981, the dictionary-reference book “Management in the Russian Language” by D. E. Rosenthal was published, which includes over 2,100 dictionary entries (2nd edition - in 1986).
The “Grammar and Spelling Dictionary” by A. V. Tekuchev and B. T. Panov (1976) was published especially for the needs of the school. The 2nd edition (revised and expanded) entitled “School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary” was published in 1985.
From the pre-revolutionary editions of dictionaries of correctness (difficulties), one can name “The Experience of a Dictionary of Irregularities in Russian Colloquial Speech” by V. Dolopchev, 1886 (2nd edition - in 1909).
Written not in the form of a dictionary, but as an “experience of Russian stylistic grammar,” V. I. Chernyshev’s work “Correctness and purity of Russian speech. Experience of Russian stylistic grammar” in two editions has not lost its significance even today, thanks to the abundance of material it contains. (1914-1915), published in an abridged edition in 1915, included in the “Selected Works” of V. I. Chernyshev (vol. 1, 1970).
In 1962, a dictionary-reference book was published under the editorship of S. I. Ozhegov (compiled by L. P. Krysin and L. I. Skvortsov), containing about 400 dictionary entries on modern word usage (2nd edition, corrected and expanded , - in 1965).
A significant contribution to publications of this type was the dictionary-reference book “Difficulties of word usage and variants of norms of the Russian literary language” edited by K. S. Gorbachevich (1973). The dictionary contains about 8 thousand words, selected taking into account accentological, pronunciation, word and formative difficulties.
Adjacent to this type of publication are “A Brief Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language. For Press Workers,” containing about 400 words (1968) and the journalist’s dictionary-reference book “Difficulties of the Russian Language,” edited by L. I. Rakhmanova (1974 and 1981).
The book “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech”, which is an “experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants”, has a special character, L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich, L.P. Katlinskaya, edited by S.G. Barkhudarov, I.F. Protchenko, L. I. Skvortsova (1976).
The Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova was published in several editions (6th edition in 1987), containing about 30 thousand words related to issues of standard and variable spelling, pronunciation, and word usage , formation, grammatical compatibility, stylistic characteristics.
Historical and etymological dictionaries
The main historical dictionary of the Russian language was the three-volume “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language based on written monuments” by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), containing many words and about 120 thousand excerpts from monuments of Russian writing of the 11th-14th centuries. (the last, reprint, edition was published in 1989). The Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th centuries is currently being published. In 1988, the 14th issue (before Persona) was released. Since 1984, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century” began to be published. edited by Yu. S. Sorokin. To date, 5 issues have been prepared (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989).
Of the pre-revolutionary editions of etymological dictionaries, the most famous is “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. G. Preobrazhensky (published in separate editions in 1910-1916, the final version was published in 1949, and was completely published by photomechanical method in 1959).
In 1961, “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, containing an etymological interpretation of common words of the modern Russian literary language (3rd edition, supplemented, in 1975).
For the needs of school practice, in 1970, the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by G. P. Tsyganenko was published in Kyiv (2nd edition - in 1989).
In 1964-1973. was published in four volumes, translated and with additions by O. N. Trubachev, compiled in German, “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by M. R. Vasmer - the most extensive of the dictionaries of this type (2nd edition - in 1986-1987) .
Word-formation, dialect, frequency and reverse dictionaries
The “School Word-Formation Dictionary” by Z. A. Potikha (2nd edition edited by S. G. Barkhudarov) was published in two editions (1961 and 1964), containing about 25 thousand words with their word-formation structure. A variant of this type of dictionary is the reference book of service morphemes “How words are made in the Russian language” by the same author (1974). He also compiled a manual for students, “School Dictionary of the Structure of Words in the Russian Language” (1987).
In 1978, A. N. Tikhonov’s “School Word Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published. The words in it are arranged in nests, which are headed by the original (non-derivative) words of different parts of speech. The words in the nest are placed in an order determined by the stepwise nature of Russian word formation (about 26 thousand words). In 1985, the same author compiled the most complete “Word Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language” in two volumes (about 145 thousand words).
In 1986, the “Dictionary of Morphemes of the Russian Language” was published by A. I. Kuznetsova and T. F. Efremova (about 52 thousand words).
The first dialect (regional) dictionaries of the Russian language began to be published in the middle of the 19th century. These were the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary”, containing 18,011 words (1852) and the “Addition to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary”, containing 22,895 words (1858). At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. A number of dictionaries of individual dialects and dialects were published. In Soviet times, the “Don Dictionary” by A. V. Mirtov (1929), “A Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary...” by G. G. Melnichenko (1961), “The Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data” (1967), etc. were published. Currently, a lot of work is being done to compile a multi-volume “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”, which includes about 150 thousand folk words unknown in the modern literary language (from 1965 to 1987, 23 issues were published - until Oset)
In 1963, the “Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” by E. A. Steinfeldt was published, containing 2,500 words, arranged according to frequency of use.
The frequency dictionary published in the USA by G. G. Yosselson (1953), containing 5,320 words, is more complete in composition. When evaluating and using this dictionary, it should be borne in mind that almost half of the texts from which the material for the dictionary was extracted belongs to the pre-revolutionary period, therefore the linguistic conclusions arising from the material in many cases do not reflect modern word usage.
The “Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited by L. N. Zasorina (1977), is very complete, containing about 40 thousand words selected based on computer processing of one million word usages.
In 1958, the “Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” was published, edited by G. Bielfeldt, containing about 80 thousand words, arranged in alphabetical order not by the beginning of the words, but by their end, that is, from right to left. In 1974, under the editorship of M. V. Lazova, the “Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, which includes about 125 thousand words.
Spelling and spelling dictionaries
The first spelling dictionary was the “Reference Index”, attached to “Russian Spelling” by J. K. Groth and containing about 3 thousand words (1885).
In 1934, the “Spelling Dictionary” by D. N. Ushakov was published (since 1948 it has been published and edited by S. E. Kryuchkov), intended for secondary school students (the dictionary is constantly republished).
Currently, the main textbook of this type is the academic "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko and L. I. Skvortsov, containing 106 thousand words (1st edition, edited by S. I. Ozhegov and A. B. Shapiro, published in 1956 in connection with the streamlining of Russian spelling carried out that year) The latest 29th edition (1991), corrected and expanded, prepared using electronic computer technology.
Special spelling dictionaries were also published: “The use of the letter e” by K. I. Bylinsky. S. E. Kryuchkova and M. V. Svetlaeva (1945), “Together or separately?” B. 3. Bukchina, L.P. Kalakutskaya and L.K. Cheltsova (1972; 7th edition published in 1988, authors - B.Z. Bukchina and L.P. Kalakutskaya).
Among the first editions of the spelling dictionary, we highlight the dictionary brochure “To Help the Speaker,” published in 1951, edited by K. I. Bylinsky. On its basis, the “Dictionary of Stresses for Radio and Television Workers” was created (1960; compiled by F. L. Ageenko and M. V. Zarva). The latest, 6th edition, containing about 75 thousand words, was published in 1985 under the editorship of D. E. Rosenthal. The dictionary widely includes, along with common nouns, proper names (personal names and surnames, geographical names, names of press organs, literary and musical works, etc.).
In 1955, the dictionary-reference book “Russian literary pronunciation and stress” was published, edited by R. I. Avanesov and S. I. Ozhegov, containing about 50 thousand words; about 52 thousand were included in the 2nd edition (1959) .words The dictionary is accompanied by detailed “Information on pronunciation and stress.” In 1983, the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms” was published, authors S. N. Borunova, V. L. Vorontsova, N. A. Eskova, edited by R.I. Avanesov (5th edition - in 1989) The publication contains about 65,500 words. The dictionary contains two appendices: “Information on pronunciation and stress” and “Information on grammatical forms.” The dictionary has developed a detailed system of normative instructions, and also introduced prohibitive notes.
Onomastic dictionaries (dictionaries of proper names)
In 1966, N.A. Petrovsky’s “Dictionary of Russian Personal Names” was published, containing about 2,600 male and female names (3rd edition - in 1984) - an anthroponymic dictionary. In 1966, V. A. Nikonov’s “Brief Toponymic Dictionary” was published. containing about 4 thousand names of the largest geographical objects in the USSR and in foreign countries. The dictionary provides the origin and history of toponyms.
A unique combination of toponymic and word-formation dictionaries are the following publications: 1) “Dictionary of the names of residents of the RSFSR”, containing about 6 thousand names, edited by A. M. Babkin (1964), 2) “Dictionary of names of residents of the USSR”, containing about 10 thousand. titles, edited by A. M. Babkin and E. A. Levashov (1975)
Dictionaries of foreign words. The first dictionary of foreign words was the handwritten “Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet,” compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. During the XVIII-XIX centuries. A number of dictionaries of foreign words and related terminological dictionaries have been published.
Currently, the most complete is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, F. N. Petrov and others (1941, 18th edition - in 1989). The dictionary provides a brief explanation of the words and terms of a foreign language origins found in various styles, the origin of the word is indicated, and, if necessary, the path of borrowing is noted.
In 1966, the two-volume “Dictionary of Foreign Expressions and Words...” by A. M. Babkin and V. V. Shendetsov was published (2nd edition - in 1981-1987). It contains words and expressions of foreign languages used in Russian without translation, in compliance with the graphics and spelling of the source language.
In 1983, the “School Dictionary of Foreign Words” was published under the editorship of V.V. Ivanov (compiled by V.V. Odintsov, G.P. Smolitskaya, E.I. Golanova, I.A. Vasilevskaya).
Dictionaries of the language of writers and dictionaries of epithets
The largest dictionary of the language of writers is the “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language” in four volumes, containing over 21 thousand words (1956-1961, addition to it “New materials to the Dictionary of A. S. Pushkin” - 1982). Dictionaries of one work are “Dictionary-reference book “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, compiled by V. L. Vinogradova (issue 1, 1965, issue 1984); “Dictionary of the autobiographical trilogy of M. Gorky” (compiled by A V. Fedorov and O. I. Fonyakova, 1974, 1986) The latest dictionary contains proper names (personal names, geographical names, titles of literary works)
The most complete dictionary of epithets is the “Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language” by K. S. Gorbachevich and E. P. Khablo (1979). The dictionary presents various kinds of epithets (general linguistic, folk poetic, individual author's), as well as widely used terminological definitions. Even earlier (1975), “A Brief Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Language” by N.V. Vedernikov was published - a textbook containing 730 nouns and 13,270 epithets for them.
Dictionaries of abbreviations and dictionaries of linguistic terms
"Dictionary of Russian Language Abbreviations", published in 4 editions, is the most complete. The latter, edited by D. I. Alekseev (1984), includes about 17,700 abbreviations of various types (abbreviated words, abbreviations). The first editions of the dictionary of linguistic terms were “Grammar Dictionary” by N. N. Durnovo (1924) and “Linguistic Dictionary" by L. I. Zhirkov (1945). The most complete, reflecting the current state of linguistic science, containing 7 thousand terms with translation into English and comparisons from French, German and Spanish, is the “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O. S. Akhmanova (1966; 2nd edition - in 1969). As a manual for secondary school teachers, the “Dictionary-Reference Book of Linguistic Terms” by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova was published in three editions (the latter, 1985, contains about 2 thousand terms).
51. Morphemics. Morpheme and allomorph. Classification of morphemes.
Morphemics is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.
The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme. A morpheme is the minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).
Morphs and allomorphs
Strictly speaking, a morpheme, being an abstract linguistic unit, is not a sign, but a class of signs. The specific implementation of a morpheme in a text is called a morph or (more often lately) a morph.
At the same time, morphs representing the same morpheme may have different phonetic appearance depending on their environment within the word form. A set of morphs of one morpheme that have the same phonemic composition is called an allomorph.
Thus, in the sentence “I am running, and you are running, but he is not running,” the morpheme “run-” is represented by three morphs (run- in running, running- in running and running- in running) and only two allomorphs (run- and running -).
The relationship between morph, alomorph and morpheme is approximately the same as between phon (speech sound), allophone and phoneme. It is important to understand that in order for two morphs to belong to the same allomorph, they do not have to have completely the same sound: they only have to have the same phonemic composition and stress.
In everyday life, even among specialists in morphology, the term “morpheme” is often used to mean morphs. Sometimes such indistinction in word usage even penetrates into published scientific texts. You should be careful in this regard, although in the vast majority of cases it is clear from the context what kind of entity - a concrete text morph or an abstract linguistic morpheme - we are talking about.
Classification of morphemes
Roots and affixes
Morphemes are divided into two main types - root (roots, or stems), and affixal (affixes).
The root is the main significant part of the word. The root is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root. Root morphemes can form a word either accompanied by affixes or independently.
An affix is an auxiliary part of a word, attached to the root and used for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Affixes cannot form a word on their own - only in combination with roots. Affixes, unlike some roots (such as kakadu), are not single, occurring only in one word.
Classification of affixes
Affixes are divided into types depending on their position in the word. The most common types of affixes in the world's languages are prefixes, located before the root, and postfixes, located after the root. The traditional name for Russian language prefixes is prefixes. The prefix clarifies the meaning of the root, conveys the lexical meaning, and sometimes expresses the grammatical meaning (for example, the aspect of verbs).