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Alexey Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676) - Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty. Supporter of church reform and the establishment of an absolute monarchy in the country, this is associated with his transformation in the country's political system.
Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) - the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty, elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor. Basically, he rebuilt the country economically after the Troubles.
Fedor Alekseevich (1676 - 1682) - Russian tsar, the eldest son of Alexei Mikhailovich and Maria Miloslavskaya, who continued the main directions of his father's policy.
Filaret (Romanov Fyodor Nikitich) - boyar, Russian patriarch, father of Tsar Mikhail Fyodorovich and de facto ruler under him.
Nikon - the son of a peasant, took tonsure. For a long time he was a monk in northern monasteries, then he became a metropolitan in Novgorod, from where he was elected patriarch. He carried out a church reform to unify rituals, which resulted in a split in the Russian Church. Was removed from the patriarchal throne.
Avvakum Petrovich - the head of the Old Believers and the ideologist of the schism in the Orthodox Church, archpriest and writer. In 1646 - 1647 one of the members of the Circle of Zealots of Piety. He opposed Nikon's reforms. He was exiled with his family to Tobolsk, then to Dauria. After the Council of 1667. imprisoned in an earthen prison, where he spent 15 years. Was burned.
Opdin-Nashchokin A.L. (1605 - 1680) - Russian diplomat, prominent statesman, negotiated the results of the wars with Sweden and the Commonwealth (Valiesar and Andrusov treaties). He headed the embassy order. Retired in 1671.
B.I. Morozov - boyar, educator of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, de facto head of government in 1645-1648. The financial reforms carried out by him caused uprisings of the population. Then he retained his political influence without official posts.
Miloslavsky I.B. - one of the close boyars, then the father-in-law of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a supporter of Western reforms in Russia.
Gustav II Adolf (1594 - 1632) - King of Sweden from 1611. He fought wars with Denmark, Russia, Rzeczpospolita, while capturing vast territories. Deflection during the Thirty Years War.
Sigismund III (1566 - 1632) - King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587, Sweden in 1592 - 1599 One of the organizers of the intervention in Russia at the beginning of the XVIIb.
Vladislav IV Vase - the son of Sigismund III, in his early childhood was invited to the Russian throne in the Time of Troubles, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1632. He continued his father's policy.
Bohdan Khmelnytsky - an Orthodox nobleman of Russian origin, was chosen as a Cossack chieftain and hetman. One of the organizers of the Pereyaslav Rada, which spoke out for reunification with Russia.
Shein M.B. - boyar, voivode. He headed the defense of the city of Smolensk in 1609-1611. Since 1619. confidant of Patriarch Filaret and head of a number of orders. He commanded the army that besieged the city of Smolensk in the war of the same name. After the surrender, he was executed.
Sheremetyev F.I. - a boyar, an associate of the tsars Mikhail Fedorovich (under whom he actually headed the government in 1643-1645) and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Stepan Razin (1630 - 1671) - Don Cossack, the leader of the peasant-Cossack movement, which grew into the Peasant War. Was extradited to the government of Alexei Mikhailovich and publicly executed.
Erofey Khabarov (1610 - 1667) - Russian explorer, sailed along the rivers of Siberia. In 1649 - 1653 gt. made a number of campaigns in the Amur region, made a "Drawing of the Amur River".
Jan Kazimir (1648 - 1668) - the last Polish king from the Swedish Vasa dynasty, known for continuous wars with Sweden and Russia. Due to military failures, he was forced to abdicate.
Introduction
Our entire history is made up of individuals, without historical figures there is no history. It is thanks to the bright, outstanding personalities, natures, that the study of this science becomes not only useful, but also an interesting and exciting occupation. People are the creators of history, under whose authority is its course, giving a certain direction to the historical process. Eminent figures of history, whose names will forever remain in our memory, allow us to imagine and evaluate the era with which their activities are connected, more clearly and objectively, passing time and events through themselves. It is for this reason that I decided to write an essay on the topic "Statesmen, political and spiritual leaders of Russia in the 16th and early 17th centuries." The study of history becomes not a forced matter, but allows ordinary citizens to reconcile with the imperfection of the visible order of things, as with an ordinary phenomenon at all times; calms down in state disasters, testifying that there have been similar ones before, there have been even more terrible ones, and the state did not collapse; it nourishes the moral sense and with its righteous judgment disposes the soul to justice, which affirms our good and the consent of society.
The 16th century is a time rich in historical events, sometimes some of them seem unusually cruel and mysterious, such as the oprichnina, the establishment of the patriarchate, the beginning of printing in Russia, and in general, the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible, is permeated with conspiracies, terrorist activities, secrets. And who, if not the people of that era, made it so interesting for future generations.
Historical science, as well as its individual figures, is a mirror of the existence and activity of peoples, the testament of ancestors to posterity, supplementing and explaining the present and forecasting the future. History, opening the coffins and raising the dead, putting life in their hearts and word to mouth, rebuilding kingdoms from corruption and presenting to the imagination a number of centuries with their distinctive passions, morals, deeds, expands the limits of our own being; by her creative power, we live with people of all times, see and hear them, love and hate; without thinking about the benefits, we are already enjoying the contemplation of various cases and characters that occupy the mind or nourish sensitivity. The personality of each is closely connected with the fatherland, which is why my essay sanctified the life path and activities of the leaders of the 16th - early 17th centuries, their main merits, contribution to national and world history, interaction and influence on other people and events. To fulfill this goal, it is necessary to select a sufficient amount of material, carefully read it, highlight the main one, compose it according to a certain classification and create a new text, that is, to carry out analytical and synthetic processing of various documents.
Chapter 1. Statesmen
1.1 Skuratov-Belsky Grigory Lukyanovich (Malyuta) (? - 1573)
The nickname Malyuta means “small”, “short”, and the Skuratovs were either his father or grandfather, apparently the men in this family had bad skin (“Skurat” means “worn suede.” His name became a symbol of medieval cruelty. This man is on an equal footing with the most famous villains. Mikhail Bulgakov said about him: "Neither Gaius Caesar Caligula, nor Messalina were no longer interested in Margarita, just as Olin of kings, dukes, jailers, informers, traitors, madmen, detectives, rasters did not interest. faces merged into one huge cake, and only the bottom was painfully in the memory of a face, bordered by a really red beard, the face of Malyuta Skuratov ... "As soon as he was not called: to the tsarist executioners," the faithful dog of the sovereign ", a political adventurer," a husband of stone-hearted. " At the same time, very little is known about his biography, it is not known when and where he was born, how exactly he looked, where he was buried, such a situation is not at all surprising, in 1568, by order of Ivan the Terrible in Russia, ofi socially cut off the chronicle.
The Skuratovs are a noble family, originating, according to the legends of ancient genealogists, from the Polish gentry Stanislav Belsky, according to other sources Malyuta comes from the baptized Tatars; or he was a small landed nobleman serving in the White fortress near Smolensk. Others argue that the Skuratovs come from Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Klyuchevsky believes that Malyuta comes from a noble family of Moscow boyars Pleshcheev. How and when Skuratov ended up in Moscow is unknown. Duma nobleman from 1570 to 1572, statesman, military and political leader, close to Ivan 4 the Terrible since 1569, head of the oprichnina terror. Coming from the ranks of the provincial nobility, he rather slowly grew into the system of government, and at first was more in secondary roles. In 1567, it was first mentioned in documents in 1567, where Grigory Belsky took part in the campaign against Livonia, but occupied the lowest position of “head” (centurion) in one of the regiments there. During the outbreak of the oprichnina repressions of 1569-1570, he sharply advanced to the number of the oprichniks closest to Ivan the Terrible thanks to the "thoughtless following of the royal whims." He carried out raids on the houses of Moscow boyars, governors, clerks, taking away their wives and daughters for the amusement of the tsar and his entourage. Malyuta was commissioned by the tsar in 1569 to "read out the guilt" of the old prince Vladimir Andreyevich before his murder. In December of the same year, Malyuta personally took part in the massacre of Metropolitan Philip Kolychev, who was "removed" from the metropolis in 1568 and exiled to the Tver Otroch monastery because he refused the tsar a blessing for oprichnina executions and in every possible way condemned the tsar's oprichnina arbitrariness. Malyuta arrived at the monastery, ordered to tie up the Metropolitan right during his service in the Assumption Cathedral, and personally strangled him.
Metropolitan Philip Kalychev of Moscow speaks of the oprichnina in the following way: "A satanic regiment, gathered for a Christian destruction." Prince Andrei Kurbsky wrote in one of his letters to Grozny: “... he gathered for himself from all the Russian lands people who were bad and corrupted by the evil tendencies”. Contrary to popular belief, Skuratov was not at the origin of the oprichnina, according to the Piskarievsky chronicle, the oprichnina was created on the advice of the "evil boyars" Alexei Bosmanov and Vasily Yuriev. It was to them that the tsar ordered to conduct a selection in the ranks of the oprichniki, and the dropout was huge: out of 12 thousand candidates, only 570 people got into the oprichnina. Malyuta ended up in the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, but in the "black brotherhood" he occupied the lowest post - he was a paraklisiarch (sexton). The guardsmen performed the functions of political police - they conducted investigations and punished the "traitors", displaying truly inventive cruelty: they quartered, wheeled, impaled, roasted in huge frying pans, sewn into bearskin, poisoned with dogs. Dressed in uniforms - black robes, on black horses, the guardsmen tied a dog's head and a broomstick to their saddles, as a symbol of their desire to sweep treason from Russia, thus killing up to 40 people annually. In the "Synodics of the Disgraced" - lists of those executed at the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, it contained an article with the following content: Malyuta killed 39 people suspected of conspiracy on the estate of the disgraced nobleman Ivan Chelyadin-Fedorov. There were raids on the courtyards of disgraced nobles, their wives and daughters were taken away for "fornication" to the king and his entourage. In 1569, the tsar instructed Skuratov to arrest his cousin Vladimir Andreyevich Staritsky.
It was Malyuta who laid the foundations for the political investigation in Russia; under Skuratov, the search department was not subordinate to either the Boyar Duma or the oprichnaya government - in fact, the Tsar himself was the head of the Torture Yard. Skuratov's duties included the organization of total surveillance of the politically unreliable, listening to the "whistleblowers" (informers). The main instrument of the oprichnina investigators was torture “Special swords, iron tongs, sharp nails, long needles were made for torture; cut people at the joints, ripped off their skin, cut out belts from the back. " All this was due to the constant fear of the king for his life and throne.
Executions followed one after another. Near the church of St. Nicholas on Bersenevka, in the place where Skuratov's chambers were located, about a hundred skulls were discovered. In 1569, Malyuta received secret information that Archbishop Pimen and the boyars wish to give Novgorod and Pskov to the Lithuanian king Sigismund on August 2. The inquiry was conducted by Skuratov, the suspects were burned "by the hands and set on fire on their foreheads, then the convicts were thrown into the hole." In the "Synodics of the Disgraced" there is an entry: "According to Malyuta's tale, in the Nougorotsky parcel they killed fourteen hundred and ninety people by manual truncation, and fifteen people squeaked separately, they are the names of Skuratov, God be with him." He simply could not physically destroy such a number of people with his own hand, therefore, this is the result of the activities of the punitive detachment under his leadership. Since that time, the expression “by which streets Malyuta Skuratovich rode and those streets the chicken didn’t drink” has survived - that is, nothing alive has survived.
Paradoxically, he played a decisive role in the process of liquidating the oprichnina. Gradually, the government began to lose control over the situation in the country, the guardsmen killed at their own will, allegedly on behalf of the king, but in fact, according to their own whims and desires. The guardsmen were a well-organized military structure, it was only possible to eliminate the bloody executioners with even more blood. On June 25, 1570, 300 people accused of conspiracy were taken to Red Square, not without Malyuta's assistance, 184 people were pardoned by the tsar, 116 ordered to be tortured. Malyuta himself began the execution, cutting off the ear of one of the main accused - "Chancellor" Ivan Viskovaty with his own hand. The Tsar's final disappointment with the oprichnina occurred in the spring of 1552, during the complete burning of Moscow by the Crimeans, which the oprichnina army could not protect. After an investigation into the cause of the disaster, Malyuta Skuratov was appointed commander-in-chief and the third oprichnina voivode. In 1572 the army of the "profane" was fluffed up and the use of the word "oprichnina" was prohibited.
A. Tolstoy in “Prince of Silver” describes Malyuta as follows: “His appearance inspired terror in the most awkward ... It seemed that no generous feeling, no thought emerging from the circle of animal motives could penetrate this narrow brain covered with a thick skull and thick stubble ... There was something implacable and hopeless in the expression of this face ... He morally isolated himself from people, lived alone among them ... he ceased to be a man and made himself a royal dog, ready to tear to pieces indiscriminately anyone against whom John decided to incite her. " Skuratov amused himself by inventing new executions, previously unknown in Russia. But his diplomatic qualities were extremely weak, because of his negotiations, Russia almost lost Astrakhan.
When Grigory Lukyanovich led the tsarist army during the Patriotic War with Livonia, he died in the first battle on January 1, 1573 during the capture of the Livonian fortress of Weissenstein (now Paide in Estonia), which clearly characterizes his military leadership skills. He did not look for high ranks and estates, after the death of Skuratov, his widow received a lifelong pension, a unique case for those times. Malyuta possessed truly "dog loyalty". Skuratov was buried with honors in the "citadel of Orthodoxy" - the Joseph-Volam monastery. The tsar "gave for his servant according to Grigorie according to Malyata Lukyanovich Skuratov a contribution of 150 rubles - more than for his brother Yuri or for his wife Martha." In 1577, Staden wrote: "By the decree of the Grand Duke, he is commemorated in churches to this day ...".
Skuratov did not have direct male heirs, but he found three of his daughters very well. One of the daughters of Malyuta Skuratov - Maria - was married to a boyar, the future Tsar Boris Godunovi later became a queen, the other was Catherine, the future poisoner of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, to Dimitri Ivanovich Shuisky, who was elected tsar during the Troubles heir to the throne, so theoretically Catherine could also become a queen). In January 1570, in connection with Novgorod's suspicion of treason, Malyuta directed robberies and pogroms in the city. Thousands of residents were massacred. All this was preserved in the people's memory ("The tsar is not so terrible as his Malyuta"). Some facts of his biography were overgrown with fictional legends, including about the "absence of virginity" discovered by Ivan the Terrible in Princess Dolgoruka and the order of the tsar to immediately drown the "young woman", which, allegedly, was unquestioningly fulfilled by Malyuta. After the victory of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Giray over the Russian army, Malyut, on behalf of the tsar, conducted an investigation to find out the reasons for the defeat, in 1572 he conducted diplomatic negotiations with a messenger from the Crimea. At the end of 1572, during the Livonian War, the king entered Estonia with an army. Malyuta was in one of the regiments and died in battle during the capture of Weissenstein Castle (now Paide in Estonia) on January 1, I573. By order of the king, the body was taken to the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery. Skuratov's relatives continued to enjoy royal favors, and his widow received a life pension, which was a unique fact at that time. The decisiveness and cruelty with which Malyuta carried out all the orders of the tsar aroused anger and condemnation from those around him. The image of the service and soulless executor of the inhuman orders of the tsar is revealed in the historical songs of the Russian people, who have preserved in their memory the name of the executioner and murderer Malyuta Skuratov for centuries. In an era when executioners were in demand, they arose as if ordered, Malyuta Skuratov was only one of the first.
1.2 Adashev Alexey Fedorovich (? - about 1563)
The son of a serviceman of an insignificant origin, Fyodor Grigorievich Adashev, glorified his name during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. For the first time, Adashev was mentioned in 1547 at a royal wedding in the position of a false and rogue, that is, he made the sovereign's marriage bed and accompanied the newlywed to the bathhouse. Adashev began to enjoy great influence on the tsar together with the famous Annunciation priest Sylvester after the terrible Moscow fires (in April and June 1547) and the murder of the tsar's uncle, Prince Yuri Glinsky, by the indignant people. These events, considered as God's punishment for sins, made a moral revolution in the young impressionable king. This is what he himself says: "Fear entered my soul and trembling into my bones, my spirit was humbled, I was moved by and knew my sins." From that time on, the tsar, averse to the noble boyars, brought two unborn, but the best people of his time, Sylvester and Adashev, closer to him. Ivan found in them, as well as in Tsarina Anastasia and in Metropolitan Macarius, moral support and support for his nature, spoiled from childhood, and directed his thoughts to the good of Russia.
In 1550 Ivan 4 granted Adashev to the entourage and at the same time told him a speech, according to which it is best to judge the relationship of the tsar to his favorite: “Alexey! I took you from the beggars and from the youngest people. I have heard of your good deeds and now I have sought you beyond your measure for the sake of helping my soul; although your desire is not for this, but I wished you, and not only you, but others like you who would have quenched my sorrow and looked after the people entrusted to me by God. I instruct you to accept petitions from the poor and the offended and disassemble them carefully. Do not be afraid of the strong and glorious, who stole honor and destroy the poor and the weak with their violence; in spite of the false tears of the poor, slandering the rich, with false tears, who wants to be right: but consider everything carefully and bring the truth to us, fearing the judgment of God; elect truthful judges from boyars and nobles. " In the internal affairs of the state, Adashev's activity can be characterized by the words of Kurbsky: “he was extremely useful to the common thing”, “If everything were written in detail about this person, it would seem quite incredible among rude people; he, one might say, was like an angel. " According to Kostomarov, "Adashev accidentally fell into the number of those whom Ivan brought closer to him for fun." In this environment, Alexei Fedorovich Adashev stood out sharply for intelligence, honesty and high morality. As he later wrote, A. M. Kurbsky “Among rude people, he could be said to be like an Angel”. Under the influence of Sylvester, Ivan devoted himself to Adashev with all his heart. The tsar granted Alexei Fyodorovich a disgraced honorary rank and entrusted him with an important petition. From there, Adashev soon moved to the Treasury Department, where he received the rank of state treasurer for his successful service.
The time of the so-called reign of Sylvester and Adashev was a time of wide and beneficial government activities for the land (the convocation of the 1st Zemsky Sobor to approve the law code in 1550, the creation of the Stoglava Church Cathedral in 1551, the conquest of Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan ( 1554); the granting of statutes that determined the independent courts of communities: a large expansion of estates, which strengthened the maintenance of service people in 1553).
Undoubtedly, Ivan Vasilievich, gifted by nature with brilliant abilities and unusually imbued with the consciousness of his autocratic power, did not play a passive role in these glorious events, as some historians say, but in any case he acted on the advice of Sylvester and Adashev, and therefore behind the latter great historical merits must be recognized.
The diplomatic activity of Adashev was also issued in conducting many negotiations entrusted to him: with the Kazan king Shig-Alei (1551 and 1552), the Nogais (1553), Livonia (1554, 1557, 1558), Poland (1558, 1560), Denmark (1559) ... The importance of Sylvester and Adashev at court created enemies for them, of which the Zakharyins, relatives of Queen Anastasia, were the main ones. His enemies especially took advantage of the circumstances unfavorably for Adashev during the Tsar's illness in 1553.
Dangerously ill, the tsar wrote a spiritual one and demanded that his cousin, Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, and the boyars swear allegiance to his son, baby Dmitry. But Vladimir Andreevich refused to take the oath, asserting his own rights to the throne after John's death and trying to form a party for himself.
Sylvester apparently leaned towards Vladimir Andreyevich. Alexei Adashev, however, swore unquestioningly to Dmitry, but his father, the okolnichny Fedor Adashev, directly announced to the sick Tsar that they did not want to obey the Romanovs, who would rule over Dmitry's early childhood.
John recovered and began to look at his former friends with different eyes. Likewise, Sylvester's supporters have now lost the favor of Queen Anastasia, who might have suspected them of unwillingness to see her son on the throne. However, the tsar for the first time did not find any hostile feeling, either under the joyful impression of recovery, or out of fear of touching a powerful party and breaking off old relations, and even in the same 1553 year he presented Fyodor Adashev with a boyar hat.
The trip of the tsar to the Kirillov monastery, undertaken in the same year 1553 with the tsarina and son Dmitry, was accompanied by circumstances that were also unfavorable for Adashev: firstly, Tsarevich Dmitry died on the road, and thus fulfilled the prediction of Maxim the Greek, transmitted to Tsar Adashev. Secondly, during this trip, John met with the former ruler of Kolomna Vassian Toporkov, the favorite of Father Ivan 4, and, of course, Vassian's conversation was not in favor of Sylvester and his party.
From that time on, the tsar began to feel burdensome with his former advisers, especially since he was more far-sighted than them in political matters: the Livonian War was started in spite of Sylvester, who advised to conquer the Crimea. Ivan's painful suspicion, reinforced by the slander of people hostile to Sylvester's party, the enmity of Sylvester's supporters towards Anastasia and her family, Sylvester's inept efforts to preserve influence on the tsar by the thunder of God's wrath gradually produced a complete break between John and his former advisers.
At the end of 1560, Adashev was dismissed from the leadership of the government, in May 1560 the tsar's attitude to Adashev was such that the latter found it inconvenient to remain at court and went into honorary exile in Livonia to the city of Fellin (Vilyan) as the 3rd voivode of a large regiment, under the leadership of Prince Mstislavsky and Morozov. After the death of Queen Anastasia (August 7, 1560) Ivan's dislike for Adashev intensified; the tsar ordered to transfer him to Dorpat in the city of Yuryev (now Tartu in Estonia) and put him in custody. Here Adashev fell ill with a fever and died two months later. Natural death saved him, perhaps, from further revenge of the king, but the slanderers spread the rumor that he poisoned himself with poison out of fear. His long-term closeness to the tsar and the management of state affairs gave him the opportunity to acquire great wealth, but he did not leave behind any fortune, because everything that he acquired he distributed to the needy.
Chapter 2. Political Leaders
2.1. Sylvester (early 16th century - until 1568)
Coming from a prosperous Novgorod commercial and industrial environment, he was close to the Novgorod Archbishop Makarii, after whose election he moved to Moscow as Metropolitan and from 1545 became the Archpriest of the Court of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin.
During the riots in Moscow, caused by a terrible fire and the protest of people against the Glinsky, who were considered to be the culprits of the fire, “Princess Anna Glinskaya with her children and her people took out human hearts and immersed them in water, and sprinkled Moscow streets with that water. burned out, ”the people said.
The autocracy of the supreme power seemed to be losing its influence over the people who had lost patience at these moments. Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible had previously believed too much in his omnipotence, and therefore behaved insolently and unbridled, now fell into extreme cowardice and was completely at a loss. And during these events, a man in sacred clothing, named Sylvester, comes to him. There was something amazing in his speech, he presented to the tsar the sad situation of the Moscow land, pointed out the cause of all the misfortunes of the tsar's vices "Heavenly punishment has already hung over Ivan Vasilyevich in the form of a popular revolt." Most likely, the priest struck the ruler with some more miracles and signs, because the always strong and domineering Ivan suddenly began to repent, cry and made a promise from that time on to obey his mentor in everything. So from 1547, Sylvester began to exert a great influence on the king.
Finding himself the guardian of the Tsar, Sylvester and his friend Alexei Adashev, under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, select a circle of people defending a strong state power - autocracy. They were people of noble families: Prince Dmitry Kurlyatov, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, Humpbacked, Sheremetyevs and others. In addition, Sylvester and Adashev began to invite from the crowd people who were not noble, but honest and useful to them, and put them in various positions, distributing them estates and estates. Thus, the state began to be governed by a circle of favorites, which Kurbsky calls the "Chosen Rada". Sylvester subjugates the will of the tsar to such an extent that Ivan does not take a step without his approval, the priest even interferes in his marital relationship. At the same time, the ruler's guardians tried, whenever possible, to conduct business in such a way that he did not feel the burden of guardianship, and it would seem to him that he was still an autocrat.
But gradually the influence of Sylvester on the king begins to fall. The main enemies of Sylvester were the Zakharyins, who armed their sister, their queen Anastasia, against him. “Tsar - they whispered to Ivan - must be autocratic, command everything, not obey anyone; and if he does what others decide, it means that he is only honored with the honor of the king's representative, but in fact he is no better than a slave. And the prophet said woe to the city, if many have it. The Russian rulers had not obeyed anyone before, and they were free to pardon and execute their subjects. It is not at all for a priest to rule and rule; their business is to perform the sacred, and not to create human rule. " To top it off, Ivan was convinced that Sylvester was a sorcerer, entangled him by the power of magic and kept him in bondage. The monk's supporters confess that Sylvester deceived the king, appeared in his eyes as a godly man, endowed with the extraordinary power of miracles, that he, in a word, fooled the king with false miracles, and justify his actions only by the fact that all this was done for good purposes. Sylvester's enemies also presented him to the king as a miracle worker, but only who received power not from God, but from the dark powers. Sylvester was not tolerated by many for his insight and wanted to remove him. So at the end of 1559, the tsar had a major clash with Sylvester and Adashev, the details of which are not known; we only know that Sylvester and his friends tried to keep Ivan from traveling to monasteries and from taking pious vows. But after this clash, Sylvester and Adashev themselves found it impossible to remain with the king. Sylvester (probably already a widow then) withdrew to some remote monastery, and Alexy Adashev went to the army in Livonia. In this case, the participation of Anastasia is almost undoubted, the supporters of Sylvester, regarding his removal, compared him with John Chrysostom, who suffered from the anger of Queen Evdokia. In August 1560, Queen Anastasia died. Sylvester's enemies began to assure the tsar that Anastasia had been wiped out by the dashing people of Sylvester and Adashev with their spells. Friends immediately informed both of them; the latter, through Metropolitan Macarius, asked to be tried and allowed to come to Moscow for acquittal. But the enemies did not allow this.
The cathedral condemned Sylvester to imprisonment in Solovki, where he was engaged in the correspondence of books, some of which have survived, the main work of the writer - "Domostroy", which contains a number of instructions to his son and all people - religious, moral and economic.
Chapter 3. Spiritual Leaders
3.1 Patriarch Job (1589 - 1605)
A native of the townspeople of the city of Staritsa, he began to asceticate early in the Staritsa Assumption Monastery, where the future patriarch spent his childhood and youth. His main passion was reading church books and mastering the liturgy to perfection. As the first reader and singer, he liked Ivan the Terrible in 1556 and was elevated to the rank of archimandrite. In 1571 - Archimandrite of the Simonov Monastery in Moscow. Four years later, he is even closer to the royal family, heads the Novospassky monastery, where the tomb of the tsar's closest relatives is located. In 1581 - Bishop of Kolomna, in 1586 - Archbishop of Rostov, in the same year - Metropolitanate of Moscow and All Russia. Since January 26, 1589 - Patriarch. In the person of the new metropolitan, the royal house found a zealous defender, in gratitude the reigning persons generously bestowed both Job and the Russian Church.
From the Constantinople statements of Patriarch Jeremiah - the main participant in the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia, “since old Rome fell from the Apollinarian heresy, and the second Rome - Constantinople - was in the possession of the godless Turks, then ... the great Russian kingdom - the third Rome - surpassed in piety all the previous kingdoms , they joined together ... the kingdom (Moscow) and one (Russian tsar) is now called the Christian tsar in the entire universe; that is why this great work (the establishment of the patriarchate) is fulfilled by God's providence, by the prayers of the Russian miracle workers and by ... the tsar's request from God and ... the advice is fulfilled. "
There were several reasons for the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia: first, the height of Orthodox piety in the Russian Church; secondly, the position of the Russian tsar as the only Orthodox sovereign in the world; thirdly, the need to crown the church in his kingdom with the patriarchate, so that it, therefore, has the care of all Ecumenical Orthodoxy. Although, according to the conciliar definition of the Eastern Church in 1593, the Russian patriarch occupies the fifth place in the diptych of the Eastern patriarchs, he still becomes the mainstay of all Orthodoxy. As a result, the tsarist power is busy with the patriarchate in Russia, with almost complete inaction of the church power. In this case, this external influence is only a sign of the complete agreement of the Russian hierarchy with the actions of state power.
Patriarch Job was a man of deep prayer, a good Orthodox feat and outstanding personal abilities. Everyone was surprised by his divine service. It was distinguished not only by rank and piety, but also by the fact that Job served the liturgy of John Chrysostom and Basil the Great by heart, the rite of the great consecration of water for Epiphany, even all the spacious kneeling prayers of the feast of the Trinity he recited by heart ... But at the same time, the patriarch had a fondness for the dear things that aroused dissatisfaction, "fierce misfortune, anger, slander and reproach," but his docile nature and ability to get along with the "powerful of this world" helped him become the first Moscow patriarch and lead the church for almost twenty years. During the three-year famine in 1601-1603, Job did not support Boris's charity event for the distribution of alms and the sale of cheap bread to the needy, on the contrary, wanting to get superprofits, he sold his bread at an inflated price, thousands of starving people died right on the church porch, where they tried to get help and alms.
After the death of Tsar Fyodor, Patriarch Job faced the most difficult task of leading the country out of the dynastic crisis and resolving the issue of a new candidate for the throne. In the shortest possible time, the patriarch resisted everything peacefully. On February 21, 1598, that is, 45 days after the death of Tsar Fyodor, Boris Godunov was declared a new sovereign. The patriarch's success testifies to his very outstanding state abilities and great authority in the country. Job was of great help to Godunov in reaching the throne. Under the patriarchate of Job, the murder of Tsarevich Dimitri took place (1591). Job supported the official version that this was the work of Boris Godunov, after Godunov was elected the new sovereign, the patriarch took the side of the tsar. During the chaos in which the country was at that time (crop failures, terrible famine, constant robberies and robberies), in 1603, a liar appears - False Dmitry 1, who introduced himself as "Tsarevich Dmitry" who miraculously survived in 1591.
Patriarch Job, in oral sermons, and in special patriarchal epistles for all dioceses, denounced False Dmitry as an impostor, the defrocked deacon of the Chudov Monastery Grigory Otrepiev, cited evidence of the reality of the death of Tsarevich Dmitry, pointed out that King Sigismundia used the impostor to confess was actually true).
However, the myth of the miraculously escaped Tsarevich was very strong, after the sudden death of Tsar Boris Godunov on April 13, 1605, a riot was growing in Moscow. In June, rioters smashed the patriarchal court and broke into the Kremlin's Dormition Cathedral to physically kill Patriarch Job. Kneeling before the miraculous Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Saint Job prayed loudly, saying among other things: “I, a sinner, ruled the word of truth for 19 years, preserved the integrity of Orthodoxy; now, due to our sins, as we see, the heretical faith comes to the Orthodox faith. We pray you, Most Pure One, save and confirm Orthodoxy with your prayers! " The rioters pounced on the patriarch, beat him, beat him, dragged him to Execution ground. Job was ready to die, but he was left alive. Most of the Russian bishops recognized False Dmitry. Job turned to their Council with a request to allow him to retire to the Staritsky Monastery. The impostor ordered to send Job there, "taking him as a bailiff," and keep him "in anger with sorrow." Not only the bandaging rabble, not only many bishops, but also prominent boyars, and even the mother of Tsarevich Dmitry, the nun Martha, out of fear of the impostor, recognized him as a "real" Tsarevich, supposedly miraculously escaped from the hands of a murderer, and swore allegiance to him.
False Dmitry appointed Archbishop Ignatius, who was beneficial to him, to the Russian patriarchate, but the full rite of episcopal consecration was not performed over him, which in due time was performed over Job.
On May 17, 1606, the boyar party of V. Shuisky raised an uprising in Moscow, as a result of which False Dmitry was killed, and Ignatius was exiled to imprisonment in the Peipus Monastery.
On May 25, 1606, Vasily Shuisky became tsar and immediately summoned the rightful patriarch Job, who was in Staritsa, to the patriarchal throne. But Job could no longer bear the heavy cross of such Service because of his deep old age and almost complete blindness. And he voluntarily refused to return to the government, blessing the election of the Metropolitan of Kazan Hermogenes, who, together with the tsar in January 1607, organized a ceremony of general repentance, and Job was invited to it. On Cathedral Square, Muscovites with tears and weeping approached the blind patriarch and asked for a petition, he did not blame anyone and forgave everyone.
The Patriarchate of Job was marked not only by great upheavals, but also by important church deeds, on his initiative Basil the Blessed, Joseph Volotsky, the Kazan saints Gury and Barsanuphius were canonized.The relics of St. German of Kazan were transferred to Sviyazhsk, the relics of St. Philip of Moscow were transferred to Solovki. In the canonization of the saints, Patriarch Job saw a further increase in the glory of the Russian Church, for he fully shared the idea of \u200b\u200b"Moscow is the third Rome", which he captured in his "Testament" and in "The Tale of Tsar Theodore Ioannovich", thereby showing himself as a church writer. Under Patriarch Job, the dioceses of Novgorod were elevated to the rank of metropolitan. The Rostov, Kazan and Krutitsky, archdioceses became the Vologda, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Smolensk and Nizhny Novgorod departments. The bishops of Astrakhan, Pskov, and Karelian were newly formed. Troubles and loss of sight interrupted the activities of the outstanding saint. On June 19, 1607, Job dies in the Staritsa Monastery, where he began his spiritual exploit in his youth.
3.2 Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Trivolis) (about 1475 - 1555)
Monk of Mount Athos, Vyatopedi monastery, publicist, theologian, philosopher, translator, philologist. In 1518 he came from the Vyatopod monastery on St. Athos to the Russian state, became close to the church opposition, and was condemned at the councils of 1525 and 1531. He left an extensive literary legacy: journalistic articles ("The pursuit of a well-known monastic life", "Chapters are instructive to the rulers truly"), philosophical and theological discourses, translations, articles on grammar and linguistics. Canonized by the Russian Church in 1988.
Many historians believe that he was called to Russia to translate Greek books that were in huge numbers in Moscow after the siege of Constantinople, but his students (Monk Zinovia, Nil) refute this assumption, since before arriving in Moscow he did not know the Slavic language and learned it only in Russia. The more likely reason for his challenge, indicated in one of his Biographies, where it is said that Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich found countless Greek books in the Tsar's treasures of his ancestors, and there was no one to translate them, and Maxim was sent to help him from Constantinople in 1506 , who settled in the Chudov Monastery.
Maxim the Greek hails from the Albanian city of Arsha, his father Manuel, mother Irina, he studied verbal sciences and philosophy in Paris with John Laskar, in Florence and in other European noble schools, after he tonsured his tonsure at the Vatopedi Abode on Mount Athos.
His first translation, first into Latin, and only then into Slavic according to the Latin interpreters of Demetrius and Basil, was the "Explanatory Psalter of the Seven Interpreters", translated in a year and five months. Monk Silvan and Mikhail Medovartsov were his scribes. After which he wanted to leave the translation activity, but agreed to work on "Zlatoust Conversations". Then he began to amend the previous translations of the Slavic Church Service Books, in these works he spent nine years, finding many inaccuracies and errors, which he publicly announced, causing this general indignation and disapproval. The Holy Fathers of Russia accused him of damaging the Slavic books. In one of his writings, Maxim even found a non-Orthodox book On the Incarnation of Christ, written by Aphroditian, which was revered and respected, which caused a wave of displeasure. Maxim the Greek did not translate the Church History of Theodoret, Bishop of Kurbsky into the Slavic language, referring to the presence of anti-Orthodox aspects in them, which caused the displeasure of Metropolitan Daniel. Finally, the tsar's own disfavor falls upon him. After refusing to accept the tsar's divorce from his first wife Solomonia Yuryevna for her infertility, and to write out the Canonical opinion on the dissolution of his marriage, and to accept the second wife, Princess Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, Maxim announced that "The rules of the Holy Fathers do not allow divorce for the sake of infertility." As a result, he was put on trial and in January 1525 condemned by the Council, which excommunicated him and imprisoned him in the Volokolamsk Iosifovna, then in the Tver monastery, and all his disciples were also sent to monasteries. For more than twelve years he has been in perfect imprisonment, Metropolitan Macarius facilitates his imprisonment by allowing him to attend church, no other metropolitan dared, despite the general hatred of the Tsar's family, to release or acquit Maximus.
During his imprisonment, Maxim wrote many Dogmatic compositions about the Faith and the Rites of the Church; Accusatory against Jews, Greeks, Latins and Hagarian and often against Russians; Philological on various subjects regarding translation and interpretation; Interpretive about various incomprehensible things Theological, Church, Ritual and Philosophical; Moral to instruct many higher and lower ranks; Answering various questions, and Conversations with oneself, or Prayers, and others. His works are mainly of spiritual content, but they contain quite a lot of historical and characteristic information about contemporary Russia, appeals to spiritual leaders. He appeals to the Grand Duke with a request to hand him over to the Constantinople court, because I am not a subject of Russia, but all his efforts are in vain.
Maxim the Greek died in the Trinity Sergius Monastery in 1556, after thirty-three years of suffering, he was buried near the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit, where a chapel was built by Metropolitan Platon of Moscow.
3.3 Metropolitan Macarius (1482 - 1563)
Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia since 1542. The head of the Josephites and the circle of scribes, whose members collected and distributed works of Russian church literature. In 1551 he achieved the failure of the government's program of secularization of church lands. Editor of "Chetey-Minei" and "Book of Degrees".
Born not into a noble family, he was tonsured in Borovsk in the Pafnutyevsky monastery. Then in Mozhaisk he was appointed archimandrite of the Mozhaisk Luzhitsky monastery. Got the favor of Vasily III, blessing him for a second marriage with Elena Glinskaya. Immediately after the wedding, Macarius was ordained an archbishop. Having occupied the metropolitan table, the saint, according to the Pskov chronicler, performed "Velie intercession for the people and the feeder for the orphans", in the words of Maxim the Greek, many "Offended from dungeons and from bonds."
Dreaming of a spiritual renewal of society, Macarius put forward a daunting task, to collect all the "holy books that are found in the Russian land", correct, rework or compose new holy books, words, lives, epistles and church acts. As a result, in 1552, a collection for daily reading "Chetya-Minea" was created. Previously, the Menaion-Reads included only the lives of the saints and some teachings and were intended only for reading by the clergy. Many Slavic, Russian, Serbian writers were involved in the work. The Great Chetya-Menaion included the Holy Scriptures, the Gospels, patericons, the books of John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Joseph Volotskiy, the "Feed Book", a number of church acts, "The Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius, "Cosmography" by Kuzma Indikoplov; collections "Izmaragd", "Golden Chain"; The Walking of Hegumen Daniel, Apocrypha, Lives of the New Wonderworkers. The Menaia consisted of 12 volumes, over 13 thousand large format sheets.
In times of turmoil in the political sphere, the Metropolitan tried to stop the bloodshed, but he could not prevent Ivan from executing the Shuiskys. Macarius embraced the idea of \u200b\u200bcrowning the Tsar with enthusiasm; he personified the triumph of autocracy with the triumph of the Orthodox faith. In 1547, Macarius crowned Ivan the Fourth in the Dormition Cathedral, blessing him with "the beloved god and the chosen god," the "crowned god" of the Orthodox tsar.
During a fire in Moscow in 1547, Macarius almost died in his yard, through a cache in the Kremlin wall he was lowered "to the open-pit" to the Moscow River, but he fell through and received many bruises. After the wedding to the kingdom, Ivan, with the blessing of the Metropolitan, married the noblewoman Anastasia Romanova
In 1547 and 1549, Macarius held two church councils, which established an all-Russian cult of almost forty new miracle workers, and Ivan's influence on the compilation of the lists was not decisive.
Macarius enjoyed the Tsar's trust despite his former devotion to Ivan the Third (going to Kazan, Ivan Vasilievich punished the boyars "about all his deeds come to Makarii Metropolitan"), because in his sermons he successfully developed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe divine origin of the royal power, which the Tsar perfectly mastered ...
At the Sacred Council, convened by Macarius, he also answered questions on behalf of the clergy; in general, the Metropolitanate was a good diplomat who knew how to accurately resolve political and other issues. His answers formed the basis of the "Stoglava Cathedral".
On December 31, 1563, Metropolitan Macarius died at about the age of eighty. The church lost its authoritative leader at a very difficult time for the country. The reform projects were finally consigned to oblivion, the time of terror and violence came.
Miller, in praise of the Metropolitan, noted that "prudence and his other spiritual qualities are evident from the fact that, under such a government as Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, he was in continuous reverence for 22 years and left a blessed memory after his death." In his will, written shortly before his death, Macarius said that from sorrow he repeatedly wanted to leave the rank and retire into the wilderness, but was held back by the persistent convictions of the Tsar and the Saints.
Conclusion
The purpose of my work was to consider the historical figures of the 16th and early 17th centuries to reveal the whole picture of this era. Malyuta Skuratov, Aleksey Adashev, Sylvester, Patriarch Job, Maxim the Greek, Metropolitan Macarius, represented by me, are each special, remarkable and amazing personality in their own way, but each of them was indelibly stamped with the era of which they were representatives. The time of cruel, immoral and unbridled terror against their own people in order to "sweep away treason from Russia", the time of conspiracies and fear of everyone and everything.
But even in this cruel time, people of strong characters, noble, courageous, perceptive, who care about the welfare of the state as a priority, rather than about personal enrichment and ranks, make themselves felt. These figures include Metropolitan Macarius, who dreams of the spiritual renewal of society, wants to stop the bloodshed, to restore order, both among secular people and in the clergy, which is also subject to worldly vices and the fall. Maxim the Greek publicly declares about the incorrectness of the translations of the Slavic Church service books, thereby, turning against himself most of the spiritual leaders.
There are also personalities whose activities and life arouse extremely negative emotions, such "executioners of the people" include Malyuta Skuratov, his slavish devotion to the king, incredible cruelty and immorality cause disgust and possibly even compassion. After all, without need such people do not appear, it is time that is guilty of generating people of various characters and moral foundations. If not for Malyuta, then someone else would have performed his role, because Ivan the Terrible and his entourage needed servants who were ready to unquestioningly carry out any order so that the personality of the tsar would not remain obscene and untouched.
There are also people who are pre-spinning and insightful in their inner qualities, but infected with the historical situation. Such figures include Job and Sylvester. On the one hand, Job showed incredible zeal in worship, showed outstanding oratorical and diplomatic skills, but at the same time, he was generously paid for services to the king, which led to greed, stinginess and hypocrisy. Sylvester, using his power over Ivan the Terrible, actually removed him from power and ruled accordingly with his desires, ideas and thoughts.
Having studied autobiographies and the role of various personalities in the history of the 16th and early 17th centuries, I came to the conclusion that any activity of any person, almost regardless of his personal value priorities and life attitudes, to a greater or lesser extent depends on the era in which he lives personality. Historical time and the "powerful of this world" control destinies, subordinate them to their interests and thoughts, and remove those who disobey and too far-sighted from themselves.
List of sources used
1. Bolkhovitinov, E. Historical dictionary about the writers of the spiritual rank of the Greek-Russian Church who were in Russia / E. Bolkhovitinov; Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra. - M .: Russian yard, 1995 .-- 416 p.
2. Great people of the world: an encyclopedia. T. 27. / ed. count .: M. Aksenova, E. Khlebalina, O. Eliseeva. - M .: Avanta +, 2005 .-- 640 p.
3. Karamzin, NM On the history of the Russian state: book. 1; T. 1-4 / N. M. Karamzin. - M .: Education, 1990 .-- 384 p. - (B-ka teacher of history, the foundations of the Soviet state and law, social science).
4. Kobrin, VB Malyuta Skuratov / VB Kobrin // Questions of history. - 1966. - No. 11. - S. 210-212.
5. Kostomarov, NI Russian history in the biographies of its main figures: book. 1 / N.I. Kostomarov. - M .: Kniga, 1990 .-- 894 p.
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8. Morozova, LE Patriarch Job / LE Morozova // Teaching ist. in the school. - 2000. - No. 8. - S. 23-27.
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10. Skrynnikov, RG Prelates and authorities / RG Skrynnikov. - M., 1990 .-- 298 p.
Valerian Zubov (1771 - 1804) - Russian military leader, general of infantry. He lived a short life, but full of vicissitudes of fate.
Biography
Valerian Zubov was born in a poor noble family on November 28) December 9) 1771. His father managed the estates of Count Nikolai Saltykov, and it was very dishonorable, he was convicted of theft many times.
As a child, Valerian was assigned to the Preobrazhensky Guards Regiment, from where he then transferred to the Horse Guards Regiment. By 1789, Valerian had made a good military career, already a second lieutenant.
This year, Valerian's older brother Platon became the favorite of Catherine II.
Vasily Poyarkov is one of the discoverers of Siberia. He made a huge contribution to the development of these lands.
In the 17th century, the Russian Empire dreamed of annexing Siberia to its lands. It was a huge and richest territory, in which many peoples lived.
For the study and annexation of the Siberian lands, special expeditions gathered. One of them was headed by Vasily Poyarkov.
Years of life
Accurate information about the years of life of Vasily Poyarkov has not been preserved. Only documentary sources have survived to this day, in which there is information about his activities. They date back to 1610-1667.
Fedot Popov Alekseevich is a pioneer and discoverer.
The name of Semyon Dezhnev is familiar to every person in our country, which is understandable: the man who for the first time in history circled Chukotka, who discovered the strait between Asia and America and America itself from the West, the one in whose honor the extreme eastern point of Russia and the continent of Eurasia in general is named - a cape Dezhneva, is rightfully worthy of the blessed memory and respect of descendants.
But against the background of Semyon Dezhnev, those who helped him, who participated in his expedition and without whose participation Dezhnev's discoveries were impossible, remain undeservedly forgotten.
Ivan Zarutsky took an active part in the events of the Time of Troubles.
Zarutsky has contradictory qualities. He is smart and purposeful, at the same time greedy, ready to "go over their heads" in order to achieve his goal.
The Time of Troubles in Russia began with the death of Ivan the Terrible's son, Fyodor Ioanovich. Impostors come to run the state, trying with all their might to retain power.
The origin of Ivan Martynovich Zarutsky
Ivan Zarutsky was born in 1550. Place of birth - the city of Tarnopol in Western Russia. In early childhood, he was captured by the Crimean Tatars, from where he managed to escape to the Don.
Karion Istomin (1640s - 1717) - Russian writer, teacher and publisher of the 17th century.
He was a hieromonk of the Chudov Monastery in Moscow, for some time he headed the Moscow Printing House - the main printing house of the country at that time.
Biography
Karion Istomin is from Kursk a. It is assumed that his parents were of common origin. Unfortunately, Istomin's "worldly" name is unknown.
His close relative was Sylvester (Simeon Agafonovich) Medvedev, another Russian writer of those years. Karion was his student, and also a student of the Likhud brothers, Greek scientists who worked in Moscow.
Simeon Polotsky is an outstanding figure of Slavic culture of the 17th century. Well-read and energetic, having studied the philosophical sciences, he developed Russian enlightenment.
Having studied a number of sciences, the simple monk of Polotsk is noted as a teacher and educator. He achieved success in poetry and drama.
He was also interested in art, medicine, astrology and more. He preferred to be close to the king and his family instead of a brilliant church career.
Years of life
Samuil Gavrilovich Petrovsky - Sitnyanovich was born on December 12, 1629. Date of death - August 25, 1680.
Vladimir Atlasov is one of the Russian explorers, the first explorer of the Kamchatka Peninsula.
Member and leader of the expedition, studied and described in detail the unexplored land. In 1697, on July 23, Kamchatka was included in the list of territories of the Russian state.
Years of life
Born in 1661, in the Russian Veliky Ustyug. He died in 1711, on February 1 in Nizhnekamchatsk.
Biography
Vladimir was born into a poor family of a Yakut Cossack, Vasily Timofeevich Otlas. He grew up wandering with the same poor people across the vastness of the tundra.
Patriarch Filaret is not the most famous historical figure. But its influence on the course of the history of the Russian state and the world can hardly be underestimated.
He is one of those thanks to whom the Time of Troubles ended, and Mikhail Romanov reigned on the Russian throne.
She still had a close connection with religion. Despite this, it was well developed. During this time, many discoveries were made in anatomy and physiology. A number of outstanding scientists appeared. New chemical compounds, drugs and methods of treating certain diseases have been proposed.
Doctors of the 15th-16th centuries
In the Middle Ages, practical medicine was most developed. Barber attendants were engaged in it. The most common procedures were phlebotomy, joint reduction, and amputation. For a long time their profession was considered unclean, as it was associated with illness and death.
Only in the Late Middle Ages the authority of barbers-attendants began to increase, and the requirements for doctors also increased. So, in order to be able to treat people, one had to go through eight years of training, and then also pass an exam. By the end of the 15th century, in a number of European cities, some of the bath attendants split into the workshops of surgeons.
Medicine and religion
Religion was inextricably intertwined with medicine. Amulets with Christian symbols, prayers, worship of relics and relics were actively used as a treatment. By the 15th-16th centuries, the cult of saints reached its peak. Dozens of pilgrims flocked to their places of burial with a desire to be cured of their illness. There were saints who specialized in the treatment of this or that disease.
Drug therapy and hospitals in the 15th-16th centuries
For treatment, they mainly used holy water and medicinal herbs. Collecting plants was also often timed to coincide with Christian holidays and accompanied by certain rituals. Communion, baptism, and even a number of products (bread, salt, water, honey, Easter eggs, milk) were also considered healing.
The first similarities of hospitals appeared in the Early Middle Ages in monasteries and churches. They were mainly designed for beggars and wanderers, and monks were engaged in treatment. Later, hospitals began to appear in cities, opened by wealthy citizens, and then by local authorities. The entrance to them was closed to ordinary people, and in order to get there, a certain contribution had to be made.
The most terrible diseases that took on the character of epidemics were plague, leprosy, smallpox, dysentery, tuberculosis, syphilis and some others. Their emergence, according to Christian teaching, was associated with sin and trials.
Great medical workers of the 15th-16th centuries
Due to attempts to explain everything by religion and divine intervention, knowledge of anatomy, physiology and other disciplines for a long time remained at the level of medicine in Ancient Greece and Rome. However, by the 15th century, many doctors had a desire to study in full the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides and other prominent figures of the past.
By the 16th century, the opening of anatomical theaters and departments became popular. Vesalius was considered the founder of anatomy, who refuted many errors in his work "De corporis humani fabrica". He opened the way for the rest of the outstanding researchers: Fallopius, Eustachius, Arentius, Varolia and others. Pathological anatomy began to develop.
Serve discovered the small circle of blood circulation, proved the role of the liver in the processes of hematopoiesis. Sanctorius invented a thermometer, hygrometer and methods for determining the pulse. Many new chemical compounds and medicinal substances have been discovered. Methods for recognizing a number of diseases have been obtained, and for the first time the question arose about the infectiousness of infectious diseases.
Russian tsars of the 17th century.
Mikhail Fedorovich (Romanov) (1596-1645)- the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty. The son of Fyodor Nikitich Romanov (Filaret) and Ksenia Ivanovna Shestova (in monasticism - Martha). Elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor in February 1613. He was married to the kingdom on July 11, 1613. After his father, Patriarch Filaret, returned from captivity in Poland, he shared power with him. After the death of his father in 1633, power was completely in his hands. Under Mikhail Fedorovich, there was a tendency to limit the powers of the Zemsky Sobor, Boyar Duma, and local authorities. During his reign, the foundations of autocratic power were laid.
Alexey Mikhailovich (1629-1676) -russian tsar (from 1645), son of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. In the first years of his reign, he was carried away by the ideas of religious and moral improvement of society, actively supported the members of the "Circle of Zealots of Piety." During the first period of his reign, the government of the country actually belonged to his relative and educator boyar B.I.Morozov. Active contributor Cathedral Code 1649... He attracted foreign specialists to serve in Russia.
The significance of the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors under Alexei Mikhailovich is finally falling. The convocations of the Zemsky Councils are generally terminated (the last took place in 1653).The role of the order bureaucracy is growing. In 1654 was created Order of secret affairs, who reported directly to the king and exercised control over state administration. Alexei Mikhailovich was the first of the Russian tsars to sign decrees and other documents with his own hand. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, church schism , which led to an intensification of the struggle not only of the church, but also of the state against the Old Believers. In the economic field, his government encouraged industrial activity, supported the domestic merchants.
During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich numerous massive social performances: peasant war led by Stepan Razin, Copper and Salt riots, etc. He pursued an active foreign policy: much the borders of Russia expanded at the expense of the Ukraine, Eastern Siberia, and the Far East that became part of it; part of the primordially Russian lands was returned - Smolensk, Severskaya land with Chernigov and Starodub.
Fedor Alekseevich (1661-1682)- Russian tsar in 1676-1682 Son of Alexei Mikhailovich and his first wife MI Miloslavskaya, student of Simeon of Polotsk. He spoke foreign languages, wrote poetry, knew mathematics, history and geography well. Tsar Fyodor was sickly and weak, and therefore could not reconcile the warring boyar groups of the Miloslavsky, Naryshkins, Odoevsky.
Ivan V Alekseevich (1666-1696)- Russian tsar, son of Alexei Mikhailovich from marriage with M. Miloslavskaya. After the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, the Naryshkins proclaimed the younger Tsarevich Peter as tsar, dismissing their elder brother Ivan, who was sickly and incapable of state affairs. However, during the Streltsy Uprising, Ivan V was placed on the throne and then approved by the Zemsky Sobor as the “first” tsar, and his younger brother Peter I began to be considered the “second” tsar. The reign of Ivan V was nominal: until 1689, princess Sofia Alekseevna actually ruled, then Peter I.
Atlasov Vladimir Vasilievich (1663-1711) - Russian explorer. In 1694 he made a trip along the eastern coast of Chukotka and collected the first information about the North-East of Siberia and about Alaska. In 1697 undertook an expedition to Kamchatka, where he collected valuable information about the local population, fauna and flora; as a result of this expedition, Kamchatka was annexed to Russia.
Buturlin Vasily Vasilievich (? -1656) -russian military leader and diplomat. He brought the deputies of the Pereyaslav Rada in 1654 to the oath of allegiance to Russia. He commanded the troops sent to help Bohdan Khmelnitsky.
Golitsyn Vasily Vasilievich (1643-1714) - prince, military and statesman of Russia, boyar (from 1676). Promoted under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. He headed a number of orders. Participated in the defense of the southern borders of the country in the 70-80s. He headed the commission for the abolition of parochialism. In 1686, Mr .. obtained from Poland the conclusion of the Eternal Peace, according to which she recognized the entry of Ukraine into Russia. He led the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689, which were unsuccessful. Supporter of rapprochement with the West, using the experience of Europe in reforming Russia. During the reign of Sofia Alekseevna (1682-1689) - her favorite and the actual ruler of the state. After Sophia was removed from power, he was deprived of his boyar title, property and exiled with his family to the Arkhangelsk Territory.
Golovin Fedor Alekseevich (1650-1706) - diplomat, military leader, boyar, count, field marshal general. Signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 with China.
Dezhnev Semyon Ivanovich (c. 1605-1673)- russian pathfinder, Cossack chieftain. In 1648 he undertook a voyage along the coast of Chukotka, opening the strait between Asia and America.Drew up a drawing of R. Anadyr and parts of the r. Anyui. Author of travel descriptions in the extreme North-East of Siberia.
Morozov Boris Ivanovich (1590-1661)- boyar, educator of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In fact, the head of government in 1645-1648. The financial reform of Morozov provoked the Moscow uprising of 1648, as a result he was removed from affairs and sent into short-term exile. He retained his political influence until the end of the 50s.
Nikon (in the world - Nikita Minov) (1605-1681)- a church and political figure. Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1652-1666). At a church cathedral in 1666, he was defrocked as high priest and exiled to the Belozersk Ferapontov Monastery. From 1676 he was in the St. Cyril Monastery, where he died. Nikon did a lot in the matter of Church printing. He founded the Patriarchal Library, wrote a number of ecclesiastical and journalistic works.
Odoevsky Nikita Ivanovich (?-1689) - Prince, boyar, voivode, diplomat, statesman. Supervised the laid down commission, engaged in drawing up the Cathedral Code of 1649 ... In the late 70s - early 80s. led the foreign policy of Russia.
Ordin-Nashchokin Afanasy Lavrentievich (1605-1680) -statesman and military leader, diplomat, boyar, voivode. From 1654 he participated in the Russian-Polish and then in the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1658. In 1658 he conducted successful negotiations with the Swedes, culminating in the Valiesar Armistice, participated in negotiations with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the signing of the Andrusov armistice in 1667, for which he was granted a boyar and placed at the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. Head of Russian foreign policy in 1667-1671
A supporter of protectionism, the creator of the New Trade Charter in 1667. He founded a shipyard in Za-
the western Dvina and Oka, and was the initiator of the arrangement of mail between Moscow, Riga and Vilna. In 1672 he was tonsured a monk.
Popov Fedot Alekseevich (XVII century) - Russian explorer, originally from Kholmogory. Together with S. Dezhnev in 1648 passed by sea from the mouth of the river. Kolyma to the mouth of the river. Anadyr, opening the strait between Asia and America.
Poyarkov Vasily Danilovich (17th century) - Russian explorer. Written head. In 1643-1646, he led an expedition that first penetrated the river basin. Cupid and reached its mouth. The first of the Russians to sail the Pacific Ocean.
Razin Stepan Timofeevich (1630-1671) -don Cossack, leader of the peasant war in 1670-1671 .
Khabarov (nicknamed Svyatitsky) Erofei Pavlovich (1610-1667)- russian pathfinder... In the years 1649-1653. made a number of expeditions to the Amur region ... He compiled the first "Drawing for the Amur River". The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofei Pavlovich bear his name.
Khmelnitsky Bogdan (Zinovy) Mikhailovich (1595-1657) -the hetman of Ukraine, January 8, 1654 at the Pereyaslav Rada announced the annexation of Ukraine to Russia.
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