Water is one of the most common chemical compounds on Earth and unusual in its properties. Without water, life itself cannot exist. Water, a carrier of mechanical and thermal energy, plays a vital role in the exchange of matter and energy between geospheres and geographic regions of the Earth.
The world's fresh water reserves are 34,980 thousand km³, and the annual renewable ones (total annual river flow) are 46,800 km³ per year. Current total water consumption in the world is 4130 km³ per year, and irrecoverable water consumption is 2360 km³ per year.
The most important task of terrestrial hydrology is to assess changes in water resources as a source of water supply and water consumption. A special place is occupied by the quantitative assessment of changes in time and space in river water flow, which constitutes the main, annually renewable water resources and provides the bulk of possible water consumption for economic needs. Modern studies of water resources, especially in terms of forecasting them for the future, are closely related to taking into account global climate change and the impact of human economic activities on water bodies.
The result of not always reasonable human economic activity has been an increase in irreversible water consumption (to the point of complete depletion of water sources) and threatening pollution of natural waters, which often introduces irreversible changes into the water balance and environmental conditions of vast areas.
The need for fresh water is increasing everywhere to meet the needs of growing populations, urbanization, industrial development, irrigation for food, etc. This situation is undoubtedly worsening with population growth, pollution of surface and groundwater and the threat of climate change. There are even predictions that with the world's population doubling by the middle of the next century and with rapidly growing demands, a worldwide water crisis will occur within a few years. Under these circumstances, the world's freshwater resources could become a source of conflict in some of the 200 international river basins. In addition, the growth of population, concentrating around rivers as the main sources of water, will inevitably lead to a significant increase in flood victims, the number of which now accounts for 25% of the total number of victims of all natural disasters on Earth, and the number of people suffering from floods annually is equal to the number of people suffering from droughts (32 and 33%). Since suffering from droughts is exacerbated by water shortages, it follows that disasters caused by temporary excess or shortage of water account for a total of 65% of the total affected population.
In recent decades, many countries around the world have seen a deterioration in the ecological condition of land water bodies (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) and adjacent areas. This is primarily due to the significantly increased anthropogenic impact on natural waters. It manifests itself in changes in water reserves, the hydrological regime of watercourses and reservoirs, and especially in changes in water quality. Based on the nature of the impact on the resources, regime and quality of water bodies on land, factors of economic activity are combined into three groups.
1. Factors that directly affect a water body through direct withdrawals of water and discharges of natural and waste waters or through the transformation of the morphological elements of watercourses and reservoirs (creation of reservoirs and ponds in river beds, embankment and straightening of river beds).
2. Factors affecting a water body through changes in the surface of river catchments and individual territories (agrotechnical measures, drainage of swamps and wetlands, deforestation and planting, urbanization, etc.).
3. Factors affecting the main elements of moisture circulation within specific river catchments and individual territories through changes in climatic characteristics on a global and regional scale.
The problem of accounting for quantitative changes in water resources under the influence of economic activity arose in the 50s of the 20th century, when water consumption throughout the world increased sharply. If during the period from 1900 to 1950 the average increase in water consumption per decade was 156 km³, then from 1950 to 1960 it was 630 km³, that is, it increased 4 times, and in subsequent years it increased by 800–1000 km³ per decade. River flow is most intensively used in Europe and Asia (about 13% of the total annual volume), somewhat less in North America (about 8%) and significantly less in Africa, Australia and South America (from 1 to 3% of the volume of water resources) . At the same time, on all continents there are large regions where the intensity of river flow use reaches 30–65% of the total volume of river water resources.
The most acute hydrological problem has become the change in the quality of natural waters and the state of aquatic ecosystems under the influence of economic activities. The rapid spread of substances of anthropogenic origin has led to the fact that there are practically no freshwater ecosystems left on the Earth’s surface whose water quality has not changed to one degree or another. The consequence of chemical and physical impacts of anthropogenic origin is a change in the composition of bottom sediments and living matter of water bodies.
The largest amount of pollutants enters water bodies from oil refining, chemical, pulp and paper, metallurgical, and textile industries. The formation of the chemical composition of surface and groundwater under conditions of anthropogenic impact is characterized by: 1) an increase (or decrease) in the concentration of those components of natural waters that are usually present in unpolluted water; 2) changing the direction of natural hydrochemical processes; 3) enrichment of water with substances alien to natural water. For example, if the surface of the water is covered with a film of oil, fatty acids or other floating pollutants coming with wastewater, then many chemical and biochemical processes change significantly, since the supply of oxygen and light to the water is limited, water evaporation is reduced, and the state of the carbonate system changes.
The problem of self-purification and purification of water systems, protection of water from pollution has become not only hydrological. Chemists, biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and hydrogeologists take part in its solution. To prevent a water crisis, in addition to strengthening administrative measures to protect natural resources, it is necessary to organize broad geo-ecological education for the population, especially young people. This will contribute to the integrity of the perception of changes in the landscape shell of the Earth, the need to preserve from destruction the natural connections between its components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
Looking at our planet from the heights of outer space, a comparison immediately arises with a blue ball, which is completely covered with water. At this time, the continents seem to be small islands in this endless ocean. This is quite natural, because water occupies 79.8% of the entire surface, and 29.2% falls on land. The water shell of the Earth is called the hydrosphere; its volume is 1.4 billion m3.
Water resources and their purpose
Water resources- These are waters from rivers, lakes, canals, reservoirs, seas and oceans that are suitable for use in agriculture. This also includes groundwater, soil moisture, swamps, glaciers, and atmospheric water vapor.
Water appeared on the planet about 3.5 billion years ago and initially it was in the form of vapors that were released during the degassing of the mantle. Today, water is the most important element in the Earth's biosphere, because nothing can replace it. However, recently, water resources have ceased to be considered limited, because scientists have managed desalinate salt water.
Purpose of water resources- support the vital activity of all life on Earth (humans, plants and animals). Water is the basis of all living things and the main supplier of oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. Water also takes part in climate formation - absorbing heat from the atmosphere in order to release it in the future, thereby regulating climate processes.
It would be worth remembering that water sources play an honorable role in the modification of our planet. People have always settled near reservoirs or water sources. Thus, water promotes communication. There is a hypothesis among scientists that if there were no water on Earth, the discovery of America would have been postponed for several centuries. And Australia would still be unknown today.
Types of water resources
As already said water resources- these are all the water reserves on the planet. But on the other hand, water is the most common and most specific compound on Earth, because only it can exist in three states (liquid, gaseous and solid).
The Earth's water resources consist of:
- surface water(oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps) are the most valuable source of fresh water, but the thing is that these objects are distributed quite unevenly over the Earth’s surface. Thus, in the equatorial zone, as well as in the northern part of the temperate zone, water is in excess (25 thousand m 3 per year per person). And the tropical continents, which consist of 1/3 of the land, are very acutely aware of the shortage of water reserves. Based on this situation, their agriculture develops only under the condition of artificial irrigation;
- groundwater;
- reservoirs created artificially by man;
- glaciers and snowfields (frozen water from glaciers in Antarctica, the Arctic and snowy mountain peaks). This is where most of the fresh water is found. However, these reserves are practically unavailable for use. If all the glaciers are distributed over the Earth, then this ice will cover the earth with a ball 53 cm high, and by melting it, we thereby raise the level of the World Ocean by 64 meters;
- moisture what is found in plants and animals;
- vapor state of the atmosphere.
Water consumption
The total volume of the hydrosphere is amazing in its quantity, however, only 2% of this figure is fresh water, moreover, only 0.3% is available for use. Scientists have calculated the freshwater resources that are necessary for all humanity, animals and plants. It turns out that the supply of water resources on the planet is only 2.5% of the required volume of water.
Around the world, about 5 thousand m3 are consumed annually, while more than half of the consumed water is lost irrevocably. In percentage terms, the consumption of water resources will have the following characteristics:
- agriculture - 63%;
- industrial water consumption - 27% of the total;
- municipal needs take 6%;
- reservoirs consume 4%.
Few people know that in order to grow 1 ton of cotton, 10 thousand tons of water are required, 1 ton of wheat requires 1500 tons of water, the production of 1 ton of steel requires 250 tons of water, and 1 ton of paper requires at least 236 thousand tons of water.
A person should consume at least 2.5 liters of water per day, but on average this same person spends at least 360 liters per day in a large city, since this figure includes all possible uses of water, including watering streets, washing vehicles and even firefighting.
But the consumption of water resources does not end there. This is evidenced, for example, by water transport or the process of breeding both marine and fresh fish. Moreover, for breeding fish you need exclusively clean water, saturated with oxygen and free of harmful impurities.
A great example of the use of water resources is recreational areas. There is no such person who would not like to relax by a pond, relax, and swim. In the world, almost 90% of recreational areas are located near bodies of water.
The need to protect water resources
Considering the current situation, we can conclude that water requires a protective attitude towards itself. Currently, there are two ways to conserve water resources:
- reduce fresh water consumption;
- creation of modern high quality collectors.
Storing water in reservoirs limits its flow into the world's oceans. Storing water underground helps prevent its evaporation. The construction of canals can easily solve the issue of delivering water without penetrating into the ground. Humanity is also thinking about the latest methods of irrigating agricultural land, making it possible to moisten the territory using wastewater.
But each of the above methods actually affects the biosphere. The reservoir system, for example, does not allow the formation of fertile silt deposits; canals interfere with the replenishment of groundwater. Therefore, today one of the most effective ways to conserve water resources is wastewater treatment. Science does not stand still in this regard, and various methods make it possible to neutralize or remove up to 96% of harmful substances.
Water pollution problem
Population growth, the rise of production and agriculture... These factors contributed to the shortage of fresh water. In addition, the share of polluted water resources is also growing.
Main sources of pollution:
- industrial waste;
- municipal wastewater;
- plums from the fields (meaning when they are oversaturated with chemicals and fertilizers;
- burial of radioactive substances near a body of water;
- wastewater coming from livestock complexes (water is characterized by an excess of biogenic organic matter);
- shipping.
Nature provides for self-purification of water bodies. This happens due to the presence of plankton in the water, ultraviolet rays entering the water, and the sedimentation of insoluble particles. But unfortunately there is much more pollution and nature on its own is not able to cope with such a mass of harmful substances that man and his activities provide to water resources.
Unusual sources of drinking water
Recently, humanity has been thinking about how to use unconventional sources of water resources. Here are the main ones:
- tow icebergs from the Arctic or Antarctica;
- carry out desalination of sea waters (actively used at the moment);
- condense atmospheric water.
In order to obtain fresh water by desalinating salt water, desalination stations are installed on sea vessels. There are already about hundreds of such units in the whole world. The world's largest producer of such water is Kuwait.
Fresh water has recently acquired the status of a global commodity; it is transported in tankers using long-distance water pipelines. This scheme works successfully in the following areas:
- the Netherlands gets water from Norway;
- Saudi Arabia receives resource from Philippines;
- Singapore imports from Malaysia;
- water is pumped from Greenland and Antarctica to Europe;
- The Amazon transports drinking water to Africa.
One of the latest achievements is installations with the help of which the heat of nuclear reactors is used simultaneously for desalination of sea water and production of electricity. At the same time, the price of one liter of water costs little, since the productivity of such installations is quite high. It is recommended to use water that has passed through this route for irrigation.
Reservoirs can also help overcome freshwater shortages by regulating river flow. In total, more than 30 thousand reservoirs have been built in the world. In most countries, there are projects for the redistribution of river flow through its transfer. But most of these programs have been rejected due to environmental concerns.
Water resources of the Russian Federation
Our country has a unique water resource potential. However, their main drawback is their extremely uneven distribution. So, if we compare the Southern and Far Eastern federal districts of Russia, then in terms of the size of local water resources they differ from each other by 30 times, and in terms of water supply - by 100 times.
Rivers of Russia
When thinking about the water resources of Russia, first of all, we should note the rivers. Their volume is 4,270 km 3 . There are 4 water basins on the territory of Russia:
- the seas of the Northern and Arctic Oceans, as well as the large rivers flowing into them (Northern Dvina, Pechora, Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Kolyma);
- the Pacific Ocean (Amur and Anadyr);
- seas of the Atlantic Ocean (Don, Kuban, Neva);
- the internal basin of the Caspian Sea and the flowing Volga and Ural.
Since in the central regions the population density is greater than, for example, in Siberia, this leads to the disappearance of small rivers and water pollution in general.
Lakes and swamps of Russia
Half of all fresh water in the country comes from lakes. Their number in the country is approximately 2 million. Of these, the largest ones are:
- Baikal;
- Ladoga;
- Onega;
- Taimyr;
- Khanka;
- Vats;
- Ilmen;
- White.
A special place should be given to Lake Baikal, because 90% of our fresh water reserves are concentrated in it. In addition to the fact that this lake is the deepest on earth, it is also characterized by a unique ecosystem. Baikal is also included in the UNESCO natural heritage list.
Lakes of the Russian Federation are used for irrigation and as sources for water supply. Some of the listed lakes have a decent supply of medicinal mud and therefore are used for recreational purposes. Just like rivers, lakes are characterized by their uneven distribution. They are mainly concentrated in the Northwestern part of the country (Kola Peninsula and the Republic of Karelia), the Ural region, Siberia and Transbaikalia.
The swamps of Russia also play an important role, although many people treat them with disrespect by draining them. Such actions lead to the death of entire huge ecosystems, and as a result, rivers do not have the opportunity to cleanse themselves naturally. Swamps also feed rivers and act as their controlled object during floods and floods. And of course, swamps are a source of peat reserves.
These elements of water resources are widespread in the North-West and North-Central part of Siberia; the total area of swamps in Russia is 1.4 million km 2.
As we see, Russia has great water resource potential, but we should not forget about the balanced use of this resource and treat it with care, because anthropogenic factors and huge consumption lead to pollution and depletion of water resources.
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Detailed solution to paragraph § 25 on geography for 8th grade students, authors V. P. Dronov, I. I. Barinova, V. Ya. Rom, A. A. Lobzhanidze 2014
questions and assignments
1. What are water resources?
Water resources are that part of surface and groundwater that can be used to supply water to the population and for various types of human activities.
2. Explain the proverb “Without water there is no life,” which arose among our distant ancestors, from the standpoint of modern living conditions. Prove its validity.
From the perspective of modern living conditions, the role of water in human life has increased even more. In addition to the natural reasons why a person cannot exist without water (water is the main component of our body and its reserves need to be replenished), in modern life the domestic need for water has increased. Every year people consume more and more water at home. In industry, water is used as a raw material, as a medium for reactions and for cooling. Water is a universal chemical substance for which no replacement has yet been invented.
The main source of water resources in Russia is river flow. Its main value is its constant renewal. In addition, centuries-old water reserves in lakes, as well as groundwater, are of great importance.
The peculiarity and problem of the country's water resources is the discrepancy between the places of water consumption and the places of the main reserves of water resources.
4. What determines the quality of water resources? Name the main sources of water pollution.
The quality of water depends on the presence in it of various substances of inorganic and organic origin (including microorganisms). For some users of water (transport, hydroelectric power), its quality is not of great importance. But in most cases, it is the quality of water that limits its use.
Water pollution occurs due to various reasons. Firstly, a significant part of the pollutants enters rivers and lakes with precipitation and melt water. They carry dust and soil particles, pesticides and mineral fertilizers, salts and petroleum products from the atmosphere, from fields and city streets. Secondly, every year wastewater from enterprises and homes is discharged into the country's surface water bodies.
5. Based on the analysis of atlas maps and textbooks, give a description of water resources: a) the north of the European part; b) the Urals; c) your locality.
a) The region is sufficiently watered by rivers and lakes: large navigable rivers such as the Northern Dvina, Mezen, Pechora, Neva and their numerous tributaries flow here. Due to sufficient precipitation and low evaporation, the rivers are full. The western part is replete with lakes. The largest lakes are Ladoga, Onega, Imandra, and Beloe.
b) The water resources of the Urals are represented by rivers and groundwater. The distribution of reserves is influenced by the dependence of runoff on structural, hydrogeological, and lithological factors. The Cis-Ural region is considered to be more endowed with water resources than the Trans-Ural region. This situation is determined by climatic conditions. Mountain ranges trap masses of moist air coming from the Atlantic. Accordingly, unfavorable conditions for the formation of underground runoff are formed in these areas.
FINAL ASSIGNMENTS ON THE TOPIC
1. What types of inland waters are present in Russia? Describe the role of each of them in nature and in human economic activity.
Russia's inland waters are represented by rivers, lakes, groundwater, swamps, glaciers, and permafrost.
Rivers. There are 2.5 million rivers and large streams in Russia with a total length of 10 million km. There are much fewer large rivers (more than 10 km long) in Russia - only about 120 thousand. Most of the river flow (95%) is formed within Russia. The river flow is unevenly distributed: about 80% of it falls on the Asian part of the country. Most Russian rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean. The meridional direction of the flow of most of the largest rivers in Russia is not very favorable from the point of view of the geography of population and production. They mainly flow through poorly developed and sparsely populated areas. Because of this, the transport importance of rivers is reduced.
Lakes. There are many lakes in the country. In Russia there are basin lakes of the following types - tectonic, volcanic, thermokarst, glacial, estuaries formed in natural dams, artificial. The distribution of lakes throughout the country is uneven and depends on many reasons: the geological structure and terrain, climatic conditions, and the occurrence of groundwater. The number of lakes decreases significantly to the south due to increasing aridity of the climate. Lakes regulate river flow. Shipping routes pass through them. There are numerous recreational areas on their banks. Lakes actively influence other components of nature.
Swamps. The most swampy areas of the country are the center of the West Siberian and northwestern Russian plains. Swamps are an important source of nutrition for rivers and lakes. They are the natural habitat of many animals. Therefore, the conservation of wetlands is important for the protection and rational use of natural resources. About 80% of the country's peat reserves are concentrated in swamps, which is used as a raw material for the chemical industry and fertilizer in agriculture.
The groundwater. Groundwater reserves in our country amount to many trillions of cubic meters. 60% of operational reserves are located in the European part of Russia, 25% in Western Siberia and 15% in Siberia and the Far East. This distribution indicates that groundwater exploration in the eastern regions of the country is still insufficient. However, only a small share of the identified groundwater reserves is used - approximately 7%.
Permafrost. Permafrost is distributed over almost 2/3 of the territory of our country. It is found in areas with a fairly harsh climate that supports its existence. Therefore, in the north of Russia, permafrost forms a continuous zone, and in the southern regions it occurs only in pockets. Permafrost affects vegetation, as it constantly cools the soil and ground layer of air. Permafrost is waterproof and therefore contributes to swamping of areas. During construction, permafrost may thaw. This threatens subsidence and failure of the soil and the destruction of constructed structures.
Glaciers. Glaciers are found in the Caucasus, Northern Urals, Altai, Sayan Mountains, Transbaikalia and Kamchatka. Mountain glaciers feed many rivers and change the topography. But their economic importance is small. Glaciers occupy a much larger area on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic.
2. Show on the map the main river systems of Russia. Explain their features.
Among the largest river basins in Russia are the basins of the Volga, Northern Dvina, Ob, Yenisei, Yenisei, Lena, and Amur rivers.
The Volga is the largest river system in Europe. The drainage basin of this river occupies a huge area. This territory is comparable in size to states such as Peru or Mongolia. Within the Volga river basin there are 30 constituent entities of the Russian Federation and dozens of large cities (in particular, Moscow, Ryazan, Tver, Orel, Kazan, Astrakhan, Perm and others). The Volga is widely used in farming and its flow is fully regulated.
The Northern Dvina is the most important river in the northern zone of European Russia and the White Sea basin. The Northern Dvina has a very calm current, which gains significant speed only when overflowing. The river flows through a wide valley, fenced on both sides by high banks. The Northern Dvina is already navigable from its source; flowing through forests and swamps, it soon takes on significant dimensions
The Ob is one of the largest rivers in Russia and the Eurasian continent. It is formed by the confluence of the Biya and Katun in Altai, crosses Western Siberia from south to north and flows into the Ob Bay of the Kara Sea. The river basin is rich in mineral resources. The richest reserves of gas, oil and coal are concentrated here. Considering the marshy area, peat reserves account for 70% of the country's total reserves. The Ob River is rich in fish. Of these, at least 50 species are commercial. Hydropower resources are also of great importance. These are three hydroelectric power stations: Novosibirsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Bukhtarma. The last two were built on the Irtysh. Shipping is also important. The navigation period lasts 6 months.
The Yenisei divides Siberia into two equal parts: Western and Eastern. With its swift, powerful stream it crosses this entire land, passing through mountains and plains, steppes and forests. The Yenisei basin is asymmetrical. On the right side are its large, high-water tributaries, such as the Angara, Nizhnyaya and Podkamennaya Tunguska. The Angara alone occupies almost half of the Yenisei basin. The Yenisei is navigable for almost 1000 km. The cities of Kyzyl, Abakan, and Krasnoyarsk were built on the river.
The Lena River basin is located over a vast territory of North-Eastern Siberia (in Yakutia, as well as in the Irkutsk region). The largest tributary is Aldan. The Lena differs significantly from other rivers due to its powerful ice regime. Quite strong and thick ice ballast forms on a reservoir during a harsh, long winter with little snow. Without it, the river lasts for about 5-6 months in the south and 4-5 months in the north. In general, the banks of the river are sparsely populated. From one village to another, the distance can sometimes reach hundreds of kilometers. Most settlements are located near Yakutsk.
3. What is the river regime? What does it depend on? What does it affect? Tell us about the regime of the rivers in your region.
River regime is a change in the amount of water flow according to the seasons of the year, fluctuations in level, and changes in water temperature. In the annual water regime of rivers, periods with typically repeating levels are distinguished, which are called low water, high water, and flood. The river regime depends on the climate. Studying the regime of rivers is important for the economy. The vast majority of rivers in our country freeze in winter. Therefore, navigation on them is possible only during the warm season. The possibility of navigation on Russian rivers is also influenced by the presence of low water - the lowest water level. During summer low water, due to significant evaporation of water, many rivers become very shallow. On the contrary, during floods and floods, rivers carry the greatest amount of water.
4. What characteristics of the river do you need to know to use it on the farm?
To use a river on a farm, it is necessary to know the slope and speed of the river, the regime of the river, the volume of annual flow and its distribution, and navigability.
5. Explain the reasons for the formation of permafrost and show the border of its distribution. How does permafrost affect other components of nature, human life and activity?
Permafrost occupies the coast of the Arctic Ocean in the European part of Russia, including the entire Kola Peninsula; Almost all of Siberia (except for the south of Western Siberia and the Far Eastern Primorye) lies within its borders. Permafrost was formed during periods of cold weather many thousands of years ago, and the harsh climate supports its existence to this day. Severe frosts and poor snow cover contribute to deep freezing of the soil. Frozen soil does not thaw at depth during the warm period and the permafrost remains. Permafrost is a “refrigerator” for soils and ground air; it limits the depth of penetration of roots into the soil and their water supply. Water accumulating on permafrost swamps the area, leading to the formation of subsidence, sloughing and swelling of the surface. Permafrost complicates the construction of roads, buildings, and mining.
6. Give an assessment of the water resources of the country, your republic (territory, region). What measures are being taken to protect and restore them?
Our country has enormous (in absolute terms) river flow resources, but per unit area, the provision of Russian territory with these resources is almost 2 times lower than the world average. The use of water resources is complicated by their very uneven distribution over time. The rivers carry the most water during the spring flood as a result of snowmelt and rainfall, and the greatest need for water is felt in the summer. To increase water resources during the low-water period, people strive to regulate river flow by accumulating flood waters in reservoirs or transferring surface flow to underground flow through a land reclamation system, including the creation of forest strips in the steppe zone. The most important repository of fresh water reserves are snow and ice resources: glaciers and snowfields in mountainous areas. One of the main measures for conserving water resources is saving their consumption. A serious problem that requires urgent solution is the problem of water pollution. The depletion of water resources as a result of loss of their quality poses a greater threat than their quantitative depletion. Among measures to improve water resources, flow regulation plays a prominent role. For this purpose, reservoirs are created on rivers.
Water resources are the reserves of surface and groundwater within a territory.The term "resources" comes from the French. ressource "auxiliary". Water resources are an important part of natural resources in general.
Natural resources are components of the environment used in the process of social production and to meet the material and cultural needs of society.
The main types of natural resources are solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, intraterrestrial heat, land, water, mineral resources (including fuel and energy), plant (including forest), animal resources, for example, fish. Natural resources are also divided into renewable and non-renewable.
Renewable natural resources are those natural resources that are renewed in the process of constant circulation of matter and energy on the globe or as a result of their natural reproduction.
The main natural resources of water bodies (including rivers) are water resources, i.e. water itself with its consumer properties. Of the other natural resources of rivers, the most valuable are fisheries, minerals (oil and gas in underlying rocks, gravel and sand material in bottom sediments), as well as balneological and recreational ones.
Water resources in a broad sense are all the natural waters of the Earth, represented by the waters of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers, aquifers, oceans and seas.
Water resources in the narrow sense are natural waters that are currently used by humans and can be used in the foreseeable future. A similar formulation is given in the Water Code of the Russian Federation: “water resources are surface and groundwater that are located in water bodies and are used or can be used.” In this interpretation, water resources are not only a natural category, but also a socio-historical one (definition by S.L. Vendrov).
The most valuable water resources are freshwater reserves (this is the narrowest concept of water resources). Freshwater resources consist of so-called static (or secular) water reserves and continuously renewable water resources, i.e., river water flow.
Static (secular) freshwater reserves are represented by the part of the water volumes of lakes, glaciers, and groundwater that is not subject to noticeable annual changes. These reserves are measured in volumetric units (m3 or km3).
Renewable water resources are those waters that are restored annually in the process of the water cycle on the globe (global hydrological cycle). This type of water resource is measured in runoff units (m3/s, m3/year, km3/year).
River water flow is truly an annually renewable natural resource that can (to some limits, of course) be withdrawn for economic use. In contrast, static (century-old) water reserves in lakes, glaciers, and aquifers cannot be withdrawn for economic needs without causing damage to either the water body in question or the rivers associated with it.
Fresh water resources, including river water resources, have the following significant differences from other natural resources.
Fresh water as a substance has unique properties and, as a rule, cannot be replaced by anything. Many other natural resources can be replaced, and as civilization and the technological capabilities of human society developed, such replacement began to be used more and more widely. With water the situation is much worse. There is practically no substitute for drinking water – for both humans and animals. Nothing can replace water when irrigating land, for feeding plants (the capillaries of plants by nature are “designed” only for water), as a mass coolant, in many industries, etc.
Water is an inexhaustible resource. Unlike the previous feature, this one turns out to be very favorable. In the process of using minerals, for example, when burning wood, coal, oil, gas, these substances, turning into heat and producing ash or gaseous waste, disappear. Water, when used, does not disappear, but only passes from one state to another (liquid water, for example, turns into water vapor) or moves in space - from one place to another. When heated and even when boiling, water does not decompose into hydrogen and oxygen.
One of the few cases of actual disappearance of water as a substance is the binding of water together with carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) during photosynthesis and the formation of organic matter. However, the volumes of water used for the synthesis of organic matter are small, as well as small losses of water leaving the Earth into outer space. It is also believed that these losses are fully compensated by the formation of water during degassing of the Earth's mantle (about 1 km3 of water per year) and when water enters from space along with icy meteorites.
The term “irrecoverable water consumption” used in water management should be understood as follows. For a specific section of a river (maybe even for the entire river basin), lake or reservoir, water withdrawal for economic needs (irrigation, water supply, etc.) can indeed become irrevocable. The collected water is partially later evaporated from the surface of irrigated lands or during industrial production.
However, according to the law of conservation of matter, the same volume of water should fall in the form of precipitation in other regions of the planet. For example, significant water intake in the basins of the Amudarya and Syr Darya rivers, which led to the depletion of the flow of these rivers and the drying of the Aral Sea, is inevitably accompanied by an increase in precipitation in the vast mountainous areas of Central Asia.
Only the consequences of the first process - a decrease in the flow of the mentioned rivers - are clearly visible, and an increase in river flow over a vast territory is almost impossible to notice. Thus, “irretrievable” water losses apply only to a limited space; in general, for the continent, and especially the entire planet, there cannot be an irreversible waste of water. If water disappeared without a trace during use (like coal or oil when burned), then there could be no talk of any development of the biosphere and humanity on the globe.
Fresh water is a renewable natural resource. This restoration of water resources is carried out in the process of a continuous water cycle on the globe. The renewal of water resources in the process of the water cycle occurs unevenly both in time and space. This is determined both by changes in meteorological conditions (precipitation, evaporation) over time, for example, by season, and by spatial heterogeneity of climatic conditions, in particular, latitudinal and altitudinal zoning. Therefore, water resources on the planet are subject to great spatiotemporal variability. This feature often creates a shortage of water resources in some areas of the globe (for example, in arid areas, in places with high economic water consumption), especially during low-water periods of the year. This forces people to artificially redistribute water resources in time, by regulating river flow, and in space, by transferring water from one area to another.
Water is a multi-purpose resource. Water resources are used to satisfy a wide variety of human economic needs. Often water from the same water body is used by different sectors of the economy.
Water is mobile. This difference between water resources and other natural resources has a number of significant consequences. Firstly, water can naturally move in space - along the earth's surface and in the soil, as well as in the atmosphere. In this case, water can change its state of aggregation, passing, for example, from a liquid to a gaseous state (water vapor) and vice versa. The movement of water on Earth creates the water cycle in nature. Secondly, water can be transported (via canals, pipelines) from one area to another. Thirdly, water resources “do not recognize” administrative boundaries, including state boundaries. It could even create complex interstate problems. They can arise when using water resources of border rivers and rivers flowing through several states (with the so-called transboundary water transfer). Fourthly, being mobile and participating in the global cycle, water transports sediment, dissolved substances, including pollutants, and heat. And although a complete cycle of sediment, salts and heat does not occur on Earth (their one-way transfer from land to the ocean predominates), the role of rivers in the transfer of matter and energy is very large. On the one hand, pollutants that enter the water, for example oil as a result of imperfect technology for its production and transportation, a rupture of an oil pipeline or a tanker accident, can be transported over long distances along with river water. This undoubtedly contributes to the spread of pollutants in space and pollution of adjacent waters and shores. But, on the other hand, flowing water removes harmful substances from the area of pollution, purifying it, and promotes the dispersion and decomposition of harmful impurities. In addition, flowing waters have the ability to “self-purify”.
Use of water resources
Intensive development of industry and agricultural production, an increase in the level of improvement of cities and towns, and significant population growth have led to a shortage and sharp deterioration in the quality of water resources in almost all regions of Russia in recent decades.One of the main ways to meet society's needs for water is the engineering reproduction of water resources, i.e. their restoration and increase not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively.
The prospects for rational reproduction of technological water consumption are associated with the creation of re-sequential, recycling and closed water supply systems at enterprises. They are based on the amazing property of water, which allows it not to change its physical essence after participating in production processes.
Russian industry is characterized by a high level of development of recycling water supply systems, due to which the saving of fresh water spent on production needs averages 78%. The best indicators of using circulating systems are in the gas (97%), oil refining (95%) industries, ferrous metallurgy (94%), chemical and petrochemical (91%) industries, and mechanical engineering (85%).
Maximum water consumption in circulating and re-sequential water supply systems is typical for the Ural, Central, Volga and West Siberian economic regions. In Russia as a whole, the ratio of the volumes of fresh and recycled water use is 35.5 and 64.5%, respectively.
The widespread introduction of advanced water circulation systems (even closed ones) can not only solve the problem of water supply to consumers, but also preserve natural water sources in an environmentally friendly state.
Use of water resources
In recent years, due to economic destabilization, which led to a drop in industrial output, a decrease in agricultural productivity and a reduction in irrigated areas, there has been a decrease in water consumption in Russia (fresh water - by 20.6%, sea water - by 13.4%). The structure of fresh water use has also changed: water consumption for industrial needs decreased by 4% (from 53% to 49%), for irrigation and water supply - by 3% (from 19 to 16%), while at the same time the share of domestic and drinking water supply increased by 4% (from 16 to 20%).
The volume of fresh water use in Russia amounted to 75,780.4 million m3/year, sea water - 4975.9 million m3/year.
Municipal water supply
Russia's public utilities supply the water needs of the urban population, municipal, transport and other non-industrial enterprises, as well as water consumption for the improvement of populated areas, watering streets and extinguishing fires.
A distinctive feature of public utilities is the consistency of water consumption and strict requirements for water quality.
The main volume (84-86%) of consumed water is used for household and drinking needs of the population; on average in Russia, specific water consumption per city resident is 367-369 l/day.
About 99% of cities, 82% of urban settlements, 19.5% of settlements in rural areas are provided with centralized water supply. The improvement of urban housing stock on average across the country is characterized by the following indicators: provision of central water supply - 83.8%, sewerage - 81.4%, central heating - 84.7%, baths and showers - 76.7%, hot water supply - 70.8% .
Industry enterprises discharge about 13 km 3/year of wastewater into surface water bodies; for various reasons, insufficiently purified water predominates in the structure of discharged water. In the whole country, about 70% of all supplied water is pre-passed through treatment systems.
Due to the unfavorable state of drinking water supply sources and the imperfection of the water treatment system, the problem of water quality continues to be acute. Standard treatment facilities, including a two-stage scheme of clarification, decolorization and disinfection, cannot cope with the increasing loads of new pollutants (heavy metals; pesticides, halogen-containing compounds, phenols, formaldehydes). Chlorination of water containing organic substances that accumulate in water sources leads to secondary pollution and the formation of carcinogenic organochlorine compounds.
About 70% of industrial enterprises discharge wastewater into public sewers, which, in particular, contains salts of heavy metals and toxic substances. The sludge formed during the treatment of such wastewater cannot be used in agriculture, which creates problems with its disposal.
Industrial water supply
Industrial water supply, which ensures the functioning of technological processes, is the leading area of water use. Industrial water supply systems include hydraulic structures for collecting process water and delivering it to enterprises, as well as water treatment systems.
The industrial potential of each economic region of the Russian Federation is represented by almost all major industries. There are also areas where very specific industries are predominantly concentrated. For example, 46% of light industry production is concentrated in the Central Economic Region, the Ural Economic Region accounts for about 70% of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy products, and the West Siberian Region accounts for 46% of the fuel industry.
The volume of water consumption depends on the structure of industrial enterprises, the level of technology, and the measures taken to save water. The most water-intensive industries are thermal power engineering, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, petrochemical and wood processing industries. The most water-intensive industry, the electric power industry, accounts for about 68% of the total consumption of fresh water and 51% of recycled water.
Since the majority of industrial facilities are concentrated in large cities, combined industrial and communal water supply systems have gained priority in Russia, which, in turn, leads to unreasonably high costs for industrial needs of drinking quality water (up to 30-40% of the daily supply of city water supply systems) .
Industrial enterprises are the main source of surface water pollution, annually discharging large amounts of waste water. Wastewater from the chemical, petrochemical, oil refining, pulp and paper and coal industries is especially diverse in its properties and chemical composition. Despite the sufficient capacity of treatment facilities, only 83-85% of discharged wastewater meets regulatory requirements. In the structure of discharged waters containing pollutants above the standard level, discharge without treatment currently accounts for 23%, the remaining waters are discharged insufficiently purified.
Agricultural water supply
In rural areas, water supply is carried out mainly through local systems and through individual provision of water users. Local water supply systems are very dependent on the quality of water in the sources and, if necessary, are equipped with special structures. In areas with high rural population density, group systems are used.
For the needs of the industry, about 28% of the total volume of water withdrawn is taken from natural water sources.
Among agricultural sectors, the main consumer of fresh water and a major polluter of surface water bodies, discharging untreated wastewater through the collector and drainage network, is irrigated agriculture. A serious danger to surface water bodies is the removal of fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural fields.
Another large consumer of water and a powerful source of pollution of surface and groundwater are livestock complexes for raising cattle, pigs, and poultry. Purification of livestock wastewater is associated with great difficulties, since it must be kept in storage ponds for a long time before being discharged into water bodies.
Water transport
Water transport is perhaps the most ancient water user. Up to 50 million tons of cargo are transported along Russia's inland waterways (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, canals), with a total length of over 400 thousand km.
When using rivers and other water bodies for navigation, it is necessary to maintain guaranteed depths, flow regimes and other conditions that ensure the uninterrupted operation of water transport during the navigation period.
In a number of cases, the interests of water transport conflict with the interests of other water users and water consumers, such as water supply, irrigation, and hydropower. For example, hydraulic construction, on the one hand, makes it possible to increase the depth and width of the waterway, eliminate rapids, and on the other hand, it introduces serious complications into the operation of water transport by reducing the duration of the navigation period, sharp daily and weekly fluctuations in flow rates and water levels in the downstream of hydroelectric power stations. .
Water transport, without placing high demands on water quality, is one of the significant sources of pollution of water bodies with oil products and suspended substances.
Timber rafting has a very adverse effect on the ecological state of water bodies, changing the natural state of riverbeds, clogging water bodies with submerged wood, and destroying spawning areas.
Fisheries
Fisheries are directly related to the use of water resources and place very high demands on their regime, quantity and quality. For successful reproduction and normal development of fish, clean water with a sufficient amount of dissolved oxygen and the absence of harmful impurities, appropriate temperature and food supply are necessary. Water quality standards for fisheries are more stringent than for drinking water supplies.
In Russia, about 30% of catches in inland seas and reservoirs are freshwater fish (pike, bream, pike perch, roach, perch, carp, whitefish, stellate sturgeon, beluga, salmon, chum salmon, pink salmon). In recent years, there has been a decline in catches, which is due to a decrease in the productivity of fisheries as a result of intense anthropogenic impact.
The increase in fish reproduction is carried out through artificial fish breeding in fish hatcheries, spawning and nursery farms, and fish hatcheries. A very promising direction is the cultivation of fish in cooling ponds of thermal power plants.
Recreation
Water bodies are a favorite place for recreation, sports, and people's health. Almost all recreational institutions and structures are located either on the banks of water bodies or near them. In recent years, the scale of recreational activities on water bodies has been constantly growing, which is facilitated by an increase in the urban population and improved transport communications.
In the Russian Federation, about 60% of all sanatoriums and over 80% of recreational facilities are located on the banks of reservoirs. 60% of tourist centers and 90% of recreational facilities for the largest suburban holiday in the country.
Water conservation
Protection against pollution of water resources is extremely important. The main causes of pollution of water bodies are discharges of untreated or poorly treated wastewater from industrial enterprises, public utilities, and agricultural enterprises. Residues of fertilizers and pesticides washed out of the soil especially pollute water bodies. As a result of pollution of water bodies, their biological regime is disrupted and the oxygen content in water decreases.The river flow of the USSR is 4,700 km3 per year. However, the distribution of water resources throughout the country is uneven: 84% of river flow falls on the eastern and northern regions, which are still poorly developed economically; only 16% of river flow occurs in populated areas, where almost 85% of the population is concentrated. Therefore, many areas, especially in the south of the country, experience water shortages, and in the future, with the annual increase in water consumption, the shortage will increase. Therefore, providing clean fresh water and protecting water resources from pollution are one of the most pressing problems.
Major measures are being taken to supply water to the national economy and population. Canals have been built and are being built, a large number of large reservoirs have been created, which makes it possible to use the water resources of the main rivers more rationally and comprehensively. Much work is planned to transfer the waters of northern rivers to southern areas that are scarce in water resources. The commissioning of enterprises that do not have treatment facilities is prohibited.
Production technology is being improved, waterless technological processes and recycled water supply are widely used. Measures are being taken to prevent the washout of fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural land into water bodies. Hydraulic engineering and reclamation measures are being carried out, and water protection zones are being created. To maintain the regime of reservoirs, deforestation along the banks of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs is prohibited.
One of the most important environmental sites is Lake Baikal. A number of measures have already been taken to preserve this unique complex. A large number of treatment facilities have been built at industrial enterprises located in the lake’s catchment area. A number of enterprises, including the Selenga pulp and cardboard mill, are introducing a closed water supply cycle. Mole rafting of wood along all rivers flowing into Baikal has been stopped. Deforestation in the Baikal region has been sharply reduced. Measures have been developed to organize recreation and tourism areas in the area.
Much attention is paid to the protection of the seas - the Caspian, Black, Azov, etc. An important task is to preserve not only their purity and biological productivity, but also the volume of water, especially maintaining the level of the Caspian, Aral Seas, and Lake Balkhash.
Along with the protection of water resources, a number of measures are being taken to maintain and increase fish stocks in the country’s inland waters. Fish breeding enterprises have been created that are engaged in the breeding and acclimatization of valuable commercial fish. Extensive work is being carried out to reproduce fish stocks in the seas, rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Pond and lake farms and fish-breeding and reclamation facilities are being built. Rybnadzor was established to combat poaching and protect fish resources.
The fundamentals of the water legislation of the USSR and union republics provide for the protection of groundwater as a source of household and drinking water supply, established sanitary protection of water intakes, and created water protection zones in areas where groundwater is used. In recent years, thanks to a set of water protection measures, the water quality in the basins of many rivers, lakes and seas has stabilized and, in some reservoirs, even improved.
Currently, 3/4 of all contaminated wastewater is passed through treatment facilities. Much attention is paid to the scientific development and implementation of the most effective methods of wastewater treatment and post-treatment. Wastewater treatment at modern industrial enterprises is multi-stage. First, mechanical cleaning is carried out (first stage), during which heavy particles that settle to the bottom of the settling tank or light particles that float to the surface are removed. The second stage of purification is biological, which destroys organic substances.
To disinfect wastewater, it is chlorinated and ozonized. The final stage of purification is water distillation.
However, modern methods make it possible to purify wastewater from contaminants only by 85-90% and only in some cases by 95%. Therefore, after multi-stage wastewater treatment, multiple (6 to 12 times) dilution of purified water with clean water is necessary. Much work is being carried out to further improve wastewater treatment technology and increase the degree of purity.
The problems of reducing the discharge of treated water into water bodies and their recycling at industrial facilities are being solved. Enterprises with waste-free technology, waste-free technology, and those that reuse water are being created. Currently, in industry, water circulation accounts for about 60% of total water consumption, and in such industries as the oil refining and petrochemical industries, ferrous metallurgy, the share of water in recycling water supply has reached 80-90%.
To prevent pollution of water bodies by pesticides, the agricultural use of coastal zones is limited, the use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in them is prohibited, and special water protection zones are created.
The creation of special protected water protection zones is of great importance. To combat the depletion of groundwater, work is being carried out to artificially replenish its reserves. For this purpose, underground reservoirs are created, which are usually replenished with water in the spring, during floods. Such reservoirs exist in the republics of Central Asia (especially in Turkmenistan), in the Baltic states, in Ukraine, in the Central Black Earth region and in the North Caucasus. The water in them is not lost to evaporation, and when polluted surface water is filtered into such a reservoir, it self-purifies.
Constantly increasing water consumption from year to year causes difficulties in water supply, especially in arid areas where a lot of water is required for irrigation of agricultural land and industrial needs. However, these areas have significant resources of salt water in the seas; the task of desalination arises. It is needed not only by salty sea water, but also by mineralized underground, saline drainage water, water from mine wells, as well as water that is in the circulating water supply of industrial enterprises in certain industries.
To desalinate salt water, distillation, electrolysis, extraction, etc. are used. However, all desalination methods are still expensive. The largest desalination plants are located on the Mangyshlak Peninsula. Every day, 120 thousand m3 of Caspian water is desalinated here, and the specific water consumption for each resident is equal to its consumption in Moscow and Leningrad.
A large amount of desalinated water is used for industrial needs, oil production and other minerals. In the future, several thousand desalination plants will operate, and it is expected that the technology will be improved, which will significantly reduce the cost of desalination of salt water.
Despite the fact that it is one of the countries rich in water resources, the increasing volume of water consumption causes the emergence of a number of water problems. They have become worse in recent years due to the intensification of economic activity in watersheds and river beds. Agrotechnical, irrigation and drainage reclamation works covering vast areas, as well as reservoirs, have a great impact on river flow and water quality.
The development of the national economy puts forward the tasks of territorial redistribution of river flow. As a result of the construction of canals, a large amount of surface water is redistributed. Canals and reservoirs were built in the Central region, in Ukraine, in the Volga region, in Turkmenistan, water was diverted from the Irtysh and Ob to low-water areas of Siberia and Kazakhstan.
Territorial transfers of water are accompanied by the creation of reservoirs. Experience allows us to conclude that in the future it will be advantageous to build mainly small and medium-sized reservoirs, and create large ones only in certain areas - on some Siberian rivers and on runoff transfer routes.
Water resources of the world
The total volume of the Earth's hydrosphere is huge and amounts to almost 1.4 billion km. However, fresh water resources needed by humanity, animals and plants account for only 2-2.5% of this volume. World water consumption was 4 thousand km3, according to experts’ forecasts it should increase to 6 thousand km3. In addition, approximately half of all fresh water used (63%) is wasted irrevocably, especially in agriculture. 27% of the total volume is used for industrial water consumption, 6% for municipal water consumption, and only 4% for the creation of reservoirs. This situation creates a real threat of fresh water shortage on a global scale.Fresh water reserves are small, and even then most of it is in a solid state in the form of glaciers in Antarctica, the Arctic and in the mountains. This part is still practically inaccessible for use. If this ice is evenly distributed over the Earth, it will cover it with a layer of 53 cm, and if melted, the level of the World Ocean will rise by 64 meters.
Rivers and lakes are valuable sources of fresh water, but they are unevenly distributed over the Earth's surface. In the equatorial and northern parts of the temperate zone, fresh water is available in abundance, and per capita there is 25 thousand m per year. In the tropical zones of the planet, which cover 1/3 of the land, there is a very acute shortage of water. Here per capita there is less than 5 thousand m per year, and agriculture is possible only under conditions of artificial irrigation. These contrasts are explained primarily by the climatic uniqueness of the regions and the nature of their surface.
Russia occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of fresh water reserves. There is especially a lot of it in lakes, the area of which in Russia is larger than the territory of Great Britain. Baikal alone contains approximately 20% of the world's fresh water reserves.
As the world economy develops, the need for fresh water also increases. If in ancient times a person consumed up to 18 liters per day, now in developed countries it is 200-300 liters, and in large cities even more, since this includes the costs of industry and municipal services.
One of the ways to overcome the growing shortage of fresh water is to save it in production and when meeting domestic needs, stopping the discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic water into inland waters and seas. Another way is associated with the use of other sources: it is proposed to tow icebergs from the Arctic and Antarctica, desalinate sea water, and condense atmospheric water. To obtain fresh water by desalinating sea (salt) water, desalination stations are built on sea vessels. There are already about a hundred of them in the world. The world's largest producer of such water is Kuwait.
Fresh water has already become a global trade commodity: it is transported in tankers and through long-distance water pipelines. For example, the Netherlands imports such water from Norway, Saudi Arabia from the Philippines, and Singapore from Malaysia. There are projects for pumping water through pipelines from Greenland and Antarctica to Europe, from the Amazon to Africa. Installations are being developed where the heat from nuclear reactors will be used simultaneously for water desalination and electricity production. The cost of one liter will be low, since the productivity of the installations is very significant. This desalinated water will be used for irrigation.
A way to overcome the shortage of fresh water is the construction of reservoirs that regulate river flow. In total, more than 30 thousand reservoirs have been created in the world. In terms of the number of largest of them, the United States and Russia stand out.
In many countries, projects have been developed for the redistribution of river flow through its transfer. However, the largest projects were rejected for environmental reasons. Such projects were developed in the USA, Canada, Australia, India, Mexico, China, and Egypt.
The water cycle in nature covers all the layers of the Earth and connects all water resources, and if ill-considered human activity interferes with this process, this can lead to unpredictable results.
Federal water resources
The Federal Agency for Water Resources is a federal executive body that carries out the functions of providing government services and managing federal property in the field of water resources.The Federal Agency for Water Resources is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation.
The Federal Agency for Water Resources is guided in its activities by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal constitutional laws, federal laws, acts of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, international treaties of the Russian Federation, acts of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, as well as these Regulations.
The Federal Agency for Water Resources carries out its activities directly or through its territorial bodies (including basin bodies) and through subordinate organizations in interaction with other federal executive authorities, executive authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, public associations and other organizations.
The Federal Water Resources Agency exercises the following powers in the established field of activity:
Organized by:
Redistribution of water resources from federally owned water bodies;
- preparation, conclusion and implementation of basin agreements on the restoration and protection of water bodies;
- preparation and implementation in the prescribed manner of flood control measures, measures for the design and establishment of water protection zones of water bodies and their coastal protective strips, as well as measures to prevent and eliminate the harmful effects of water;
- carrying out, in accordance with the established procedure, state examination of schemes for the integrated use and protection of water resources, as well as pre-project and project documentation for the construction and reconstruction of economic and other facilities that affect the condition of water bodies;
- exercises, in the manner and within the limits determined by federal laws, acts of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, the powers of the owner in relation to federal property necessary to ensure the performance of the functions of federal government bodies in the field of activity established by paragraph 1 of these Regulations, including property, transferred to federal state unitary enterprises, federal state institutions and state-owned enterprises subordinate to the Agency;
- conducts competitions in accordance with the established procedure and concludes government contracts for placing orders for the supply of goods, performance of work, provision of services for carrying out research, development and technological work for government needs;
- carries out the functions of the state customer of interstate, federal target, scientific, technical and innovative programs and projects in the field of activity of the Agency.
Maintains:
State Register of Agreements for the Use of Water Bodies in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- state water cadastre in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- Russian Register of Hydraulic Structures.
Carries out:
In the manner and within the limits determined by the legislation of the Russian Federation, ownership, use and disposal of water bodies classified as federal property, and management of the water fund;
- issuance, execution and registration of licenses for water use and administrative licenses, suspension and cancellation of these licenses, registration of contracts for the use of water bodies;
- collecting a fee for issuing licenses for water use and submitting proposals to the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation to determine the amount of the specified fee;
- development in the prescribed manner of schemes for the integrated use and protection of water resources, drawing up water balances;
- state monitoring of water bodies, state accounting of surface and groundwater and their use in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- planning for the rational use of water bodies, including the establishment of water use limits (water consumption and water disposal) for river basins, for constituent entities of the Russian Federation and water users for water bodies under federal ownership;
- development and approval of standards for maximum permissible harmful effects on water bodies in the basin of a water body or its section, approval of standards for maximum permissible discharges of harmful substances into water bodies for water users in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- development of automated systems for collecting, processing, analyzing, storing and issuing information on the state of water bodies, water resources, regime, quality and use of water in the Russian Federation as a whole, its individual regions, river basins in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- preparation for publication and publication of information from the state water cadastre of the Russian Federation in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- submits to the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation proposals for establishing water use limits for water users for water bodies owned by the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;
- establishes regimes for special releases, filling and draining of reservoirs, and the passage of floods on water bodies that are in federal ownership;
- determines the volumes of environmental releases and irreversible withdrawal of surface water for each water body in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- provides, in accordance with the established procedure, federal government bodies, government bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local government bodies, legal entities and citizens with data from the state water cadastre of the Russian Federation;
- submits proposals to the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on establishing the size and boundaries of water protection zones of water bodies and their coastal protective strips, as well as the regime of their use;
- carries out an economic analysis of the activities of subordinate state unitary enterprises and approves the economic indicators of their activities, conducts audits of financial and economic activities and use of the property complex in subordinate organizations;
- carries out the functions of the main manager and recipient of federal budget funds provided for the maintenance of the Agency and the implementation of the functions assigned to the Agency;
- interacts in the prescribed manner with government authorities of foreign states and international organizations in the established field of activity;
- receives citizens, ensures timely and complete consideration of oral and written requests from citizens, makes decisions on them and sends responses to applicants within the period established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- ensures, within its competence, the protection of information constituting state secrets;
- ensures mobilization preparation of the Agency, as well as control and coordination of the activities of mobilization preparation organizations under its jurisdiction;
- organizes professional training of Agency employees, their retraining, advanced training and internships;
- carries out, in accordance with the established procedure, work on the acquisition, storage and recording of archival documents generated in the course of the Agency’s activities;
- organizes congresses, conferences, seminars, exhibitions and other events in the area of activity of the Agency;
- carries out other functions for the management of state property and the provision of public services in the established field of activity, if such functions are provided for by federal laws, regulatory legal acts of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation.
In order to exercise powers in the established field of activity, the Federal Water Resources Agency has the right:
Provide legal entities and individuals with explanations on issues within the scope of the Agency’s activities;
- request, in the prescribed manner, information necessary for making decisions on issues related to the scope of the Agency’s activities;
- involve scientific and other organizations, scientists and specialists to study issues in the Agency’s sphere of activity;
- create advisory and expert bodies to discuss current issues in the Agency’s field of activity.
The Federal Agency for Water Resources does not have the right to carry out legal regulation in the established field of activity and functions of control and supervision, except in cases established by decrees of the President of the Russian Federation or decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation.
The restrictions on the Agency's powers established by the first paragraph of this clause do not apply to the powers of the head of the Agency to resolve personnel issues and issues of organizing the activities of the Agency, control the activities in the Agency headed by him (its structural divisions).
Water resources objects
Water is one of the most important natural resources that ensures human life and the existence and development of nature.Water protection issues are regulated by numerous legislative and other regulations of the Russian Federation, its constituent entities, and regional acts. The legal basis for regulating water relations is the Water Code of the Russian Federation (WK RF).
In accordance with the legislation, the objects of water relations are:
1) surface water, permanently or temporarily located in surface water bodies, which is understood as the concentration of water on the surface of the land in its relief forms, having boundaries, volume and features of the water regime, i.e.:
– surface watercourses and reservoirs on them (rivers, streams, channels for inter-basin redistribution and integrated use of water resources);
– surface water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, swamps and ponds);
– lands covered by them and associated with them (bottom, banks of water resources);
– glaciers are moving natural accumulations of ice of atmospheric origin on the earth’s surface, snowfields are natural stationary accumulations of snow and ice that persist on the earth’s surface throughout the entire warm season or part of it;
2) groundwater located in groundwater bodies, which is understood as the concentration of hydraulically connected water in rocks, having boundaries, volume and features of the water regime (aquifers, groundwater basins, groundwater deposits and their natural outlets);
3) territorial sea of the Russian Federation - coastal sea waters 12 nautical miles wide;
4) internal sea waters - sea waters located towards the coast from the baselines adopted to measure the width of the territorial sea of the Russian Federation;
5) water bodies of special use;
6) public water bodies.
Objects of protection are also territories and structures adjacent to water bodies, erected in connection with the use of water resources: water protection zone, coastal protective strip, hydraulic structures.
The inclusion of water bodies in the water fund and exclusion from it is carried out in the manner established by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Water bodies included in the water fund are subject to registration in the state water cadastre. This fund is under the protection and protection of the state.
The water fund does not include closed stagnant reservoirs of natural or artificial origin located on land plots owned by legal entities and individuals, as well as fresh groundwater of the first aquifer from the surface, if it is not a source of centralized water supply.
Subjects of water protection and use: the Russian Federation, its constituent entities, municipalities, executive authorities and their officials, individuals and legal entities (water users).
Water users are citizens and legal entities who are granted the rights to use water bodies. Water consumers are citizens and legal entities who receive water from water users in the prescribed manner to meet their needs. If the water user is a legal entity, then it has the right to use water resources only after receiving a water use license.
Water problems
The problem of water resources has become one of the most important in the sphere of life support, because water, which is quite natural, is the most important product. Since a person consists of 65-85% water, a decrease in its content by only 10% in the body leads to alarming signals and impaired human health. Dehydration, i.e. a drop in water content of just 15% results in death.Thanks to such a strong dependence, nature has equipped us with a reliable and reliable regulator - the feeling of thirst. Being one of the most important instincts, thirst reminds us to drink at every slight loss of water to immediately restore the water balance in the body. It is also very important how much correct and clean water you drink.
Recent scientific achievements have significantly expanded the field of knowledge about the influence of various components and impurities present in water on the human body, directly on its health, on heredity and, consequently, on average life expectancy. Because water problems are present in every country, their significance varies widely. Depending on economic opportunities, individual state standards are established. In most cases, they are formed based on the recommendations of the World Health Organization or WHO, which have become optional and their values are not maximum permissible.
SanPiN data regulates the main maximum permissible concentrations (MAC) for most of the most common impurities in water, in the category of standard drinking quality. Unfortunately, up to 9 of the 24 main quality indicators in Russia are below those recommended by WHO.
In most Western countries, taking into account the problem of water resources for bottled water, special standards have been developed for the so-called water of the highest drinking quality. Producing purified bottled water in industrial quantities is very cost-effective. To purify water for drinking in the civilized world, in principle, like here, there are many installations (popularly referred to as “water filters”) that ensure the production of water of the highest drinking quality from almost any water. In most cases, the purification method is reverse osmosis, and such systems are called “reverse osmosis systems.” Thanks to this method, on an industrial scale, the problem of water resources is practically eliminated.
It is extremely problematic for the consumer to be competent in such a sea of equipment, because... There are many installations that differ only in design and technical characteristics, as well as in design, reliability and, importantly, cost. To correctly select a technological system for water treatment, which is practically impossible for an ordinary consumer, it is necessary to carry out analyzes not only of the water supply source, but also of pumping equipment and water supply schemes. Such problems are solved by specialists with good experience and familiar with the equipment presented on the world market.
Know that the problem of water purification on an individual basis should be solved by a specialist who optimally selects a water purification system, and not by an incompetent seller advertising colorful miracle filters.
Water management
At the present stage of the country's development, water resources management is entrusted to the established Federal Water Resources Agency.The problem of fresh water shortage, according to international experts, will become one of the most acute by the middle of the 21st century. According to the UN, today its deficit, including agricultural and industrial needs, is estimated at 230 billion m3/year; Fresh water deficit will increase to 1.3-2.0 trillion. m3/year. Given the importance of the issue, the United Nations has launched the International Decade for Action “Water for Life”. The purpose of the action is to encourage efforts to ensure the implementation of commitments related to water supply and related issues, with particular attention to the participation of women in these efforts.
The country's leadership has repeatedly considered issues related to water resources, water management, and environmental protection measures, which coincides with the intensification of the international community's activities on these issues.
By decree of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin “On the system and structure of federal executive authorities”, the Federal Agency for Water Resources (Rosvodresursy) was created, to which law enforcement functions and functions for the provision of public services and property management in the field of water resources were transferred. The Federal Agency for Water Resources is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation.
The Federal Agency for Water Resources carries out its activities directly or through its territorial bodies (including basin bodies) and through subordinate organizations in interaction with other federal executive authorities, executive authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, public associations and other organizations. The largest number of public administration functions in the field of use and protection of water resources are carried out by the Federal Agency for Water Resources (Rosvodresursy) and the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources (Rosprirodnadzor), which are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia. The Ministry coordinates and controls the activities of these subordinate bodies.
The Federal Agency for Water Resources (Rosvodresursy) is a federal executive body that carries out the functions of providing government services and managing federal property in the field of water resources.
Rosvodresursy carries out its activities directly or through its territorial bodies (including basin ones) and through subordinate organizations, which include 14 basin water departments (BVU) for the main water basins and Baikalvodresursy, as well as 47 federal government agencies (FGU) and 3 federal state unitary enterprises (FSUE).
River basins on the territory of Russia are distinguished strictly according to hydrographic boundaries. Together with groundwater bodies and seas, they form the basis of basin districts, which, in turn, are the main management unit in the field of use and protection of water resources. On the territory of basin districts, the responsible bodies for water resource management and regulation of water use are basin water departments (BWU). STBs are territorial bodies of the Federal Agency for Water Resources at the interregional level, performing the functions of providing government services and managing federal property in the field of water resources. The main functions of basin water departments correspond to the functions of the Agency.
In the territories of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, operational work with water users and coordination of the actions of all participants in water management activities is carried out by the structural divisions of the bank - water resources departments.
A number of functions for public administration in the field of use and protection of water resources at the federal level are carried out by the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources (Rosprirodnadzor), namely:
Federal state control and supervision over the use and protection of water bodies at sites subject to federal state control and supervision according to the list approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy of Russia in accordance with the criteria established by the Government of the Russian Federation;
control and supervision of the safety of hydraulic structures (compliance with safety standards and regulations), except for hydraulic structures of industry, energy and shipping hydraulic structures;
state land control within its competence in relation to lands of the water fund;
control and supervision of the execution by public authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation delegated to them to exercise the powers of the Russian Federation in the field of water relations with the right to issue orders to eliminate identified violations, as well as to hold officials responsible for the implementation of delegated powers;
state regulation in the field of protection of Lake Baikal;
state environmental assessment: - draft legal acts of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the implementation of which may lead to negative impacts on water resources;
normative-technical and instructional-methodological documents of government authorities of the Russian Federation, regulating economic and other activities that may have an impact on the use of water resources;
draft schemes for the integrated use and protection of water bodies (KIOVO);
standards for permissible impact on water bodies;
other types of documentation justifying economic and other activities that can have a direct or indirect impact on the protection and use of water resources.
Within the boundaries of federal districts, the territorial bodies of Rosprirodnadzor are the Main Directorates (for the Central Federal District - Regional Directorate). In operational terms, they are subordinate to the Directorates of Rosprirodnadzor, which exercise their powers in the territories of the constituent entities of the Federation. The main functions of the Main Directorates and Directorates in the field of state control and supervision in the field of environmental management (water use) correspond to the functions of the federal body.
A number of functions performed by the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Supervision (Rostekhnadzor of Russia) and its territorial bodies are related to public administration and protection of water resources.
The functions of monitoring water bodies (quantitative and qualitative characteristics) fall under the competence of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet of Russia).
The Federal Service for Surveillance in the Sphere of Protection of Consumer Rights and Human Welfare (Rospotrebnadzor) of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation is an authorized federal executive body exercising control and supervision functions in the field of ensuring the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population.
The Federal Fisheries Agency of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation (Rosrybolovstvo) is involved in water resources management through participation, together with Rosvodresursy, in the development of standards for permissible impacts on water bodies and the coordination of guidelines for the development of NDV. In addition, the Ministry takes part in the development of schemes for the integrated use and protection of water bodies.
The Federal Agency for Sea and River Transport of the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation (Rosmorrechflot) is also involved in the management of water resources and the water management complex of Russia. It organizes the maintenance of inland waterways, including navigable hydraulic structures on them and approaches to public berths.
The new Water Code of the Russian Federation has been adopted. In development of the VC, the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia prepared 24 decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation and 25 departmental acts. The Water Code of the Russian Federation establishes that water bodies, with the exception of ponds and flooded quarries, are federal property.
In accordance with the Water Code of the Russian Federation, a significant amount of authority in terms of water management has been transferred to the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. In order to objectively assess the quality of work of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, a system has been developed to monitor the effectiveness of the execution of delegated powers, including indicators for granting the right to use water bodies, preventing the harmful effects of water, and the quality of water bodies. In addition, the system makes it possible to assess the efficiency of spending budget funds based on a number of target forecast indicators.
Rosvodresursy is starting a lot of work to create a State Water Register (SWR) based on modern communication means. A package of decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation is being issued, regulating the procedure for the presentation and composition of information transferred to Rosvodresurs for inclusion in the State Water Resources Regulatory Commission.
Today, functions and powers in the field of water resources are distributed among 11 departments (MPR, Rosprirodnadzor, Rostechnadzor, Roshydromet, Rosselkhoznadzor, State Fishery Committee, Rosvodresursy, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Economic Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Roszemkadastr). Their redistribution continues in connection with the continuation of administrative reform and the reorganization of the Ministry of Natural Resources into the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation. Overlaps in the powers of federal executive authorities regarding water resource management and the absence of a single coordinating body in this area lead to the fact that the country does not have an effective management system and a unified approach in the area of water management, which is most important for the health and life of Russian residents.
Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin held a special meeting, following which the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation, Rosvodresurs, Roshydromet, Rosnedra and Rosrybolovstvo, with the participation of other interested executive authorities and organizations, were instructed to develop and submit to the Government of the Russian Federation a draft Water Strategy of the Russian Federation.
This document should reflect the main directions of action to improve the management system in the field of use and protection of water bodies, as well as modernization of the water management complex of Russia. In particular, the Strategy should take into account the coordination of measures for the development of the water sector with strategies and concepts for the development of various sectors of the economy to ensure the integrated and efficient use of water resources, taking into account the interests of various categories of water users. The Strategy should also provide for measures to improve the water quality of surface water bodies; to prevent and reduce the negative impact of water; to ensure the safety of hydraulic structures; to increase the use of groundwater to provide the population with quality drinking water and other issues.
Water supply
The world's water reserves are enormous. However, this is predominantly salt water of the World Ocean. Fresh water reserves, for which people's need is especially great, are insignificant (35029.21 thousand km3) and exhaustive. In many places on the planet there is a shortage of it for irrigation, industrial needs, drinking and other domestic needs.Most fresh water is concentrated in the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland. Ice covers 16 million km2 of dry land. The third largest source of water is groundwater. They lie at a depth of 150-200 m. Their total volume is approximately 100 times greater than the volume of surface fresh water of rivers, lakes, and swamps.
In recent years, according to rough estimates, the need for water has increased 10 times. A modern city uses 300-500 l/day of water per person, which significantly exceeds the minimum water requirement of one person (25 l/day). Over the course of a century, water consumption in cities such as Paris, New York, and Moscow has increased more than 100 times. In many countries, problems have arisen with the supply of water to large cities.
The ratio of water inflow and outflow taking into account changes in its reserves over a selected time interval for a particular object is called water balance.
In general, precipitation, moisture condensation, horizontal transport and deposition of snow, surface and underground inflow, evaporation, surface and underground runoff, changes in soil moisture reserves, etc. are subject to accounting. In some cases, there is no need for detailed accounting of all components of the water balance.
For example, if water balance calculations are performed on fairly large volumes of water, condensation may not be taken into account because it is of relatively small importance.
Within the average long-term annual water balance, the amount of water evaporating from the entire dry land area of the globe is equal to the amount of precipitation minus river flow.
Water resources in a broad sense refer to all types of water that are found in the Earth, on its surface and in the atmosphere. In a narrower sense, water resources are understood as those natural waters that can be used currently by managing their regime, as well as waters that can be used in the near future and the management of which is being worked on. This definition of water resources corresponds to their economic understanding and is in close connection with the level of development of human society.
Based on this definition, the concept of “water resources” includes only dry dry waters that are directly used or designated for use in the process of material production. In practice, this category of water available for use currently includes river flow and usable groundwater.
Water resources are considered physically inexhaustible, but in their location and flow regime they withstand the direct and indirect influence of other components of the natural complex and anthropogenic pressure, as a result of which they are characterized by significant fluctuations and uneven distribution, as well as in their qualitative characteristics.
At the present stage of socio-economic development, which is characterized by an increase in anthropogenic pressure on nature, the problem of using and protecting the country’s water resources is especially acute.
The main source of formation and replenishment of water resources is atmospheric precipitation, the distribution of which is quite uneven. This is largely related to the differences in Ukraine's natural water supply. An important factor that influences the formation of water resources is also evaporation from the surface, which increases from the north west to the southeast.
The difference between the amount of precipitation and evaporation (the amount of runoff), as well as the ratio of the amount of runoff from a certain territory to the amount of precipitation in this territory (the runoff coefficient) determine the water supply of the territory, forming its own water resources in the amount of 50.7 km3/year.
River water resources are one of the most important natural resources. They are characterized by the volume of river flow that flows annually from a certain territory. Unlike most other natural resources, water resources are renewable and their average long-term value remains constant for a long time.
The hourly and spatial dynamics of water resources are directly dependent on many water balance factors - the magnitude, intensity and distribution of precipitation over the territory, evaporation, underlying surface factors, economic activity, and the like. Water balance studies make it possible to compare objectively existing in nature relationships and relationships between the supply and consumption of moisture in any territory and, first of all, in river catchment areas, over different time intervals. And the mutual linking of individual components of the water balance allows us to more deeply study the conditions of their formation, detect possible errors in measurements and calculations, and assess the impact of economic activities and other factors on water resources.
Ukraine's water resources consist of local runoff and transit. The latter arrives along the Danube, Dnieper, Siversky Donets, and some other waterways. Outside the country, about 30 km3 of runoff is generated (the total volume is 210 km3). The river network of Ukraine belongs to the basins of the Black and Azov Seas and partially (about 4%) to the basin of the Baltic Sea (tributaries of the Vistula - Syan and Bug). All rivers of the territory of Ukraine belong to up to 10 main basins. The largest of them is the Dnieper basin. There are almost 23 thousand rivers and streams on the territory of Ukraine, of which 2,938 have a length of over 10 km and 116 have a length of over 100 km.
In accordance with the general patterns of distribution of annual precipitation in the territory, the long-term runoff layer also changes. In the northern and northwestern lowland regions, the annual runoff layer is 140-160 mm. To the south, its value gradually decreases and in the southern regions of the steppe zone does not exceed 5-10 mm. Against the background of a general latitudinal decrease in the long-term runoff layer from north to south, an increase in runoff is observed in individual catchment areas. This is predetermined by local physical and geographical conditions and, above all, relative fluctuations in the terrain's altitude. An increase in flow is observed in the upper reaches of the rivers Turia, Stir, Teterev, Southern Bugu and on the rivers of the Donetsk Ridge and the Azov Upland.
In the mountain catchment areas of the Carpathians and Crimea, the distribution of annual runoff depends on vertical zonation. The largest runoff layer, which is 800-1200 mm, is observed in catchment areas within which the maximum amount of precipitation falls. The long-term runoff layer in the middle part of the Uzh and Latoritsa river basins, in the mountainous part of the river. Dnister and the upper reaches of the river. The rod is 300-700 mm. In the upper reaches of the right bank tributaries of the river. Dnister its values are 800-1000 mm, on the left bank tributaries - the runoff layer is 150-200 mm. On the rivers of the Crimean Mountains, the flow values in individual catchment areas are 100-500 mm.
Total evaporation from the surface of watersheds on the territory of Ukraine, in comparison with precipitation and runoff, is distributed more evenly and fluctuates within smaller limits. Its value depends on the temperature and humidity of the air, as well as the humidity of the area, which is determined by the amount of precipitation. The amount of evaporation varies not only in the latitudinal direction, but also decreases from west to east.
The main elements of the water balance - long-term values of runoff and precipitation for the flat territory of Ukraine were determined based on actual observation data, for mountainous areas - based on local dependencies of their values on the altitude of the area.
Calculations of the main elements of the water balance and their linking make it possible to create a graphic model of the water balance of river catchment areas in the form of interconnected maps. These maps make it possible to determine the main elements of the water balance for watersheds where hydrometeorological observations are not carried out, as well as for physical-geographical zones and individual regions. As an example of such a model, related maps of the distribution of atmospheric precipitation, natural total runoff, and evaporation from river catchment areas of the Dnieper basin are proposed. The average errors in determining precipitation for these maps are 2%, runoff - 7.5%, total evaporation - 1%.
When developing the above-mentioned models, it should be borne in mind that during mass water balance studies with possible errors in determining the monthly values of the runoff layer (10-15%), atmospheric precipitation (15-20%), total evaporation (20-25%), water balance residuals , can reach 20-30% in relation to precipitation.
Local water resources of Ukraine, which are formed annually on 71 thousand rivers (out of an area of 603.7 thousand km2), amount to about 53 km3. Their value is determined by the average annual precipitation of 586 mm, of which almost 88 mm or 15% is spent on total runoff, the remaining 480 mm is evaporated. The water balance mismatch is 18 mm or 3% relative to precipitation. Total water resources, taking into account inflows from Belarus and Russia (without the Danube inflow of 120 km3) are equal to 87 km3. The average annual water supply with local water resources is about 1000 m3 per inhabitant, with total water availability - 1700 m3 per year.
The water supply with local water resources in individual regions of Ukraine differs almost 60 times: from 0.14 km3 in the Kherson region to 7.92 km3 in the Transcarpathian region or, respectively, 110 and 6580 m3/year per inhabitant. Water availability with total water resources in individual regions of Ukraine varies from 0.91 km3 for the Autonomous Republic of Crimea to 54.4 km3 in the Kherson region, which corresponds to 380 m3/year and 44600 m3/year per inhabitant.
Water conservation
We use it every day. Life is impossible without her. It shapes the climate and influences the weather. It is one of the most common chemical compounds on Earth. And this, of course, is water. It seems to us that its reserves are limitless, but we are wrong. Already today, countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East are experiencing water shortages, and in 25-30 years, according to scientists, about half of the world's population will suffer from thirst. As a consequence, this will lead to all sorts of conflicts in which hundreds of thousands of people may die in battles for a sip of life-giving moisture.This may seem like nonsense to some, since water is a renewable resource. But it is worth making some correction: it is not water in general that is becoming less, but liquid suitable for drinking and meeting household needs, and it is renewed to a limited extent, that is, we consume more of it than nature can renew. This situation began in the 70th year of the last century: every year we took and are taking a little more than it should be for the year, and today this excess of consumption over restoration is 30%, that is, in fact, now we are taking water from our children . Such a deficit is associated, first of all, with the growth of the planet's population, as well as with pollution, huge expenses for the needs of industry and agriculture.
In my opinion, this is a very pressing problem now. It is necessary today to take all necessary measures to prevent possible unpleasant consequences, look for new solutions and follow those that exist today.
Measures to prevent a water crisis:
Firstly, this is, of course, savings. It would seem that it could be simpler, but there are some difficulties here: for us, Russians, and other people living in countries with deep rivers, it is difficult to understand why to save water. But even such states are not immune from water disasters.
So how do you save money?
Drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is an irrigation method in which water is supplied directly to the root zone of cultivated plants in strictly defined quantities. As a result, unlike traditional irrigation, we spend 5 times less water. Also, the advantages of drip irrigation include the fact that productivity increases significantly and it becomes possible to water at any time without the risk of causing sunburn in plants. This technology also guarantees a harvest even in the driest year. The method was first widely used in Israel, where, in conditions of water shortages, people were forced to reduce their expenditure on agriculture. Currently, unfortunately, only 2% of the world's land is drip-irrigated. Pessimists believe that this technology is too expensive, however, when thirst finally sets in, it can become a real panacea for dying crops. Why did I even bring up agriculture in the first place? Yes, because it is the largest consumer of fresh water. Today, 60% of the world's water intake is spent on irrigating all lands (which is almost 300 million hectares).
An effective way to save water in industrial production is the creation of circulating water supply systems, the development of methods of low-water and water-free (“dry”) technologies, in particular in chemical production. The introduction of “dry” technologies in the oil refining industry can reduce water consumption by almost 100 times.
The third way to save money is to save energy resources. That is, in order to save water, it is necessary to conserve electricity and gasoline. It would seem, what does one thing and something completely different have to do with it? But here’s what: water is a component of most industrial technologies and power plants. For example, 10-15 m3 of water is consumed for 1 ton of refined oil, and 1000 million m3 is spent on this matter per year. For the coal industry, these costs are equal to 300 million m3 per year. Water consumption directly at electric power plants - thermal power plants and nuclear power plants is also high: on average, up to 200 m3 of water is required to produce 1 kWh of electricity, and the annual electricity generation in Russia is about 1000 billion kWh. So consider it. Thus, it is necessary to live an eco-friendly lifestyle. For example, switch to public transport and replace all the light bulbs in the house with LED ones.
And of course, you just need to save water at the household level. And since its deficit has become a global problem, not only those countries that are limited in water, but also all others should be saving. We can also borrow experience in water conservation from the same water-scarce countries. For example, dishes are washed there not under running water, but in some container or in a sink, and then rinsed under the tap. Used water is also not thrown away; it is used to perform other household tasks. You can also install a faucet with an infrared sensor; it provides significant savings, and you will never forget to close it. And in order to convince people to follow this way of life, the state must take both encouraging and prohibitive-restrictive measures. For example, incentive measures include tax reductions and benefits that will be given to those who consume less than a certain amount of water.
Prohibitory and restrictive measures may include:
1) high tariffs for water and energy resources,
2) a law prohibiting having flush toilet tanks that consume more than 4-5 liters. (This has been practiced in the USA since 1994),
3) strict control over deforestation and drainage of swamps.
The second option for solving the “water” debt is desalination of sea water, that is, removing salts dissolved in it from water in order to make it suitable for drinking or for performing certain technical tasks. Fresh water reserves on Earth are estimated at 35 million km3, which is no more than 2.5% of the total water reserves on Earth; therefore, sea water is 97.5%. There are, to put it mildly, a lot of raw materials for desalination. So why not just use desalination technology and all problems would be solved? But it turned out that this process is very energy-intensive. For example, in Israel, in the city of Hadera, a desalination plant consumes 50 MW of electricity, but in places where water is scarce, such expenses are justified (the plant operates using reverse osmosis technology).
The third solution is purification. Natural water has the ability to self-purify, but with severe pollution it does not occur due to disruption of in-water biological processes. In this case, it is necessary to apply special measures for wastewater treatment, and this is a very complex, from a technological point of view, expensive, from the point of view of economic costs, but, of course, a necessary process that must precede the discharge of contaminated wastewater. Of course, ideally it would be to allow as little pollution as possible, and this simply means using less water, that is, again we come to savings. But be that as it may, you cannot completely get rid of the “dirt,” so you have to resort to wastewater treatment.
Cleaning methods can be divided into mechanical, chemical, biological and physicochemical:
Mechanical treatment is used to separate undissolved mineral and organic impurities from wastewater, as a preliminary step in preparation for the next, deeper treatment methods. For this purpose, various gratings, sand and other filters, and settling tanks are used.
The main methods of chemical cleaning are neutralization and oxidation. Neutralization is carried out to reduce the pH values of acidic wastewater to close to neutral, for example, by passing water through layers of limestone, chalk or dolomite. Oxidation is used to neutralize wastewater containing toxic impurities. Chlorine, bleach, ozone (at normal temperatures destroys many organic substances and impurities and is produced by an electrical discharge in air or oxygen) and other oxidizing agents are used as oxidizing agents. Along with chlorination and ozonation of wastewater, electrochemical oxidation (electrolysis of wastewater) is widely used.
Biological treatment is carried out by a community of microorganisms, including many algae and bacteria. It is used to purify wastewater from organic pollutants used by microorganisms as food.
Physico-chemical cleaning methods are usually used in combination with others. By adding special coagulants (aluminium, iron, magnesium salts, lime and other substances) to wastewater, you can obtain large particles of harmful substances that settle to the bottom. Special sorbents (artificial and natural porous materials) absorb organic substances dissolved in water. There is also flotation - this is a method of separating solid particles or liquid droplets from wastewater, based on different wettability (harmful impurities are collected in a foam layer and removed). Using ion purification methods, valuable impurities, as well as radioactive substances, can be extracted from wastewater. Also, some purification methods can be applied to seawater desalination.
To conserve water, it is necessary to monitor the preservation of swamps and forests, since swamps are a natural filter with the help of which nature renews water: passing through dense thickets of mosses and grasses, through a thick layer of peat, the water in swamps is freed from dust, harmful substances, pathogenic microbes. The purest water flows into the rivers from the swamps. And forests and, in particular, forest soils (Appendix 4) filter water flowing from fields and industrial sites and clean them of many harmful impurities. Forest ecosystems evaporate moisture into the atmosphere and have a beneficial effect on the climate by increasing air humidity. Thus, it is necessary to limit deforestation and drainage of swamps at the legislative level.
Also, do not forget that water exists not only in a liquid state, but also in a solid state, that is, in the form of ice. The bulk of such water is concentrated, of course, at the poles, so the only drawback in this solution to the problem is the transportation of the ice itself: it is very expensive. But, again, if water becomes scarce, its price will increase, and then any costs will be justified.
So, the preservation of clean water supplies is facilitated by:
1) arrangement of water protection zones;
2) development of legislation on the use and protection of water resources;
3) development of legislation on the conservation of swamps and forests;
4) laws on tariffs and benefits;
5) investments by governments of different countries in the construction of treatment facilities and in the development of more advanced technological processes that reduce water consumption and reduce the volume of pollution.
Saving and environmental focus in the field of production and agriculture, the correct behavior of people will help preserve clean water on Earth, necessary for the existence of humanity, and will help get out of the “water” debt to our descendants.
We are accustomed to the fact that it obediently pours out of the tap according to our desire. It's hard to imagine that it might not exist. But if you don’t take any measures, then this is exactly what will happen: at one point it may turn out that there is simply no water, and if there is, it will cost fabulous money. Therefore, I would like to encourage people to be more careful with water and, as a result, with their own lives and the lives of their children.
Use of water resources
The main goal of water use is to comply with a regime of use of water bodies that would ensure the rational integrated use of water, its economical consumption, protection, improvement of quality, as well as the prevention of the harmful effects of water bodies.The right to water use is closely related to the right of land ownership, land tenure, land use and land lease, and the complex nature of the use of water bodies.
The right to water use is regulated by the Water Code of the Russian Federation, Government resolutions, Rules for the provision of state-owned water bodies for use, the establishment and revision of water use limits, the issuance of water use licenses and administrative licenses, the Order of the Minister of Natural Resources “On approval of documents for licensing the use of surface water bodies” .
Water use rights include a licensing system and economic requirements.
When exercising the right to water use, the following documents are required:
1. Water use license - a document certifying the right of its owner to use a water body or part of it for a specified period under certain conditions.
Types of licenses:
– in the field of use and protection of surface, underground and transboundary (border) water bodies;
– water use licenses – an act of the federal executive body authorized to issue licenses; may be issued simultaneously for the implementation of several purposes of using water bodies;
– administrative license – an act of the licensing authority in the field of water use, on the basis of which the transfer of rights to use water bodies from one person to another is carried out.
2. Agreement for the use of water bodies - an agreement between the federal executive body in the field of management of the use and protection of the water fund and the water user on the procedure for the use and protection of the water body or its part.
3. Decision of the Government of the Russian Federation when establishing special water use.
For the use of water bodies in the Russian Federation, a water tax and a fee for wastewater discharge are established.
The payment base depends on the volume of water withdrawn, the volume of products (work, services) produced when using a water body without water intake, the area of the water body used, and the volume of wastewater discharged. The amount of the fee is included in the cost of products (works, services).
The Tax Code of the Russian Federation establishes the size and procedure for collecting water tax. Taxpayers of water tax are organizations and individuals engaged in special and (or) special water use in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
For each type of water use recognized as an object of taxation, the tax base is determined by the taxpayer separately in relation to each water body.
The peculiarity of collecting water tax is that the taxpayer calculates the amount of the tax independently.
The Tax Code of the Russian Federation also regulates the content and procedure for filing a tax return.
Water pollution
Pollution of rivers, lakes, seas and even oceans is occurring at an increasing rate, as huge amounts of suspended and dissolved substances (inorganic and organic) enter water bodies.The main sources of natural water pollution are:
1. Atmospheric waters carrying pollutants (pollutants) of industrial origin washed out of the air. When flowing down slopes, atmospheric and melt waters additionally carry with them organic and mineral matter. Particularly dangerous are runoff from city streets, industrial sites, carrying petroleum products, garbage, phenols, acids, etc.
2. Municipal wastewater, including mainly domestic wastewater containing feces, detergents (surfactant detergents), microorganisms, including pathogenic ones.
3. Industrial wastewater generated in a wide variety of industries, among which the ferrous metallurgy, chemical, forest chemical, and oil refining industries are the most actively consuming water.
With the development of industry and an increase in water consumption, the amount of liquid waste - wastewater - also increases. Back in the 60s, about 700 billion m3 of wastewater was generated annually in the world. Approximately 1/3 of them are industrial wastewater contaminated with various substances. Only half of industrial liquid waste has been treated in one way or another. The other half was dumped into water bodies without any treatment.
During technological processes, the following main types of wastewater appear:
1 Reaction waters contaminated with both starting substances and reaction products.
2. Water contained in raw materials and initial products (free or bound water).
3. Wash waters - after washing raw materials, products, equipment, mother water solutions.
4. Aqueous extractants and absorbents.
5. Cooling waters that do not come into contact with process products and are used in circulating water supply systems.
6. Domestic water from food establishments, laundries, showers, toilets, after washing premises, etc.
7. Atmospheric precipitation flowing from the territory of industrial enterprises, contaminated with various chemicals.
The wastewater from the hydrolysis industry contains alcohol and furfural components, post-yeast mash, fusel, etheraldehyde and turpentine fractions, and various acids.
Agriculture is also a source of pollution of aquatic ecosystems. Firstly, increasing crop yields and land productivity is inevitably associated with the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Once on the soil surface, they are washed off and end up in water bodies. Secondly, livestock farming is associated with the formation of large masses of dead organic matter (manure, litter), urea, which again can end up in water bodies. These wastes are non-toxic, but their masses are enormous (remember that producing 1 kg of meat “costs” 70-90 kg of feed) and, despite their non-toxicity, they lead to serious consequences for aquatic ecological systems.
Water pollution with radioactive substances poses a great danger. Suspended solid particles contribute to the formation of stable aqueous suspensions, while the transparency and appearance of water deteriorate, and the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants decreases.
Warm wastewater from thermal power plants pollutes water: since this changes the temperature regime in the water body, and then a discrepancy with its sanitary requirements may arise.
Pollution of rivers, lakes, seas and even oceans is reaching such proportions that in many areas it exceeds their ability to cleanse themselves. Already, some countries are beginning to experience a shortage of fresh water.
Pollution of water systems poses a greater danger than atmospheric pollution for the following reasons: regeneration processes, or self-purification, occur much more slowly in the aquatic environment than in the air; Sources of water pollution are more diverse. Natural processes occurring in the aquatic environment and exposed to pollution are more sensitive in themselves and are of greater importance for ensuring life on Earth than those occurring in the atmosphere.
Types of water resources
The water resources of our planet are the reserves of all water. But water is one of the most common and most unique compounds on Earth, since it is present in three states at once: liquid, solid and gaseous.Therefore, the Earth's water resources are:
Surface waters (oceans, lakes, rivers, seas, swamps).
The groundwater.
Artificial reservoirs.
Glaciers and snowfields (frozen water from glaciers in Antarctica, the Arctic and highlands).
Water contained in plants and animals.
Atmospheric vapors.
The last 3 points relate to potential resources, because humanity has not yet learned to use them.
Fresh water is the most valuable; it is used much more widely than sea, salt water. Of the total water reserves in the world, 97% of water comes from seas and oceans. 2% of fresh water is contained in glaciers, and only 1% is fresh water reserves in lakes and rivers.
Water resources are the most important component of human life. People use water in industry and at home.
According to statistics, most water resources are used in agriculture (about 66% of all fresh water reserves). About 25% is used by industry and only 9% goes to meet the needs of utilities and households.
For example, to grow 1 ton of cotton, about 10 thousand tons of water are needed, and 1 ton of wheat requires 1,500 tons of water. To produce 1 ton of steel requires 250 tons of water, and to produce 1 ton of paper requires at least 236 thousand tons of water.
A person needs to drink at least 2.5 liters of water per day. However, on average, 1 person in large cities spends at least 360 liters per day. This includes the use of water in sewers, water supply, for watering streets and extinguishing fires, for washing vehicles, etc., etc.
Another option for using water resources is water transport. Every year, over 50 million tons of cargo are transported across Russian waters alone.
Don't forget about fisheries. Breeding marine and freshwater fish plays an important role in the economies of countries. Moreover, fish farming requires clean water, saturated with oxygen and free of harmful impurities.
An example of the use of water resources is also recreation. Who among us doesn’t like to relax by the sea, barbecue on the river bank or swim in the lake? In the world, 90% of recreational facilities are located near water bodies.
Today there are only two ways to preserve water resources:
1. Preservation of existing fresh water reserves.
2. Creation of more advanced collectors.
The accumulation of water in reservoirs prevents its flow into the world's oceans. And storing water, for example, in underground cavities, allows you to protect water from evaporation. The construction of canals allows us to solve the issue of delivering water without it seeping into the ground. New methods of irrigating agricultural land are also being developed that make it possible to use wastewater.
But each of these methods has an impact on the biosphere. Thus, the reservoir system prevents the formation of fertile silt deposits. The canals impede the replenishment of groundwater. And water filtration in canals and dams is the main risk factor for swamps, which leads to disturbances in the planet’s ecosystem.
Today, the most effective measure for protecting water resources is the method of wastewater treatment. Various methods can remove up to 96% of harmful substances from water. But this is often not enough, and the construction of more advanced treatment facilities often turns out to be economically unprofitable.
Population growth, development of production and agriculture - these factors have led to a shortage of fresh water for humanity. The share of polluted water resources is growing every year.
Main sources of pollution:
Industrial wastewater;
Wastewater from municipal routes;
Drains from fields (when the water is oversaturated with chemicals and fertilizers);
Disposal of radioactive substances in water bodies;
Drains from livestock complexes (such water contains a lot of biogenic organic matter);
Shipping.
Nature provides for the self-purification of reservoirs, which occurs due to the water cycle in nature, due to the vital activity of plankton, irradiation with ultraviolet rays, and the sedimentation of insoluble particles. But all these processes can no longer cope with the mass of pollution that human activity brings to the planet’s water resources.
Water fees
The fee for the use of water and biological resources belongs to the category of fees for the use of natural resources. Its order and amount are regulated by law, and the timing of collection is regulated by local legislation. In this article we will look at what is included in the fee for the use of water resources and how the payment is calculated.Objects of water and biological resources is a general formulation for determining this type of fees.
Let's look at what it includes:
1. For the production of fish, as well as other marine animals or plants.
2. Work on the creation and normalization of documentation on the composition and properties of waters used in reservoirs with fish.
3. For the implementation of fishery scientific research, which is carried out for the purpose of assessing stocks, as well as the further development of recommendations for optimizing the use of aquatic biological resources.
4. Implementation of cultivation of algae, shellfish, etc. in natural reservoirs and reservoirs.
5. Restoration of water resources in reservoirs and reservoirs existing in natural conditions.
6. Help in adaptation to water conditions for shellfish, algae, etc.
It is these types of activities that are subject to fees because they are subject to licensing. Without licensing and timely payment of fees, the implementation of such activities is illegal and may entail criminal liability.
In order to clearly consider the features of the fee for the use of water and biological resources, let us refer to the following table:
|
Feature in question |
Description |
|
Payers of the fee |
Payers of the fee are considered to be individuals and legal entities carrying out activities in relation to water resources, incl. biological water resources subject to licensing. Such activities can be carried out in the territory of internal waters, the territorial sea, on the continental shelf of the Russian Federation, in the areas of the Spitsbergen archipelago, as well as in the Caspian, Barents and Azov seas. |
|
Objects of taxation |
According to modern legislation, the objects of this type of collection are those objects that are caught on the basis of the extraction of aquatic biological resources, and in addition, those objects that are subject to removal from their natural habitat as permitted bycatch. |
|
Exceptions |
The extraction of aquatic biological resources by persons for whom fishing and hunting is the basis of their existence (small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia, the Far East, and in addition to persons living on their territory) is not subject to the levy. |
|
Credit/refund of fee amounts |
Within 10 days after receiving permission to carry out the activities of an individual entrepreneur, an individual or legal entity undertakes to submit to the tax authority a package of documents confirming the possibility of receiving a refund/offset of the fee amount. If at the time of expiration of the permit it has not been implemented, then the person who received it can contact the tax authority to receive a credit/refund. |
The most complete information about how and under what conditions the fee is paid can be obtained from the current documents of modern legislation. Only a few of them determine and regulate fees for the use of water resources.
The following table will help you visualize them:
|
Document |
Important information for the payer |
|
tax code |
Article 333 of the code includes general necessary information about this type of collection, including: objects and subjects of collection, rates established for collections, payment terms and their crediting, existing calculation procedures, etc. The Tax Code is the main document in the Russian Federation, which regulates and establishes basic rules for the payment of this type of fees. Therefore, each person licensed to carry out activities in relation to water resources must familiarize themselves with this document. |
|
Federal laws of the Russian Federation |
The existing Federal Laws of the Russian Federation are current documents that establish more accurate and detailed information about this type of payment. There are many known federal laws, but among the most important of them are, for example, Federal Law No. 166 (obtaining permission to carry out activities). |
The emergence of a legislative framework regulating the features and nuances of fees for the use of water resources. Since then, the laws have changed and modernized.
The amount of the payment depends on the individual circumstances in which the individual or legal entity operates. Therefore, in different conditions the collection will be correspondingly different. To calculate it in modern legislation, there is a special form that allows you to easily calculate your personal tax on your own. This formula looks like this:
Fee amount = Interest rate* Number of objects
The interest rate is set differently for each type of object on which the work takes place. Thus, in order to carry out the calculation, it is necessary to know the area in which the fishery is carried out; the type of object being fished for, as well as the volume obtained.
Consider the following example, which shows how to correctly calculate the fee. Cod is harvested in the Barents Sea. The amount of fish received is 300 tons. It turns out that the fee = 5000 (rate for 1 ton of caught cod) * 300 = 1,500,000 rubles.
All the data necessary for independently calculating the fee can be clarified at the regional tax service office. In addition, you can ask tax office employees to do the calculations or help with calculations.
Data that must be provided when implementing activities regarding water resources, incl. biological, are divided into two types. This is data on permits received, as well as data on the results of activities. Moreover, individuals do not have to provide the tax authority with information about received permits. This action is mandatory for individuals and legal entities.
Let's present data on the provision of different types of information in table format:
|
Type of data |
Rules, deadlines and features of submission |
|
Information about the obtained activity permit |
Provided to the tax authority within 10 days after receipt. In addition to the permit, it is necessary to provide information on the amounts of fees payable in the form of regular and one-time contributions. |
|
Data on fishing results (amount of bycatch) |
This type of data must be provided to the tax authority in the month following the month the permit expires. The last date for providing data is the 20th of this month. |
According to modern legislation, the payer of the fee does not have the right to claim a refund of the overpayment, adjust the amount of the established fee independently, or make payments in accordance with the actual results of the catch.
If the necessary data on obtaining permission to carry out activities or the results of work are not provided on time, then you will have to pay a fine of 200 rubles for each document not provided. There is also a fine for non-payment of the fee or late payment. The direct obligation to pay the fee is not determined by the catch of aquatic biological resources, but by the fact of issuing a permit to carry out this activity.
There are three types of fees established for this activity:
One-time. The fee is paid in the month following the expiration of the permit, but no later than the 20th day.
regular. It is calculated using the formula: (amount of fees - amount of one-time fee) / duration of the permit (in months).
one-time The contribution is paid upon receipt of a mining permit and is 10% of the calculated fee.
Let's look at the following example of step-by-step calculations for each type of contribution:
1. Data for calculations. The fishery is carried out in the Barents Sea for cod, the production volume is 200 tons, and the bycatch is 100 tons, the rate of a ton of production is 5,000 rubles, and 1 ton of bycatch is 20 rubles. The duration of the permit is 9 months.
2. The collection amount will be 1,000,000 rubles (5,000 rubles * 200 tons of cod production).
3. The one-time fee will be 1,000,000 * 10% = 100,000 rubles.
4. Regular payments are made every month and amount to 1,000,000 - 100,000 (one-time fee) = 900,000 rubles; 900,000 / 9 (months of permit validity) = 100,000 rubles monthly fee. One-time fee = 20 * 100 = 2000.
Persons paying the fee are entitled to benefits determined by law.
At the same time, a number of types of benefits are known when persons are completely exempt from paying the fee, and when they receive a discount on its payment:
1. Representatives of small nationalities living in the territory of Siberia, the North, and the Far East, the list of which is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation, are completely exempt from payment. Also exempt from the fee are persons permanently residing in these territories, for whom fishing and hunting are the basis of their existence.
2. A 0% rate is provided to persons who use fishing for acclimatization or reproduction of aquatic biological resources. A similar rate is provided to those who fish for control or research purposes.
3. Rate 15%. Provided to fishery organizations approved by the Government of the Russian Federation; Russian fishery organizations; fishing cooperatives; individual entrepreneurs whose activities correspond to the activities of fishery organizations.
Water resources assessment
Water resources assessment, including the identification of potential sources of freshwater supplies, involves an ongoing determination of the sources, size, dependency and quality of water resources, as well as the human activities that affect these resources. This assessment serves as a practical basis for their rational exploitation and a necessary precondition for assessing the possibilities of their development. However, there is growing concern that, at a time when more accurate and reliable information on water resources is needed, hydrological services and other relevant organizations are less successful than in the past in providing such information, particularly groundwater information. and water quality. The main difficulties are the lack of financial resources for conducting water resource assessments, the fragmented structure of hydrological services and the lack of qualified personnel. At the same time, developing countries' access to advanced data collection and management technologies is becoming increasingly difficult. However, the establishment of national databases is essential for assessing water resources and mitigating the effects of floods, droughts, desertification and environmental pollution.Based on the Mar del Plata Plan of Action, this program area covers and has as an overall objective the provision of assessment and forecasting of the volume and quality of water resources to assess the total volume of available water resources and their potential water supply in the future, determining their current quality , forecasting possible imbalances between supply and demand and creating a scientific database for the rational use of water resources.
Accordingly, the following five specific objectives were set:
A) provide all countries with access to water resource assessment technology appropriate to their needs, regardless of their level of development, including methods for assessing the impacts of climate change on freshwater;
(b) Ensure that all countries, depending on their financial capacity, allocate funding for water resources assessment in accordance with their socio-economic needs for water resources data;
(c) Ensure that assessment results are fully used in the development of water resource management policies;
(d) Ensure that all countries have institutional arrangements for efficient, integrated collection, processing, storage, retrieval and dissemination to users of information on the quality and quantity of available water resources at the watershed and groundwater aquifer level;
(e) Ensure that water resource assessment agencies employ and employ an adequate number of qualified and capable staff and that these staff are able to receive the necessary training and retraining to successfully perform their functions.
All States, within the limits of their capabilities and available resources, as well as bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including, as appropriate, with the United Nations
Nations and other relevant organizations could set the following goals:
A) study in detail the possibility of organizing water resources assessment services;
(b) As a long-term goal, establish operational services based on a dense network of gauging stations.
All States, within the limits of their capabilities and available resources, as well as bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including, as appropriate, with the United Nations and other relevant organizations, could undertake the following activities:
A) organizational framework:
1) development of appropriate policy frameworks and national priorities;
2) building and strengthening the institutional capacity of countries, including the adoption of legislative and regulatory measures necessary to ensure adequate assessment of their water resources and the establishment of flood and drought forecasting services;
3) establishing and maintaining effective cooperation at the national level between the various institutions responsible for the collection, storage and analysis of hydrological data;
4) cooperation in the assessment of transboundary water resources, subject to the prior consent of each interested riparian state;
b) data systems:
1) review existing information collection networks and assess their adequacy, including those networks that provide real-time data for flood and drought forecasting;
2) improving networks to ensure they comply with accepted guidelines for providing data on the volume and quality of surface and groundwater, as well as related land use data;
3) application of standards and other means to ensure data interoperability;
4) improving the equipment and procedures used for storing, processing and analyzing hydrological data, as well as ensuring the availability of this data and forecasts derived from it to potential users;
5) creation of databases on the availability of all types of hydrological data at the national level;
6) carrying out such activities for “data preservation”, such as, for example, the creation of national archives on water resources;
7) application of appropriate, carefully tested methods for processing statistical data;
8) obtaining estimates for related areas based on discrete hydrological data;
9) correlation of remote sensing data and use, if necessary, of geographic information systems;
c) data dissemination:
1) identifying water resource data needs for various planning purposes;
2) analysis and presentation of data and information on water resources in those forms required for the planning and socio-economic development of the country and its management and for their use in environmental protection strategies, as well as in the development and implementation of specific projects related to the exploitation water resources;
3) providing flood forecasts and alerting the general public and civil defense forces about floods and droughts;
d) research and development:
1) organizing or facilitating research and development programs at the national, subregional, regional and international levels in support of water resources assessment activities;
2) control of scientific research and development to ensure that these activities make full use of local scientific potential and other local sources and that they meet the needs of the country or countries concerned.
Means of implementation:
A) Financing and cost estimation.
The Conference secretariat estimates that the average total annual cost of implementing activities under this program will be approximately $355 million, including approximately $145 million provided by the international community in the form of grants or concessional terms. These cost estimates are indicative and approximate only and have not yet been considered by governments. Actual costs and financing terms, including any non-concessional terms, will depend, among other things, on the specific policies and programs that governments decide to implement.
B) Scientific and technical means.
Important research needs are:
A) development of global hydrological models to support climate change impact analysis and large-scale water resource assessment;
(b) Bridging the gap between terrestrial hydrology and ecology at various scales, including explaining the critical water processes underlying vegetation loss and land degradation and their restoration;
(c) Understanding the key processes in the genesis of water quality by bridging the gap between hydrological flows and biogeochemical processes. Research models should be based on hydrological equilibrium studies and also include water consumption patterns. Where necessary, this approach should also be applied at the catchment level.
Water resource assessment requires strengthening existing technology transfer, adaptation and dissemination systems and developing new technologies for use in practical settings, as well as building local capacity. Before carrying out the above activities, it is necessary to prepare water inventories containing information held by government agencies, the private sector, educational institutions, consultants, local organizations involved in the management of water resources, and others.
C) Human resource development.
Water resources assessment requires the creation and maintenance of a well-trained and motivated workforce large enough to carry out the above activities. Education and training programs must be developed or strengthened at local, national, subregional and regional levels to ensure an adequate supply of such trained personnel. In addition, incentives should be given to providing favorable terms of employment and career advancement to professional and technical staff. Periodic review of human resource needs at all job levels is necessary. Education and training plans and international training courses and conference programs should be developed to meet these needs.
Since the availability of well-trained personnel is particularly important for water resource assessment and hydrological forecasting, personnel issues require special attention. The goal is to attract and retain personnel to carry out water resource assessments, who must be sufficient in number and level of education to effectively carry out the planned activities. Education may be needed at both the national and international levels, and countries themselves must be responsible for creating adequate employment conditions.
A) identifying education and training needs in accordance with the specific needs of countries;
(b) developing and strengthening education and training programs in areas related to water, in the context of environment and development, for all categories of personnel involved in water resources assessment, using modern methods in the training process where necessary and involving men in training, and women;
(c) Development of sound recruitment, personnel and salary policies for personnel of national and local water agencies.
d) Capacity building.
Conducting water resource assessments based on national operational hydrometric networks requires the creation of favorable conditions at all levels.
In order to expand national capabilities, the following assistance from government agencies is required:
A) review of the legislative and regulatory framework for water resources assessment;
(b) promoting close cooperation between water sector institutions, in particular between information providers and users;
c) implementing water policies based on realistic assessments of the state of water resources and their changing trends;
d) develop the management capacity of water user groups, including women, youth, indigenous people and local communities, to improve the efficiency of water use at the local level.
Countries endowed with water resources
Countries around the world are provided with water resources extremely unevenly. The following countries are most endowed with water resources: Brazil (8,233 km3), Russia (4,508 km3), USA (3,051 km3), Canada (2,902 km3), Indonesia (2,838 km3), China (2,830 km3), Colombia (2,132 km3), Peru (1,913 km3), India (1,880 km3), Congo (1,283 km3), Venezuela (1,233 km3), Bangladesh (1,211 km3), Burma (1,046 km3).The largest water resources per capita are found in French Guiana (609,091 m3), Iceland (539,638 m3), Guyana (315,858 m3), Suriname (236,893 m3), Congo (230,125 m3), Papua New Guinea (121 788 m3), Gabon (113,260 m3), Bhutan (113,157 m3), Canada (87,255 m3), Norway (80,134 m3), New Zealand (77,305 m3), Peru (66,338 m3), Bolivia (64,215 m3), Liberia (61,165 m3), Chile (54,868 m3), Paraguay (53,863 m3), Laos (53,747 m3), Colombia (47,365 m3), Venezuela (43,8463), Panama (43,502 m3) , Brazil (42,866 m3), Uruguay (41,505 m3), Nicaragua (34,710 m3), Fiji (33,827 m3), Central African Republic (33,280 m3), Russia (31,833 m3).
The fewest water resources per capita are found in Kuwait (6.85 m3), the United Arab Emirates (33.44 m3), Qatar (45.28 m3), the Bahamas (59.17 m3), and Oman (91.63 m3). m3), Saudi Arabia (95.23 m3), Libya (3,366.19 ft).
On average, on Earth, each person receives 24,646 m3 (24,650,000 liters) of water per year.
Few countries in the world rich in water resources can boast of having river basins “at their disposal” that are not separated by territorial boundaries. Why is this so important? Let's take for example the largest tributary of the Ob - the Irtysh (part of the flow of which they wanted to transfer to the Aral Sea). The source of the Irtysh is located on the border of Mongolia and China, then the river flows for more than 500 km through the territory of China, crosses the state border and about 1800 km flows through the territory of Kazakhstan, then the Irtysh flows about 2000 km through the territory of Russia until it flows into the Ob. According to international agreements, China can take half of the annual flow of the Irtysh for its needs, Kazakhstan half of what will remain after China. As a result, this can greatly affect the full flow of the Russian section of the Irtysh (including hydropower resources). Currently, China annually deprives Russia of 2 billion km3 of water. Therefore, the water supply of each country in the future may depend on whether the sources of rivers or sections of their channels are located outside the country. Let's see how things stand with strategic "water independence" in the world.
The map presented to your attention above illustrates the percentage of the volume of renewable water resources entering the country from the territory of neighboring countries from the total volume of water reserves of the country (A country with a value of 0% does not “receive” water resources from the territories of neighboring countries at all; 100% - all water resources come from outside the state).
The map shows that the following states are most dependent on water “supplies” from neighboring countries: Kuwait (100%), Turkmenistan (97.1%), Egypt (96.9%), Mauritania (96.5%) , Hungary (94.2%), Moldova (91.4%), Bangladesh (91.3%), Niger (89.6%), Netherlands (87.9%).
In the post-Soviet space the situation is as follows: Turkmenistan (97.1%), Moldova (91.4%), Uzbekistan (77.4%), Azerbaijan (76.6%), Ukraine (62%), Latvia (52. 8%), Belarus (35.9%), Lithuania (37.5%), Kazakhstan (31.2%), Tajikistan (16.7%) Armenia (11.7%), Georgia (8.2%) , Russia (4.3%), Estonia (0.8%), Kyrgyzstan (0%).
Now let's try to do some calculations, but first let's rank countries by water resources:
1. Brazil (8,233 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 34.2%)
2. Russia (4,508 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 4.3%)
3. USA (3,051 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 8.2%)
4. Canada (2,902 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 1.8%)
5. Indonesia (2,838 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0%)
6. China (2,830 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0.6%)
7. Colombia (2,132 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0.9%)
8. Peru (1,913 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 15.5%)
9. India (1,880 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 33.4%)
10. Congo (1,283 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 29.9%)
11. Venezuela (1,233 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 41.4%)
12. Bangladesh (1,211 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 91.3%)
13. Burma (1,046 km3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 15.8%)
Now, based on these data, we will compose our rating of countries whose water resources are least dependent on the potential reduction in transboundary flow caused by water withdrawal by upstream countries:
1. Brazil (5,417 km3)
2. Russia (4,314 km3)
3. Canada (2,850 km3)
4. Indonesia (2,838 km3)
5. China (2,813 km3)
6. USA (2,801 km3)
7. Colombia (2,113 km3)
8. Peru (1,617 km3)
9. India (1,252 km3)
10. Burma (881 km3)
11. Congo (834 km3)
12. Venezuela (723 km3)
13. Bangladesh (105 km3)
In conclusion, I would like to note that the use of river water is not limited to water intake alone. We should not forget also about the transboundary transfer of pollutants, which can significantly deteriorate the quality of river water in sections of the river located in the territory of other countries downstream.
Significant changes in river flow volumes are caused by deforestation, agricultural activities, and global climate change.
Below is a map of the world's fresh groundwater reserves. Blue areas on the map are areas rich in groundwater, brown areas are areas where there is a shortage of underground fresh water.
Countries with large reserves of groundwater include Russia, Brazil, as well as a number of equatorial African countries.
The lack of clean, fresh surface water is forcing many countries to increase their use of groundwater. In the European Union, already 70% of all water used by water consumers is taken from underground aquifers.
In arid countries, water is almost entirely taken from underground sources (Morocco - 75%, Tunisia - 95%, Saudi Arabia and Malta - 100%).
Underground aquifers occur everywhere, but they are not renewable everywhere. So in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula they filled with water about 10,000 years ago, when the climate here was more humid.
In Equatorial and Southern Africa, things are much better with groundwater. Heavy tropical rains contribute to the rapid restoration of groundwater reserves.
Characteristics of water resources
The water shell of the globe - oceans, seas, rivers, lakes - is called the hydrosphere. It covers 70.8% of the earth's surface. The volume of the hydrosphere reaches 1370.3 million km3, which is 1/800 of the total volume of the planet. 96.5% of the hydrosphere is concentrated in the oceans and seas, 1.74% in polar and mountain glaciers and only 0.45% in fresh waters. rivers, swamps and lakes. Under the influence of solar heat, water in nature undergoes a continuous cycle. Water vapor, which is lighter than air, rises to the upper layer of the atmosphere, condenses into tiny droplets, forming clouds, from which water returns to the surface of the earth in the form of precipitation, rain, snow. Water falling on the surface of the globe partially flows directly into natural reservoirs, and partially collects in the top layer of soil, forming surface and groundwater. One of the directions for solving water problems is to attract currently underutilized water resources from desalinated waters of the World Ocean, groundwater and glacier waters for the purpose of water supply.Currently, the share of desalinated water in the total volume of water supply in the world is small - 0.05%, which is explained by the high cost and significant energy intensity of desalination processes. Even in the United States, where the number of desalination plants has increased 30-fold, desalinated water accounts for only 7% of water consumption.
In Kazakhstan, the first pilot industrial desalination plant came into operation in Aktau (Shevchenko). Due to the high cost, desalination is used only where surface or groundwater fresh water resources are completely absent or extremely difficult to access, and their transportation is more expensive compared to desalination of high-salinity water directly on site. In the future, water desalination will be carried out in a single technical complex with the extraction of useful components from it: sodium chloride, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, boron, bromine, iodine, strontium, non-ferrous and rare metals, which will increase the economic efficiency of desalination plants.
An important reserve of water supply is groundwater. Fresh groundwater is of greatest value to society, accounting for 24% of the volume of the fresh part of the hydrosphere. Brackish and saline groundwater can also serve as a reserve for water supply when used in a mixture with fresh water or after its artificial desalination.
Factors limiting underground water intake include:
1) the unevenness of their distribution over the territory of the earth;
2) difficulties in processing saline groundwater;
3) rapidly decreasing rates of natural regeneration with increasing depth of aquifers.
The utilization of water in the solid phase (ice, ice sheets) is assumed, firstly, by increasing the water yield of mountain glaciers, and secondly, by transporting ice from the polar regions. However, both of these methods are practically difficult to implement and the environmental consequences of their implementation have not yet been studied.
Thus, at the current stage of development, the possibilities of attracting additional volumes of water resources are limited.
It should also be noted that the distribution of water resources across the globe is uneven.
The highest supply of river and underground runoff resources occurs in the equatorial belt of South America and Africa. Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, contain only 39% of river waters. The largest rivers in the world are the Amazon (annual flow 3780 km3), Congo (1200 km3), Mississippi (600 km3), Zamberi (599 km3), Yangtze (639 km3), Irrawaddy (410 km3), Mekong (379 km3), Brahmaputra ( 252 km3) . In Western Europe, the average annual surface runoff is 400 km3, including about 200 km3 in the Danube, 79 km3 on the Rhine, 57 km3 on the Rhone. The largest lakes in the world are the Great American Lakes (total area - 245 thousand km3), Victoria (68 thousand km3), Tanganyika (34 thousand km3), Nyasa (30.8 thousand km3). The Great American Lakes contain 23 thousand km3 of water, the same as Lake Baikal.
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Water resources by country of the world (km 3 /year)
The largest water resources per capita are found in French Guiana (609,091 m3), Iceland (539,638 m3), Guyana (315,858 m3), Suriname (236,893 m3), Congo (230,125 m3), Papua New Guinea (121,788 m3), Gabon (113,260 m3), Bhutan (113,157 m3), Canada (87,255 m3), Norway (80,134 m3), New Zealand (77,305 m3), Peru (66,338 m3), Bolivia (64,215 m3), Liberia (61,165 m3), Chile (54,868 m3), Paraguay (53,863 m3), Laos (53,747 m3), Colombia ( 47,365 m3), Venezuela (43,846 m3), Panama (43,502 m3), Brazil (42,866 m3), Uruguay (41,505 m3), Nicaragua (34,710 m3), Fiji (33,827 m3) 3), Central African Republic (33,280 m3), Russia (31,833 m3).
The fewest water resources per capita are found in Kuwait (6.85 m3), the United Arab Emirates (33.44 m3), Qatar (45.28 m3), the Bahamas (59.17 m3), and Oman (91.63 m 3), Saudi Arabia (95.23 m 3), Libya (95.32 m 3).
On average, on Earth, each person accounts for 24,646 m3 (24,650,000 liters) of water per year.
The next map is even more interesting.
Share of transboundary flow in the total annual flow of rivers in the world (in%)
Few countries in the world rich in water resources can boast of having river basins “at their disposal” that are not separated by territorial boundaries. Why is this so important? Let's take for example the largest tributary of the Ob - the Irtysh. ()
. The source of the Irtysh is located on the border of Mongolia and China, then the river flows for more than 500 km through the territory of China, crosses the state border and about 1800 km flows through the territory of Kazakhstan, then the Irtysh flows about 2000 km through the territory of Russia until it flows into the Ob. According to international agreements, China can take half of the annual flow of the Irtysh for its needs, Kazakhstan half of what will remain after China. As a result, this can greatly affect the full flow of the Russian section of the Irtysh (including hydropower resources). Currently, China annually supplies Russia with 2 billion km 3 of water. Therefore, the water supply of each country in the future may depend on whether the sources of rivers or sections of their channels are located outside the country. Let's see how things are going with strategic “water independence” in the world.
The map presented to your attention above illustrates the percentage of the volume of renewable water resources entering the country from the territory of neighboring states from the total volume of water resources of the country (A country with a value of 0% does not “receive” water resources from the territories of neighboring countries at all; 100% - all water resources come from outside the state).
The map shows that the following states are most dependent on “supplies” of water from neighboring countries: Kuwait (100%), Turkmenistan (97.1%), Egypt (96.9%), Mauritania (96.5%) , Hungary (94.2%), Moldova (91.4%), Bangladesh (91.3%), Niger (89.6%), Netherlands (87.9%).
In the post-Soviet space the situation is as follows: Turkmenistan (97.1%), Moldova (91.4%), Uzbekistan (77.4%), Azerbaijan (76.6%), Ukraine (62%), Latvia (52. 8%), Belarus (35.9%), Lithuania (37.5%), Kazakhstan (31.2%), Tajikistan (16.7%) Armenia (11.7%), Georgia (8.2%) , Russia (4.3%), Estonia (0.8%), Kyrgyzstan (0%).
Now let's try to do some calculations, but first let's make ranking of countries by water resources:
1. Brazil (8,233 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 34.2%)
2. Russia (4,508 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 4.3%)
3. USA (3,051 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 8.2%)
4. Canada (2,902 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 1.8%)
5. Indonesia (2,838 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0%)
6. China (2,830 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0.6%)
7. Colombia (2,132 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 0.9%)
8. Peru (1,913 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 15.5%)
9. India (1,880 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 33.4%)
10. Congo (1,283 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 29.9%)
11. Venezuela (1,233 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 41.4%)
12. Bangladesh (1,211 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 91.3%)
13. Burma (1,046 km 3) - (Share of transboundary flow: 15.8%)
Now, based on these data, we will compose our rating of countries whose water resources are least dependent on the potential reduction in transboundary flow caused by water withdrawal by upstream countries.
1. Brazil (5,417 km 3)
2. Russia (4,314 km 3)
3. Canada (2,850 km 3)
4. Indonesia (2,838 km 3)
5. China (2,813 km 3)
6. USA (2,801 km 3)
7. Colombia (2,113 km 3)
8. Peru (1,617 km 3)
9. India (1,252 km 3)
10. Burma (881 km 3)
11. Congo (834 km 3)
12. Venezuela (723 km 3)
13. Bangladesh (105 km 3)