The importance of the best alternative to negotiations and the negotiation space for the peaceful resolution of the conflict. Negotiation Negotiation space three types of solutions

Negotiations actually begin from the moment the parties begin to discuss the problem. At the first meeting it is necessary agree on procedural issues, the main parameters of which were determined during the preparation for the negotiations. Issues requiring mutual approval of the parties include:

agenda;
time frames for both individual meetings and presumably the entire negotiation process;
the order of opponents' speeches;
decision-making procedure.

The negotiation process is associated with direct interaction between opponents and is heterogeneous in its tasks. Accordingly, we can highlight the following stages of negotiations :

1) clarification of the interests and positions of the parties;
2) discussion involving the development of possible solutions to the problem;
3) reaching an agreement.

Clarification of the interests and positions of the parties

Preliminary preparation for negotiations does not mean that the parties have a complete and adequate understanding of each other’s interests and positions. Therefore, at the first stage of negotiations, interaction between opponents consists, first of all, in exchange of information regarding the most important controversial issues, interests of the parties, points of view and positions of each other on the existing problem.

If negotiators are guided by a bargaining strategy, they often strive to immediately state their maximum demands. It must be admitted that even in conditions of cooperation, the situation very rarely develops along only one path - the one proposed from the very beginning. This is especially true for negotiations in conflict situations. An initial tough position reduces the parties' chances of reaching an agreement. Therefore, such actions may lead the ongoing negotiations to a dead end.

The importance of this stage lies in the fact that it is essential for formation of the atmosphere, in which the negotiations will take place. If the parties have failed to establish normal working relationships, then they are unlikely to have a chance to reach any agreements.

Elements that contribute to the formation of a favorable climate in the negotiation process (R. Fisher, S. Brown) :

1. Rationality. It is necessary to remain calm even if the other party is emotional. Any incontinence has a destructive effect on the relationship between the parties.
2. Understanding. Try to understand your opponent. Neglecting his point of view limits the possibility of reaching an agreement.
3. Communication. Direct contacts can always be used to improve relations between opponents.
4. Credibility. Avoid using false information.
5. Lack of didactic tone. Dismissive intonations, mentoring tone, peremptory statements are interpreted as a demonstration of superiority, a manifestation of disrespect and cause irritation.
6. Openness to receiving another point of view. Try to understand the essence of your opponent’s ideas. After all, understanding another’s point of view does not mean agreeing with it. Intolerance towards the views of your opponent is a sure way to break the relationship.

Discussion – The second stage of negotiations is the most responsible and, as a rule, the most difficult. At this stage, negotiators should develop the basic parameters of a joint solution to the problem. By making proposals, revealing one or another solution option and discussing them, opponents can strengthen or weaken their own positions, largely predetermining the outcome of the negotiations. The skills to listen, persuade, ask questions, and think creatively play an important role. Let's look at these skills.

1. Listening skills lies at the heart of any negotiation. Often opponents are confident that they will adequately understand each other without making much effort. However, listening is a very difficult art. To adequately perceive and understand information, negotiators need to master the techniques of non-reflective and reflective listening.
2. Ability to persuade necessary in order to achieve the opponent’s agreement with the expressed point of view. A characteristic feature of persuasion is that it is addressed, first of all, to the human mind and is carried out through argumentation, i.e. a system of statements intended to substantiate or refute an opinion.

To substantiate your point of view or refute the point of view of your opponent, you can use various methods of argumentation.

Methods of argumentation :

1) fundamental – presentation of facts and specific information;
2) contradiction method – based on identifying contradictions in the opponent’s reasoning;
3) method of drawing conclusions – based on precise argumentation, which through particular conclusions leads to the desired result;
4) comparison method – adds brightness to reasoning, makes it more visible;
5) "yes...but" method is used if the opponent focuses either only on the advantages or only on the weaknesses of the discussed solution to the problem. The method allows you to first agree with the speaker and then object, which gives a good psychological effect;
6) cue pick-up method – involves the ability to use an opponent’s remark in order to strengthen one’s own argument.

Convincing your opponent during a discussion is as important as it is difficult. Unfounded optimism is not appropriate here, otherwise negotiations risk turning into a collision of billiard balls that scatter in different directions without changing either shape or color.

3. Ability to ask questions – an important component of effective discussion of the parties’ proposals. A correctly posed question allows you to clarify your opponent’s point of view, obtain additional information from him, intensify the discussion process, and direct the discussion in the right direction.

We have already said that there are closed and open, informational, mirror and relay questions. Let's highlight the following types of questions:

rhetorical – a statement or denial expressed in interrogative form and not requiring an answer. Such questions allow you to unobtrusively persuade your opponent to the speaker’s opinion;
suggestive – contain elements of the required response. They can be used when it is necessary to obtain confirmation of the speaker's point of view or to direct negotiations in the right direction;
alternative – provide the opponent with the opportunity to choose from two or three options, which allows him to make a decision faster.
4. Ability to think creatively. All the efforts of the parties in the process of discussing proposals to develop possible solutions to the problem can turn into failure if the opponents themselves create obstacles on this path. The problem is that people often tend to formulaic thinking. Try the following problem.

The two approached the river. Near the deserted shore there was a boat in which only one person could fit. Both crossed the river on this boat and continued on their way. How did they do it?

Possible difficulties in solving the problem are caused by the interpretation of the first phrase, which suggests that the travelers walked together. Abandoning the usual line of reasoning makes it possible to understand that they approached different banks and crossed in turns.

The stereotyped thinking of negotiators prevents them from searching for as many possible solutions to the problem as possible. To overcome this obstacle, opponents need the ability to think creatively. This quality requires the ability to:

abandon this or that stereotype;
move freely from one aspect of a question to another;
find unexpected, unique solutions.

Typical mistakes that hinder the creative thinking of opponents

1. Premature judgment. A critical attitude and preliminary assessments narrow the field of view, limiting the number of options offered. Many negotiations could have a better outcome if the participants did not immediately reject other people's ideas.
2. Search for the only option. Since the agreement will be based on one solution, the parties strive to find this only option from the very beginning.
3. The conviction that it is impossible to “enlarge the pie.” An obstacle to creating diverse options for solving a problem is the belief of opponents that a gain for one is possible only at the expense of the loss of the other.
4. "The solution to their problem – their problem "When entering the path of negotiations, their participants are focused on concluding one or another agreement. But at the same time, they often concentrate their efforts mainly on ways to realize only their own interests, leaving the other side to independently take care of solving their problems.

Such miscalculations by negotiators create insurmountable barriers to reaching an agreement. You can avoid them by using the following recommendations.

1. Separate the search for options from their evaluation. Negotiators must first develop possible solutions and only then choose the most acceptable among them.
2. Expand your options. The likelihood that a solution to the problem will be found is only high if the parties have plenty to choose from.
3. Seek mutual benefits. Often, opponents view negotiations as a battle in which there can only be one winner. With this approach, either the negotiations reach a dead end, or the cost of victory turns out to be too high. Another way is more effective:
- opponents need to identify are common interests that facilitate reaching an agreement;
- negotiators should focus on optimal satisfaction opposite interests;
- the success of negotiations can be ensured by agreeing on various disjoint interests. In this case, satisfying the interests of one party does not affect the interests of the other. An example that allows us to see the combination of diverse interests can be the practice of selling housing under construction. Both the seller and the buyer are interested in completing the transaction. However, the construction company strives to increase the price of the apartment to the maximum, while the buyer, on the contrary, is interested in reducing it. Reaching an agreement is possible based on differences of interests: the buyer is willing to wait for the completion of construction if he pays a lesser amount; the seller agrees to reduce the price if he receives the money now.
4. Try to make it easier for your opponent to make a decision. The result of the negotiations should be a solution that suits both parties. Therefore, the success of each party is inseparable from mutual agreement with the proposed solution to the problem. Accordingly, lack of attention to the opponent’s opinion about possible solutions is detrimental to the outcome of the negotiations. On the contrary, you should focus on options that are preferable not only for you, but also for the other party. During the discussion, it is important to take into account the compliance of a possible solution with the principles, previous words and actions of the opponent.

Even in conditions of cooperation between the parties, the negotiation process is not easy to bring to its logical conclusion. This is especially true in conflict situations.

Often, negotiators, striving to achieve unilateral advantages, demonstrate an orientation towards a rigid style of positional bargaining. In this case, the discussion, which involves developing possible solutions to the problem, does not bring the desired result, and the negotiations reach a dead end. It comes, but the expression Μ. M. Lebedeva, period of "dead time" when the negotiation process is suspended. In the current situation it is possible two options for further actions of opponents.

1. Leaving the negotiating table. If this option is implemented, it is important to consider a number of aspects:
- Negotiations should be interrupted only after a thorough analysis and assessment of the situation;
- You should not end negotiations at a moment when you are angry and obeying an instant impulse;
- you should clearly explain to your opponent the essence of the disagreements that forced you to take a decisive step;
- never burn bridges. Most interactions are not one-time, but recurring. These are the relations of states in the international arena, supporters of opposing parties in parliament, business partners, managers and subordinates, family relations, etc.;
- if you think that resuming negotiations makes sense, inform your opponent about it;
- If your opponent took the first step towards you, appreciate his action and do not reject his proposals out of hand.

In the event of leaving the negotiating table, the parties begin unilateral actions, implementing their alternatives to the negotiated agreement, which were determined at the preparation stage. On the one hand, the presence of a fairly attractive BATNA among opponents significantly increases the danger of a breakdown in negotiations and weakens the mutual desire to prevent this breakdown. On the other hand, the presence of alternatives to a negotiated agreement and the transition to unilateral actions make it possible to protect opponents from accepting undesirable agreements. However, we should not forget that, having embarked on the path of negotiations, the participants recognized their dependence on each other.

2. Finding a positive way out from the current situation suggests continuation of negotiations. In this case, the use of a purely technical means - announcing a break in the negotiations - can be very effective. This allows participants to analyze the progress of the negotiations, assess the state of affairs, hold consultations within their delegation or with someone from the outside, reduce the emotional intensity of the atmosphere during the negotiations, and think through possible options for resolving their impasse.

As a result, there is a real chance to resume the negotiation process. You can evaluate the positive role of a break in negotiations by referring to your own experience. It is certainly good to remember situations when a discussion of controversial issues with parents, friends, work colleagues, postponed to another day, ended with a mutually acceptable solution.

If the parties seek to solve the problem jointly through negotiations, then the result of the discussion stage is the identification of the main options for such a solution, and the parties move on to the third stage.

Reaching an agreement. Negotiation space

The third stage of negotiations ends the long and difficult search for a solution to the problem: the parties begin to development of final agreements.

When working on an agreement, negotiators will have to make a final choice, which should be within the range of decisions acceptable to both parties. Admissible solutions provide a measure of what opponents can, in principle, agree to. The area within which agreement can be reached is called negotiation space. Any agreements can be reached only within its framework. R. Fischer and U. Ury give a striking example to confirm this. If you go to an antique store to buy an antique silver set worth a thousand dollars, and you only have a hundred-dollar bill, don't expect skillful negotiation to make up the difference. Bargaining is inappropriate here.

Reaching an agreement. Types of solutions

The differences in the final agreements are determined by what solution type formed their basis.

1. Middle, or compromise solution - a typical solution in negotiations. In this case, the parties make mutual concessions. In this case, the concessions should be approximately equal. The easiest way to determine this is in a “buy and sell” situation. The seller asks for the maximum price for his product, and the buyer offers the minimum. If the parties are interested in concluding a deal, then a “negotiation minuet” begins: the seller and the buyer, without losing sight of their own benefits, make successive concessions.

However, more often, negotiators find themselves in a situation where it is difficult to determine the equivalence of concessions. The exchange of concessions can be carried out in accordance with their different importance for the parties: by conceding to the opponent on one issue - less important for himself, the negotiator receives in return an advantage in another issue - more significant for him. An indispensable condition for such a search for a compromise is that concessions do not cross the boundaries of the minimum values of the interests of both parties. Otherwise, the decision made will be outside the scope of the negotiation space.

2. Asymmetrical solution differs in that the concessions of one of the parties significantly exceed the concessions of the other. An agreement based on such a decision is most often adopted in the following situations:
- there is a significant difference in the balance of power of opponents;
- one of the parties is ready to significantly sacrifice its interests for the sake of the expected future benefit;
- the problem that needs to be solved is less important for one of the participants in comparison with the prospects for further relationships;
- negotiations are conducted against the backdrop of conflictual relations;
- one of the negotiators considers further confrontation risky and threatening large losses.

All these factors may occur, for example, in a situation of negotiations between a manager and a subordinate regarding a possible promotion. As a result, the subordinate agrees to make an asymmetrical decision: wait for the next vacancy in exchange for a slight increase in salary. The degree of asymmetry may vary. Its extreme expression is almost complete disregard for the interests of one of the parties. The final decision may contain only words of high praise for the performance of a valuable employee and a vague prospect of promotion through the ranks in the uncertain future. And if an asymmetric solution is generally the least stable, then with significant asymmetry it is often perceived as extremely unfair. In this case, the losing side has a desire to take revenge as soon as the opportunity arises.

3. A fundamentally new solution – this is the one that maximally satisfies the interests of each party. Finding such a solution is the most difficult and requires painstaking work by the negotiators. This solution can be found based on a thorough analysis of the balance of interests of the parties. This allows us to identify non-overlapping interests and thereby complete negotiations to the mutual satisfaction of the parties. The effectiveness of this approach can be seen in the classic example of two sisters who quarreled over an orange. In the end, they compromised and split the orange in half. After which one sister squeezed the juice out of her half, discarding the peel, and the other used the peel for a cake, discarding the fruit itself. If one sister got all the fruit and the other got all the peel, they would both win, avoiding mutual losses.

Another way to a fundamentally new solution is possible through change of interests or their revaluation. In this case, the problem being discussed is included in a broader context. For example, when opponents unite in the face of a common, more serious danger, and their private contradictions are perceived differently.

Describing a fundamentally new solution, it should be noted that in practice it often includes elements of compromise in one or another measure.

Reaching an agreement. Final choice of solution

Work on the agreement can be carried out in two options. One involves first concluding an agreement in general terms, and then agreeing on the details on each controversial issue. Another way is for negotiators to sequentially agree on each controversial issue, which creates a series of detailed agreements. The combination of these private decisions constitutes the final agreement. Whatever option is chosen, working on an agreement involves a number of sequential actions.

First of all, negotiators must develop objective criteria , allowing you to evaluate the developed options for solving the problem. These can be used criteria.

common values, moral principles;
customs and traditions respected by both sides;
laws, instructions, professional standards;
expert assessments;
precedents;
prices.

The criteria used must be independent of the wishes of the parties, otherwise they will not be perceived as fair. The criteria must be practical and acceptable to all negotiators. If you are negotiating the purchase of an apartment, then the average market price for similar apartments in the area can be used as an objective criterion.

The next step for negotiators when working on an agreement is to use objective criteria to select the most acceptable solution. Whether we are talking about positional bargaining or constructive negotiations, you can count on the strength of agreements when they are based on a solution that suits both parties.

And finally, the last thing - approval of the decision based on the chosen method. In bilateral negotiations, the decision-making procedure is quite simple. If opponents are guided by a bargaining strategy, then a decision is made if both sides agree with it or one side simply capitulates. In a situation of constructive negotiations, there is not only mutual consent of the parties, but also the absence of the forced nature of such consent. In multilateral negotiations, two decision making method: consensus and majority vote.

Consensus method (from lat. consensus – agreement, unanimity) presupposes the agreement of all participants in the negotiations with the reached solution. The method is based on “recognition of other people’s interests as a condition for the implementation of one’s own interests.” Agreements developed by consensus are the most durable, since this method is incompatible with the negative position of at least one of the opponents. However, consensus also has disadvantages:

if at least one of the opponents objects, the decision will not be approved and the negotiations will reach a dead end;
the need for multiple approvals can be used to delay the negotiation process;
the danger of negotiations breaking down almost at the finish line may force the parties to make decisions with vague wording.

If the negotiators use to approve the decision majority method then they have a better chance of reaching agreement. However, in this case, the problem of fulfilling agreements becomes urgent. An example is the conflict in the whaling business that began in the 1980s. The threat of extermination of whales and pressure from the world community forced the International Whaling Commission to adopt a decision on a moratorium on commercial harvesting of these animals, approved by a majority vote. However, four members of this organization, which accounted for about 80% of the world's fisheries, refused to comply with the majority decision, which almost turned the moratorium into a fiction. True, this method of decision-making allows one to declare the position of the majority.

Reaching an agreement. Consolidate the solution

If successful, negotiations are completed consolidation of the decision in the final documents or limited to oral agreements - depending on the degree of formality of the situation. It is clear that putting agreements in writing reduces the possibility of their arbitrary interpretation in the future. However, within the framework of interpersonal relationships, such practice is most often absent. This allows the parties, if they wish, to more easily violate the terms of the contract or even cancel it.

It should be borne in mind that negotiations are not always conducted in strict accordance with the outlined scheme. As negotiations progress toward a conclusion, participants may return to clarify issues discussed earlier. But the general logic of the sequence of stages of negotiations must be preserved. Violation of it can lead to a delay in the negotiation process or a breakdown.

Cm.: Lebedeva M. M. You have negotiations ahead. M.: Economics, 1993.
Cm.: Mitsic N. How to conduct business conversations. M.: Economics, 1987.
Cm.: Fisher R„ Yuri U. Decree. op.
Cm.: Fisher R„ Yuri U. Decree. op.
Conflicts in modern Russia / ed. E. I. Stepanova. M.: Editorial URSS, 1999. P. 196.

The impossibility of further continuing the armed struggle is only an impetus for abandoning it, but not yet the beginning of the search for a joint way to solve the problem. The parties may take any other unilateral steps (in particular, exerting political and economic pressure on each other). Joint action, i.e. negotiations aimed at finding a joint solution begin only when all participants are convinced that they have no better alternative to negotiations. American authors R. Fisher and W. Urey introduced the special term “BATNA” (an abbreviation for the English “Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement”) - the best alternative to a negotiated solution (agreement). Its absence is one of the main elements of the negotiation process.

Here it is necessary to especially emphasize the word “best”, since when entering into negotiations to resolve a conflict, participants usually still have several alternatives to them (ATNA)[*]. Alternatives are carefully studied and developed, often in parallel with the negotiation process. It is no coincidence that when resolving a conflict, one can observe a situation where negotiations are carried out simultaneously with attempts to use other means of resolving it, including armed ones. Participants in the conflict, through trial and error, test for themselves the possibility and effectiveness of various options. As events unfold, one or another alternative to negotiations may turn into a better alternative than the negotiated solution, i.e. in BATNA. Then the negotiations will be interrupted, and the parties will move on to unilateral actions. Later they can return to negotiations again, although these will be different negotiations and under new conditions. This has happened more than once, for example, in the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, in Nagorno-Karabakh and in many other cases.

In order for the parties to the conflict to move from unilateral steps to joint ones, in addition to the absence of BATNA, they need to determine the area where discussion is possible and where - what is especially important - it is possible reaching an agreement. This area is called negotiation space. The lack of such space for the parties on one of the key issues in Nagorno-Karabakh - its political status - was a serious reason for the continuation of the armed conflict over a long period.

For clarity, the simplest version of the negotiation space can be represented graphically in the form of a space located inside the zone of acceptable (acceptable) decisions for both parties (Fig. 4).

Acceptable solutions presuppose what, in principle, one or another participant can agree to. Typically, acceptable solutions contain certain concessions, so the parties try to consider them as a fallback option for discussion or as a fallback position.

Before deciding on joint actions to resolve a conflict, its participants compare the negotiation space and BATNA. P.T. Hopmann writes that agreements can only be reached within such a space. These Arrangements are only perceived as “fair” or “equitable” if both parties find the agreement better than their estimated BATNA.

For there to be a negotiation space, it is necessary that the boundaries of acceptable decisions of the parties “overlap” each other. If the parties to the conflict define the boundaries of their acceptable solutions as shown in Fig. 5, this means that there is no negotiation space.

Sometimes the negotiation space is called space for bargaining. When resolving a conflict, especially at the initial stage of this process, the parties actually “bargain” over mutual concessions, often trying to take the toughest possible position. However, since in most cases the conflict is not described by a zero-sum situation, i.e. affects the various interests of the parties and involves various types of exchanges, then the negotiation space has more than one “dimension”, as shown in Fig. 4 and 5, and the set, in a word, is “multidimensional”. The significance of concessions (or their “price”) along these “dimensions” is not the same for the participants: something is more important for one, something for another. Thus, the actions of the parties are more complex in nature than “pure bargaining”; the term “negotiation space”, being broader, more accurately describes the area of a possible agreement.

It is important to keep in mind that, like BATNA, the negotiation space is not fixed once and for all. It can change during the interaction of the parties to the conflict - appear, expand, narrow, become more specific and even disappear. In the latter case, the parties will be forced to return to confrontation again.

The presence of negotiation space in the absence of BATNA is the basis for a peaceful resolution of the conflict. However, sometimes, not seeing the possibility of solving problems through unilateral actions, the parties to the conflict begin negotiations even in the absence of negotiation space in the hope of determining its possible framework. This discussion is preliminary. Its result could be either the start of actual negotiations to resolve the conflict, if negotiation space is found, or a return to unilateral actions. Obviously, if the parties have a better alternative in the absence of negotiation space, then there is no need to develop the latter, since it is BATNA that will be implemented.

Is it possible that the parties to the conflict have neither negotiation space nor BATNA? Such situations arise quite often. As a rule, the parties first try to develop their ATNAs and find the best alternative among them, realizing that otherwise the very fact of entering into negotiations will impose restrictions on them in achieving maximum goals and even in developing alternatives in the future. Failure to keep promises and a sudden intensification of military operations during negotiations can significantly undermine reputation, weaken support and trust. Therefore, participants still try to avoid such behavior, at least in an explicit form.

When participants fail to develop their BATNA, they begin searching for negotiation space while continuing to search for a better alternative. In other words, the parties to the conflict act in both directions at once: they are looking for opportunities for a joint solution and at the same time taking unilateral steps. As a result, the conflict either subsides when the focus is on identifying a negotiating space, or flares up with renewed vigor until armed struggle.

Negotiations and armed struggle are also going on in parallel. As a result, conflict resolution becomes wavy and often protracted character, and is also accompanied by other forms of activity, some of which contribute to the search for peaceful solutions, others slow them down. This could be an appeal for support from international organizations, the purchase of weapons, the use of the media, and various kinds of diplomatic steps.

There are many examples of the wave-like process of conflict resolution, when negotiations are accompanied by a surge of violence. Thus, armed actions were carried out during the Paris negotiations to end the war in Vietnam in the 70s, and during the negotiations on Nagorno-Karabakh in the early 90s, and during the negotiations on Bosnia and Herzegovina in the mid-90s, and during many other cases. Therefore, the well-known expression “when the guns speak, diplomats are silent” turns out to be quite relative: they often “speak at the same time.”

Table 1 gives an idea of the behavior of a conflict participant depending on the presence or absence of BATNA and negotiation space. 2. As it follows, the absence of BATNA is an indispensable condition for the negotiation process for a peaceful resolution of the conflict.

Table 2.

Behavior of a conflict participant depending on BATNA and negotiation space

Negotiations themselves begin from the moment when the conflicting parties begin to discuss the problem. At the first meeting, it is necessary to agree on procedural issues, the main outlines of which were determined during the preparation for the negotiations. Issues requiring mutual approval of the parties include: 1) agenda; 2) the time frame of both individual meetings and, presumably, the entire negotiation process; 3) order of opponents’ speeches: 4) decision-making methodology; 5) conditions for participation in negotiations by mediators, if any.

The negotiation process is associated with direct interaction between opponents or interaction with the participation of a third party and is heterogeneous in its tasks. Accordingly, the following stages of negotiations can be distinguished:

1) clarification of the interests and positions of the parties;

2) discussion involving the development of possible solutions to the problem;

3) reaching an agreement.

1 Clarification of the interests and positions of the parties. Preliminary preparation for negotiations does not mean that the conflicting parties have a complete and adequate understanding of each other’s positions. In addition, the conflict situation itself complicates the process of communication between the parties. Therefore, at the first stage of negotiations, interaction between opponents consists, first of all, in the exchange of information regarding the most important controversial issues, interests of the parties, points of view and positions of each other on the existing problem.

If negotiators are guided by the city's strategy, they often strive to immediately state their maximum demands. It must be admitted that even in conditions of cooperation, the situation very rarely develops along only one path, namely the one that you proposed from the very beginning. This is especially true for negotiations in conflict situations. An initial tough position reduces the parties' chances of reaching an agreement. According to the American psychologist D. Myers, “in many conflicts, what is shared is not a pie of a fixed size, but a pie that dries out during the conflict.” Therefore, such actions may lead the ongoing negotiations to a dead end.

The importance of this stage lies not only in that. that within its framework the information function of negotiations is realized. It is essential for shaping the atmosphere in which negotiations will take place. It is no secret that in a conflict, the parties experience obvious or hidden hostility towards each other, which manifests itself during their direct interaction. However, something else is clear: if the parties have not been able to establish normal working relations, then they are unlikely to have a chance to reach any agreements. American researchers R. Fisher and S. Brown identified six elements that contribute to the formation of a favorable climate in the negotiation process:2

1) rationality. It is necessary to remain calm even if the other party is emotional. Any incontinence has a destructive effect on the relationship between the parties;

2) understanding. Try to understand your opponent. Neglecting his point of view limits the possibility of reaching an agreement;

3) communication. Direct contacts can always be used to improve relations between parties to the conflict:

4) reliability. Avoid using false information:

5) lack of an instructive rut. Dismissive intonations, mentoring tone, peremptory statements are interpreted as a demonstration of superiority, a manifestation of disrespect and cause irritation:

6) openness to perceive another point of view. Try to understand the essence of your opponent’s ideas. After all, understanding another’s point of view does not mean agreeing with it. Intolerance towards the views of your opponent is a sure way to break the relationship.

2 Discussion stage. The second stage of negotiations is the most important and, as a rule, the most difficult. At this stage, the negotiators must develop the basic parameters for a joint solution to the problem, and in conditions of conflict this is very difficult to achieve. By making proposals that correspond to one or another solution option and discussing them, opponents can strengthen or weaken their own positions, largely predetermining the outcome of the negotiations. Last but not least, this depends on their ability to listen, ability to persuade, and ability to ask questions. It is hardly possible to talk about the high professionalism of a diplomat or lawyer if he does not possess such qualities. But even in conflicts between husband and wife or a leader and a subordinate, these advantages are no less significant.

A. Listening is the basis of any negotiation. Often, parties to a conflict are confident that they will adequately understand each other without making much effort. However, listening is a very difficult art. There are two types of effective listening: unreflective and reflective.

Non-reflective listening is the ability to remain silent attentively, giving the opponent the opportunity to speak. In a situation of conflict, this is especially important. However, unreflective listening is inappropriate if:

There is a danger that silence may be interpreted as agreement with the opponent's point of view;

There is doubt that you understood the speaker correctly.

In these cases, you should resort to reflective listening techniques, i.e. decipher the meaning of messages. These techniques are:

1 These aspects of the discussion are discussed in more detail in the following works: Atwater I. I’m listening to you. - M.: Economics. 1984; Deryabo S. D., Yasvin V. A. Grandmaster of Communication. - M.: Meaning. Academia. 1996; Micich J. How to conduct business conversations. - M.: Economics. 1987.

Clarification - turning to the speaker for clarification when there is ambiguity in a phrase or ambiguity in a word:

Paraphrasing is repeating the speaker’s thoughts in his own words to check its accuracy;

Summarizing is summing up the main ideas of the speaker.

Reflection of feelings is the desire to show your opponent that you understand his feelings.

B. In order to get the opponent to agree with the point of view expressed, negotiators need the ability to persuade. Its characteristic feature is its appeal, first of all, to the human mind and the use of argumentation; those. a system of statements intended to substantiate or refute an opinion. The effectiveness of persuasion largely depends on adherence to a number of principles and mastery of argumentation methods,

When arguing your point of view, you should adhere to the following principles:

Simplicity. The arguments presented must be understandable to the opponent;

Similarity of communication. Argumentation should not look like a monologue, but, on the contrary, involves an active reaction of the other side to the arguments presented;

Visibility. When justifying your point of view, you must also use visual arguments;

Adapting arguments to your opponent's logic. Arguments should be made taking into account the individual characteristics of the negotiating partner.

When justifying your point of view or refuting the point of view of your opponent, you can use the methods of argumentation described by P. Micic:

Fundamental method - is a presentation of facts and specific information;

The method of contradiction is based on identifying the implementation in the opponent’s reasoning;

The method of drawing conclusions is based on precise argumentation, which through particular conclusions leads to the desired result;

The comparison method - gives the reasoning brightness, makes it more visible;

The “yes...but” method is used if the opponent focuses either only on the advantages or only on the weaknesses of the discussed solution to the problem. This method allows you to first agree with the speaker and then object:

The method of picking up a remark involves the ability to use an opponent’s remark in order to strengthen one’s own argument.

Convincing your opponent during a discussion is as important as it is difficult. And unfounded optimism is not appropriate here. Otherwise, negotiations risk turning into a collision of billiard balls that scatter in different directions without changing either shape or color.

C. An important part of effectively discussing the parties' proposals is the ability to ask questions. This is explained by the fact that a correctly posed question allows you to clarify your opponent’s point of view, obtain additional information from him, intensify the discussion process, and direct the discussion in the right direction.

The following types of questions can be distinguished:

Closed - require answers like “yes no”. It is recommended to ask them in cases where it is necessary to speed up obtaining consent or confirm previously reached agreements:

Open - require a detailed answer. Asked in those cases. when it is necessary to obtain additional information or clarify the opponent’s position:

Rhetorical - a statement or denial expressed in interrogative form and not requiring an answer. Such questions allow you to unobtrusively persuade your opponent to the speaker’s opinion;

Suggestive - contain elements of the required answer. They can be used when it is necessary to obtain confirmation of the speaker's point of view or to direct negotiations in a certain direction.

D. All the efforts of the conflicting parties in the process of discussing proposals to develop possible solutions to the problem can turn into failure if the opponents themselves create obstacles on this path. The problem is that people tend to think in patterns. Try solving the following problem: “Two people approached the river. Near the deserted shore there was a boat in which only one person could fit. Both crossed the river on this boat and continued on their way. How did they do this? Possible difficulties in solving the problem are caused by the interpretation of the first phrase, which suggests that the travelers walked together. Abandoning the usual line of reasoning makes it possible to understand that they approached different banks and crossed in turns.

The ability to abandon the stereotype;

The ability to move freely from one aspect of a question to another;

The ability to find unexpected, unique solutions.

Drawing attention to this aspect of negotiations, R. Fischer and U. Ury identify several typical mistakes that hinder the creative thinking of opponents.1

1. Premature judgment. A critical attitude and preliminary assessments narrow the field of view, limiting the number of options offered. A great many conflicts could have a better outcome if their participants did not immediately reject other people's ideas.

2. Search for a single option. Since the agreement will be based on one solution, the conflicting parties strive to find this only option from the very beginning. Thus, at the beginning of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, American politicians considered only two alternatives: either undertake a blockade of Cuba or begin military action.

3. The conviction that it is impossible to “enlarge the pie.” An obstacle to creating diverse options for solving a problem is the confidence of the parties to the conflict that a gain for one is possible only at the expense of a loss for the other. Thus, if a marital conflict is accompanied by divorce, then often the former spouses consider the only alternative: either one party receives the disputed property, or the other. This means that the main thing is to win as much as possible, and not look for other approaches.

4. “The solution to their problem is their problem.” When entering the path of negotiations, the conflicting parties are focused on concluding one or another agreement (provided that we are not talking about achieving side effects). But at the same time, they often concentrate their efforts mainly on ways to realize only their own interests, leaving the other side to independently take care of solving their problems.

Such miscalculations by negotiators create insurmountable barriers to an agreement. The following recommendations for creating solutions to the problem will help you avoid them.

1. Separate the search for options from their evaluation. Negotiators must first develop possible solutions and only then choose the most acceptable among them.

2. Expand your options. The likelihood that a solution to the problem will be found is high only if the conflicting parties have something to choose from,

3. Seek mutual benefits. Often, opponents view negotiations as a battle in which there can only be one winner. With this approach, either the negotiations reach a dead end, or the cost of victory turns out to be too high. Another way is more effective. First, opponents need to identify common interests that reduce confrontation and make it easier to reach an agreement. Secondly, negotiators should focus on optimal satisfaction of mutually exclusive interests. Thirdly, the success of negotiations can be ensured by the coordination of various, non-overlapping interests. In this case, satisfying the interests of one party does not affect the interests of the other. An example that allows us to see the combination of diverse interests can be the practice of selling housing under construction. Both the seller and the buyer are interested in completing the transaction. However, the construction company strives to increase the price of the apartment to the maximum, while the buyer, on the contrary, is interested in reducing it. Reaching an agreement is possible on the basis of differences of interests; the buyer of the utes should wait until construction is completed if he pays a lesser amount; the seller agrees to reduce the price if he receives the money now.

4. Try to make it easier for your opponent to make a decision. The result of the negotiations should be a solution that suits both parties. Therefore, the success of each party is inseparable from mutual agreement with the proposed solution to the problem. Accordingly, lack of attention to the opponent’s opinion about possible solutions is detrimental to the outcome of the negotiations. On the contrary, you should focus on the options that are preferable not only for you, but also for the other party. During the discussion, it is important to take into account the compliance of a possible solution with the principles, previous words and actions of the opponent. "If you want a horse to jump over a fence, don't increase

fence height."1

The negotiation process in conditions of conflict relations is quite complex. Often its participants view the situation as a zero-sum conflict and demonstrate an orientation towards a rigid style of positional bargaining. In this case, the discussion, which involves developing possible solutions to the problem, does not bring the desired result, and the negotiations reach a dead end. There comes a period of “dead time” when the negotiation process is suspended. In this situation, there are two possible options for further actions by opponents.

1) Leaving the negotiating table. If this option is implemented, it is important to consider a number of aspects:

Negotiations should be interrupted only after a thorough analysis and assessment of the situation;

You should not end negotiations at a moment when you are angry and obeying a momentary impulse;

You should clearly explain to your opponent the essence of the disagreements that forced you to take a decisive step;

Never burn your prayers. Most interactions between parties to a conflict are not one-time, but recurring. These are the relations of states in the international arena, supporters of opposing parties in parliament, leaders and subordinates, family relations, etc.

If you think resuming negotiations makes sense, let your opponent know;

If your opponent took the first step towards you, appreciate his action and do not reject his proposals out of hand;

In the event of leaving the negotiating table, the conflicting parties begin unilateral actions, implementing their alternatives to the negotiated agreement, which were determined at the preparation stage. On the one hand, the presence of a fairly attractive BATNA among opponents significantly increases the danger of a breakdown in negotiations and weakens the mutual desire to prevent this breakdown. On the other hand, the presence of alternatives to a negotiated agreement and the transition to unilateral actions make it possible to protect the parties to the conflict from accepting undesirable agreements. For an example, one can look to recent events in international economic relations. In the trade war between the United States and the European Union, which was marked by particularly active actions in 1999, the parties were unable to find a common language and overcome the contradictions that arose between them. They switched to unilateral actions: the European Union banned the import of American “hormonal” meat, and the Americans introduced draconian duties on a number of European products, for example, Roquefort cheese and French wines.

However, we should not forget that having embarked on the path of negotiations, the participants recognized their dependence on each other. And if the negotiation process is disrupted, then the contradiction that formed the basis of the conflict will remain unresolved. Confirmation of this aspect of the relationship between the parties can be seen by returning to the events of the trade war between the United States and the European Union. In this conflict, trading partners are like the builders of the Tower of Babel, whom God deprived of a common language. “However, a common language will have to be found; the tower cannot stand unfinished.”1 The holding of the World Trade Organization summit in Seattle in December 1999 was one of the steps towards resuming dialogue.

2) Finding a positive way out of the current situation presupposes continuation of negotiations. In this case, the use of a purely technical means - announcing a break in the negotiations - can be very effective. This allows the conflicting parties to analyze the progress of the negotiations, assess the state of affairs, hold consultations within their delegations or with someone from the outside, reduce the emotional intensity of the atmosphere at the negotiations, and think through possible options for resolving their impasse.

As a result, the conflicting parties have a real chance to resume the negotiation process. You can evaluate the positive role of a break in negotiations by referring to your own experience. Surely you will remember situations when a discussion of controversial issues with parents, friends, work colleagues, postponed to another day, ended with a mutually acceptable solution.

If the conflicting parties seek to solve the problem jointly through negotiations, then the result of the discussion stage is the identification of the main options for such a solution, and the parties move on to the third stage.

3 Reaching an agreement. This stage of negotiations ends a long and difficult search for a solution to the problem: the conflicting parties begin to develop final agreements. When working on an agreement, negotiators will have to make a final choice, which should be within the range of decisions acceptable to both parties. Admissible solutions provide a measure of what opponents can, in principle, agree to.

This area where agreement can be reached is called negotiation space. Any agreements can be reached only within its framework. R. Fischer and U. Ury give a striking example to confirm this. If you go to an antique store to buy an antique silver set worth thousands of dollars and you only have a hundred dollar bill, don't expect skillful negotiation to make up the difference. Bargaining is inappropriate here.

Graphically, the simplest version of the negotiation space can be represented in Fig. 18.2.

The limits of acceptable decisions for each of the parties may be very far from the initially stated positions. Therefore, reaching an agreement is more likely in the central zone of the negotiation space, relatively equally distant from the boundaries of what is permissible. In this case, the decision made is perceived by opponents as quite satisfactory. The further the selected partner m is from the central zone, the more the agreement reached corresponds to the goals of one party and is of a forced nature for the other. The latter is inclined to evaluate this development of events rather as a defeat, although the decision made is in the area of negotiation space.

The graphical representation of the negotiation space is more reminiscent of a bargaining space. But even if this strategy is implemented, the possible interaction of the parties to exchange concessions does not always fit into such a simple scheme. If we talk about negotiations based on interests, then they can be carried out without concessions at all. Therefore, in reality, the negotiation space is more complex and, in the words of M. M. Lebedeva, multidimensional.

Reaching an agreement is possible based on three types of decisions:

Middle:

Asymmetrical:

A fundamentally new solution.

A typical solution in negotiations is a middle, or compromise, solution. In this case, the conflicting parties make mutual concessions. In this case, the concessions should be approximately equal. It is better if the equality of steps towards each other can be expressed in numerical values, then determining the “middle” will not be difficult. The easiest way to do this is in a “buy and sell” situation. The seller asks for the maximum price for his product, and the buyer offers the minimum. If the parties are interested in concluding a deal, then a “negotiation minuet” begins: the seller and the buyer. without losing sight of their own benefit, they make consistent concessions.

However, more often than not, negotiators find themselves in a situation where it is difficult to determine the equivalence of concessions. The exchange of concessions can be carried out in accordance with their different significance for the conflicting parties: by conceding to the opponent on one issue - less important for himself, the negotiator receives in return an advantage in another issue - more significant for him. An indispensable condition for such a search for a compromise is that concessions do not cross the boundaries of the minimum values of the interests of both parties (Fig. 18.3). Otherwise, the decision made will be outside the scope of the negotiation space. This condition was called the Pareto principle, named after the famous Italian sociologist and economist V. Pareto (1848-1923), who developed this principle in 1904.1 In the diagram explaining the Pareto principle, point C denotes the minimum value reflecting the degree of satisfaction of the interests of party A : point D - side B. The shaded sector represents a negotiation space, in the zone of which opponents can make mutual concessions (see Fig. 18.3).

Figure 18.3

A similar solution was found in the conflict that unfolded around the Panama Capal. Since 1903, the zone of this drap was controlled by the United States, which invested huge sums in its construction. For decades, the Panamanians have demanded that the canal be taken over by them. By the mid-70s, the conflict had escalated so much that the parties were forced to enter into negotiations. In 1977, an agreement was concluded to transfer the canal (which has generated more than one billion dollars in revenue over the past 20 years alone) to Panama by 2000.

The second type of solution is an asymmetric solution, in which the concessions of one of the parties to the conflict significantly exceed the concessions of the other. An agreement based on such a decision is most often adopted in situations where:

There is a significant difference in the balance of power between the conflicting parties;

One of the negotiators considers further confrontation risky and threatening even greater losses;

The problem that needs to be solved is much less important for one of the opponents in comparison with the prospects for further relationships.

All these factors can take place, for example, in a conflict between parents and their teenage son, who ultimately agrees to make an asymmetrical decision, clearly receiving less than the conventional half.

The degree of asymmetry may vary. Its extreme expression is almost complete neglect of the interests of one of the conflicting parties. This is precisely the nature of the Versailles Treaty of 1919, concluded after the end of the First World War, in relation to Germany. And if an asymmetric solution is generally the least stable, then with significant asymmetry it is often perceived as a temporary concession to the opponent. In this case, the losing side has a desire to take revenge as soon as the opportunity arises. The development of historical events after the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles until the outbreak of World War II is a vivid and tragic illustration of the consequences of an asymmetrical solution.

The third type of solution is a fundamentally new solution, in which the contradiction is completely resolved or becomes insignificant, and the relations of the conflicting parties change radically. Finding such a solution is the most difficult and requires painstaking work by negotiators focused on the complete end of the conflict.

A fundamentally new solution can be found based on a thorough analysis of the balance of interests of the parties. This makes it possible to identify non-overlapping interests and thereby resolve the conflict to the mutual satisfaction of opponents. The effectiveness of this approach can be seen in the classic example of two sisters who quarreled over an orange. In the end, they compromised and split the orange in half. After which one sister squeezed the juice out of her half, discarding the peel, and the other used the peel for a cake, discarding the fruit itself. If one sister got all the fruit and the other got all the peel, they would eat both, avoiding mutual losses.

Another path to a fundamentally new solution is possible through a change in interests or their revaluation. In this case, the problem being discussed is included in a broader context. This happens, for example, when opponents unite in the face of a general, more serious danger and their private contradictions are perceived differently. For example, in the era of Republican Rome, during a period of complex internal political struggle, an agreement was concluded - the famous Triumvirate (60 BC) - between the powerful figures of Rome - Caesar. Pompey and Crassus, who united their efforts in opposing the Senate.

When characterizing a fundamentally new solution, it should be noted that in practice it often includes, to one degree or another, elements of a compromise.

Work on the agreement can be carried out in two ways. The first involves first concluding an agreement in general terms, and then agreeing on the details on each controversial issue. Another way is also possible. In this case, negotiators resort to sequential agreement on each controversial issue, which creates a series of detailed agreements. The combination of these private decisions constitutes the final agreement. Whatever option is chosen, working on an agreement involves a number of sequential actions.

First of all, negotiators must develop objective criteria that allow them to evaluate the developed options for solving the problem. Such criteria can be used:

Common values, moral principles;

Customs and traditions respected by both sides;

Laws, instructions, professional standards;

Expert assessments;

Precedents;

The criteria used must be independent of the wishes of the parties, otherwise they will not be perceived as fair. The criteria must be practical and acceptable to all negotiators. Neglecting these characteristics can lead to an unreasonable agreement and have dire consequences. Take a look at the geographical map of the world and pay attention to the outline of Israel's borders. In many areas it is a straight line. One of these lines appeared after the First World War and cut the Golan Heights into two parts so that the Lake of Galilee (the main reservoir of drinking water in the region) ended up in one territory (later - in Israel), and the sources of many rivers flowing into this lake - on another territory (later - near Syria). Such an ill-conceived decision is still making itself felt in the Middle East conflict.

The next step for negotiators when working on an agreement is to select, using objective criteria, the most acceptable solution. Whether we are talking about positional bargaining or negotiations based on interests, you can count on the strength of agreements when they are based on a solution that suits both parties.

And finally, the last thing is approval of the solution based on the chosen method. In bilateral negotiations, the decision-making procedure is quite simple. If opponents are guided by a bargaining strategy, then a decision is made whether both sides agree with it or one side simply capitulates. In a situation of negotiations based on interests, not only is there mutual agreement of the parties, but there is also no forced nature of such a step. In multilateral negotiations, the following decision-making methods are used; 1) consensus, 2) majority of votes.

The consensus method (from the Latin consensus - agreement, unanimity) presupposes the agreement of all participants in the negotiations with the developed solution. The method is based on “recognition of other people’s interests as a condition for the implementation of one’s own interests.” Agreements developed on the basis of consensus are the most durable, since this method is incompatible with the negative position of at least one of the opponents. However, consensus has not only advantages, but also disadvantages;

If at least one of the opponents objects, the decision will not be approved and the negotiations will reach a dead end;

The need for multiple approvals can be used to delay the negotiation process;

The danger of negotiations breaking down almost at the finish line may force the conflicting parties to adopt vaguely worded decisions.

If negotiators use the majority method to approve a decision, then they have a greater chance of reaching agreement. However, in this case, the problem of fulfilling agreements becomes urgent. An example is the conflict in the whaling business that began in the 80s. The threat of extermination of whales and pressure from the world community forced the International Whaling Commission to adopt a decision on a moratorium on commercial harvesting of these animals, approved by a majority vote. However, four members of this organization, which accounted for about 80% of the world's fisheries, refused to comply with the majority decision, which almost turned the moratorium into a fiction. True, this method of decision-making allows one to declare the position of the majority.

If the negotiations are successful, they end with the decision being consolidated in the final documents or limited to verbal agreements, depending on the formality of the situation. It is clear that putting agreements in writing reduces the possibility of their arbitrary interpretation in the future. However, in situations of interpersonal conflicts, such a practice is virtually absent. This allows the parties, if they wish, to more easily violate the terms of the contract or even cancel it.

It should be borne in mind that negotiations are not always conducted in strict accordance with the outlined scheme. As the negotiations move towards the outcome, the conflicting parties may return to clarify issues discussed earlier. But the general logic of the sequence of stages of negotiations must be preserved. Its violation can lead to a delay in the negotiation process or its breakdown.

Reaching an agreement is possible on the basis of 3 types of solutions: 1) The middle, or compromise, is a typical solution in negotiations. In this case, the parties make mutual concessions. The exchange of concessions can be carried out in accordance with their differences. significance for the conflicting parties: by conceding to the opponent on one issue - less important for himself, the negotiator receives in return an advantage in another issue - more significant for him. But concessions should not cross the boundaries of the minimum values of the interests of both parties, otherwise the decision made will be outside the scope of the negotiation space (this condition is called the “Pareto principle” after the Italian sociologist and economist V. Pareto (1848-1923)). 2) Asymmetric solution - when the concessions of one of the parties significantly exceed the concessions of the other. An agreement based on such a decision is most often adopted later. situations: a) there is a significant difference in the balance of power of opponents; b) one of the parties is ready to significantly sacrifice its interests for the sake of future expected benefits; c) the problem that needs to be solved is less important for one of the participants in comparison with the prospects for further relationships; d) negotiations are conducted against the backdrop of conflictual relations; e) one of the negotiators considers further confrontation risky and threatening large losses. The degree of asymmetry can vary. Its extreme expression is almost complete disregard for the interests of one of the parties. And if an asymmetric solution is generally the least stable, then with significant asymmetry it is often perceived as extremely unfair. In this case, the losing side has a desire to take revenge as soon as the opportunity arises. 3) A fundamentally new solution - one that maximally satisfies the interests of each party. Finding it is the most difficult and requires painstaking work by the negotiators. A fundamentally new solution can be found based on a thorough analysis of the balance of interests of the parties. This makes it possible to identify non-overlapping interests and thereby complete negotiations to the mutual satisfaction of the parties. Dr. the path to a fundamentally new solution is possible through a change in interests or their revaluation. In this case, the problem being discussed is included in a broader context. For example, when opponents unite in the face of a common, more serious danger and their private contradictions are perceived differently. When characterizing a fundamentally new solution, it should be noted that in practice it often includes, to one degree or another, elements of a compromise. Lit.: Zaretskaya E. N. Business communication. T. 1, 2. M., 2002; Malkhanova I. A. Business communication. M., 2002; Psychology and ethics of business communication / Ed. V. N. Lavrinenko, 2008. Zh. B. Skripkina

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No. 2 [Young people in librarianship, 2003]

"spread in space" has become a formative factor for expanding the information space<...>: This is a method of space exploration.<...>This is how the attributive property of any space manifests itself in the information space: unity<...>The properties of the information space were determined by the generic properties of its substrates: from space<...>Information space existing through documents, i.e. documentary space: very

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Who are the "National Socialists"

The brochure reveals the emergence of National Socialism and its consequences.

BIBKOM & Kniga-Service Agency LLC The second ideological motive is expressed in the wretched theory of “living space”<...>it is necessary to oust neighboring peoples with fire and sword, to exterminate them in order to conquer the necessary “living space”<...>country, why they destroy civilians - they give one standard answer: “to conquer living space<...>In reality, Germany’s “living space,” i.e., its territory, is quite sufficient for<...>In fact, the cry about “living space” was raised by the fascists to deceive the German people, in order

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M.: PROMEDIA

social space.<...> <...> <...> <...>

Social space of the student classroom

M.: PROMEDIA

social space.<...>Chapter 1 - “Morphology of Social Space” - reveals the structure of social space<...>or for the entire space as a whole.<...>This is a social space on a planetary scale. In §11 - “Dynamics of social space.<...>Each social space has its own pace and logic of changes in the elements of space.

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The article reveals the concept of peacekeeping potential of youth and society. It also talks about new information tasks within the framework of peacekeeping activities as the main means of solving problems in the field of peaceful resolution and conflict prevention. The article touches on aspects of educational standards and public-private partnerships in the development of the peacekeeping potential of society.

<...>This is also due to the trend of military threats shifting into the information space" (quote from TASS)

The article is devoted to painting and the art schools of V.V. Sterligov, I.A. Sidlin and artists working in a different pictorial manner.

Suprematism ceased to have a defensively narrowed character, and the artist’s exit into the “cup-domed space”<...>Sterligova, as well as a certain pedagogical talent, was attracted to the sphere of the cupola space<...>that he managed to enter and fall in love (to develop a gold-bearing vein to the end), when the movement begins into new spaces

Features of the dynamics of the “psychological field” of personality in adolescents with a professional pedagogical orientation

M.: PROMEDIA

In other words, we are talking about the formation of a psychological space in which a person navigates<...>The interconnection of the concepts “psychological field”, “psychological space”, “psychological<...>The possibilities for organizing a certain “living space,” however, are largely determined by<...>The “psychological field” of a student’s personality can be represented as a “living space”, determinants<...>The conceptual model of “living space” is created in a university setting with the participation of all subjects

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The article is devoted to the history of creation, plotline and characters of Solzhenitsyn’s novel “In the First Circle”.

./ This space also supplies excellent soldiers" (I, 174).

Information and library environment of the educational space of the region (using the example of the Novosibirsk region)

Publishing house of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS

This monograph examines the important mission of modern libraries, which is to satisfy the educational needs of modern people and is devoted to the analysis of the information and library environment of the educational space of the largest region of the Siberian Federal District - the Novosibirsk region. The author examined the concept of educational space and compared the trends and dynamics of the development of the higher education system with the characteristics of the information and library infrastructure.

Bourdieu, social space is “an ensemble of invisible connections, the very ones that form space<...>Bourdieu, there is a "space of relations that is as real as geographical space<...>The educational space is the space of relations between all subjects of education.<...>Cultural space, like social space, is heterogeneous both in its content, that is<...>At the same time, the information space of the individual reaches the size of the information space of society.

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Psychological mechanisms of motivation development

M.: PROMEDIA

was depicted in the concept of K. Lewin, according to which behavior is a function of a holistic “living space”<...>Agency Kniga-Service" 29 - it is advisable for the views to reinterpret it, ontologizing the "living space

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STRUCTURE OF PORE SPACE OF NATURAL AND MAN-MODIFIED SOILS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: INSTITUTE OF FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGY RAS

Goals of work. Development of a concept that reveals the role of pore space in the structural organization of soil at the aggregate level. Identification of the main patterns of changes in the pore space of silty-loamy rocks during soil formation. Characteristics of the agrogenic evolution of the structure of the pore space during the cultivation and degradation of arable loamy soils.

The structure of the macropore space in thin sections can be considered as an image of the pore space of aggregates<...>Openwork structure of the pore space.<...>structure of the pore space.<...>space of arable soils.<...>Pore space of irrigated chernozems. ~ We studied the pore space of typical irrigated chernozem

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No. 23 (94) Issue 21 [Scientific bulletins of Belgorod State University. Series Mathematics. Physics, 2010]

Pesterev 36 Nonseparability of random sets with Markov refinement in one-dimensional space<...>Vol. 21 UDC 517.983 ON THE SOLVABILITY OF ONE INTEGRAL EQUATION IN A BANACH SPACE H.K.<...>We prove the solvability in Banach space of the integral equation to which the problem reduces<...>Consider the Cauchy problem for a differential equation in a Banach space E Dατ,tu(t) = A(t)u(t<...>Let E be a Banach space, A an operator acting in E with domain D(A).

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Designing an educational environment Training manual

Russervice

The textbook examines the theory and practice of designing the educational environment of modern educational organizations. The manual is addressed to students in the field of training 44.04.04 Vocational training (by industry).

In modern research, the educational environment is considered as part of the sociocultural space<...>O.S. – a space of knowledge and development of its participants. (Thesaurus for experimental teachers).<...>The educational environment is defined through: - educational space and typology of educational resources<...>The event environment is a space for the purposeful formation of cognitive and performance<...>Educational environment: implementation of educational goals in the space of culture / V.I.

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From the life of plants in 2 books. : popul.-biol. essays: for independent people. and school excursions Book. 2

Ed. A. F. Devriena Type. Aks. General Type. Affairs

From the life of plants

Usually "bnshikh and nstr" expect to be in spaces "!<...>This is the best position for the sv"kg with the greatest saving of space.<...>Look, in fact, what a significant amount of empty space is obtained if, for example,<...>LEAF MOSAIC. 99 Elm and maple are the best examples of the most successful use of space for purposes<...>Instead of hundreds of slender beautiful trees, only stumps remain, instead of dense shadows - a sunlit space

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No. 2-3 [Current issues of economics, management and law: collection of scientific papers, 2016]

"Current Issues of Economics, Management and Law: Collection of Scientific Works (Yearbook)" is dedicated to current issues in the fields of economics, management, law, international relations, politics, culture, and ecology. Publishes the works of leading scientists and reflects the results of scientific research at the Institute of Management Economics and Law, Moscow State University of Culture and Culture. The yearbook is addressed to teachers, young scientists, graduate students, economists, managers and general lawyers

the opinion of scientists, the assessment and dynamics of development of the countries of the former Soviet Union in the post-Soviet space are known<...>full-fledged subjects of international law (new independent states that emerged in the post-Soviet space<...>Indeed, the experience of the development of military-political crises in recent years in a number of states of the post-Soviet space<...>This is also due to the trend of military threats shifting into the information space" (quote from TASS)<...>, connected to the metro by transport interchange hubs), cover free spaces with metal shields

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No. 5 (100) Issue 22 [Scientific bulletins of Belgorod State University. Series Mathematics. Physics, 2011]

The journal is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications published in the Russian Federation, which recommend the publication of the main results of dissertations for the academic degrees of Doctor and Candidate of Sciences. The series "Mathematics. Physics" includes articles on physical and mathematical sciences

L 2 ((0 ,T); Wl "1(n ^ , conjugate to the space Wg’ (PT).<...>The last fact and the completely continuous embedding of the space W2(П) into the space L 2(П) (see) proves<...>Let us denote this space by E.<...>Z1=Z2 1 zi - z2 1 ^ This space is contained in a wider space C q ( D) = C q ( D ] t\<...>Based on the weight function (10), the space C^(D) = m\,. . .

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Tactics and strategies for conducting negotiations. allowance

St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Publishing House. university

Lack of negotiation space.<...>Availability of negotiation space.<...>Participant’s behavior depending on the availability of BATNA and negotiation space Negotiation space<...>The Pareto principle in the negotiation space.<...>Matrix of relationship between negotiation space and BATNA 1.

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Real analysis on manifolds textbooks. allowance

The manual outlines differential and integral calculus on manifolds. In particular, the Stokes formula for differential forms on a manifold is proved, and differential operators in sections of vector bundles are also considered.

on tangent space.<...>The vector space TpM is called the tangent space at point p.<...>vn of space V .<...>(formation of the dual space, space of homomorphisms Hom(V, W) = L(V ; W), space<...>Then the resulting vector space is called the space of k-jets of the bundle E.

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Lecture notes on the academic discipline “Conflictology” in the specialty: 030602 – Public Relations. Part 1

Publishing house PGUTI

The course “Conflictology” allows students to get acquainted with the general systematization of existing knowledge about conflicts in domestic and foreign conflictology, with philosophical, sociological and psychological views on the phenomenon of conflict, with the methodological and theoretical foundations of science, with conflictological research and prospects for their development in various fields of scientific knowledge , as well as with methods and techniques for analyzing, identifying, preventing and resolving conflicts.

<...>Sometimes the negotiation space is called bargaining space.<...>It is important to keep in mind that, like BATNA, the negotiation space is not fixed once and for all<...>How is the negotiation space determined? 8.<...>The party receiving clearly less than the conventional half within the negotiation space deliberately

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No. 1 [Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 2014]

Founded in 1957. Editor-in-chief Gennady Grigorievich Onishchenko - Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Honored Doctor of Russia and Kyrgyzstan, Assistant to the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation. The main objectives of the journal: informing about the theoretical and scientific justification of measures aimed at improving the health of the population, the demographic situation, environmental protection, the activities of the health care system, publication of materials on legislative and regulatory acts related to improving the work of health authorities and institutions, publication of information about positive experience the work of territorial bodies and health care institutions, new ways of this work, the presentation of specific data on the health status of certain categories of the population, the sanitary and epidemiological situation in various regions of Russia. In accordance with these tasks, materials are published on the results of the implementation of national projects “Health” and “Demography”, on improving the strategy in the field of economics and health care management, on the development and implementation of new forms of organizing health care, medical technologies, on the assessment and dynamics of the state health of the population of various regions of the Russian Federation, on the training of medical personnel and advanced training.

Tsiolkovsky’s classic work “Exploration of world spaces using jet instruments” was published for the first time<...>Kaluga printing house 1 thousand copies of a book in two printed sheets entitled “Rocket into outer space”<...>one single thought of Tsiolkovsky: “Humanity will not remain forever on Earth, but in pursuit of light and space<...>At first it will timidly penetrate beyond the atmosphere, and then conquer the circumsolar space."<...>Firstly, evolution occurs in the infinite space of the Universe, where there are a huge number of such

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EXPERIENCE IN CONDUCTING NEGOTIATION TRAINING (“THE PARABLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CAMEL, OR HOW RIVALS BECOME PARTNERS”) [Electronic resource] / V.N. RASKIN // Scientific notes of the St. Petersburg State Institute of Psychology and Social Work.- 2011.- No. 1 (15).- P. 70-73.- Access mode: https://site/efd/394760

The article analyzes the conditions for the transition of negotiators from competition to cooperation. The constructiveness of introducing the principle of “expanding the negotiating field” is substantiated and a role-playing game is proposed, allowing participants to understand the important role of this principle for the effectiveness of negotiations.

The constructiveness of introducing the principle of “expanding the negotiating field” is substantiated and a role-based<...>Key words: cooperation, the principle of expanding the negotiating field, role-playing game, inductiveness.<...> <...> <...>space, which leads to a correction of their positions and a departure from narrowly understood interests.

Problems of increasing the efficiency of the educational process in higher educational institutions: Sat. scientific method. articles Sat. scientific method. articles

The collection contains articles that discuss programs, methodological and organizational support for mathematical cycle disciplines in mathematical and non-mathematical faculties of higher educational institutions, issues of training mathematics teachers at Russian universities, as well as problems of working with secondary school students and recording their educational achievements. The collection is intended for teachers, graduate students and students; it will also be useful for secondary school teachers.

possible hypotheses or problem space."<...>by analogy with the case of spaces of dimensions 2 and 3, known from school geometry.<...>space, and L is the corresponding vector space.<...>Spaces are Euclidean and non-Euclidean. Yaroslavl: Yarosl. state University, 1980. 75 p.<...>The unified educational space is being destroyed.

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No. 9 [Diplomatic Courier, 2014]

Bulletin of Russian foreign policy. Covers the international activities of the President and other leaders of the country, the life of embassies, ministries and diplomatic departments, the preparation and conduct of the most important international meetings, publishes interviews with prominent politicians and diplomats. Contains the texts of the most important documents, comments, certificates, forecasts.

<...>Let us remember that then, in the 90s, in the post-Soviet space alone there were more than a hundred conflict-prone<...>appeals to the UN and CSCE (now OSCE) with requests for partial replacement of peacekeeping forces in the post-Soviet space<...>- At the moment, the negotiation space has been agreed upon and recorded in the relevant document -<...>space was not easy for the parties.

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No. 8 [New literature on social and human sciences. Philosophy. Sociology: Bibliography. decree, 2011]

The index has been published since 1946 and is published monthly. Its purpose is information about domestic and foreign literature on philosophy and sociology. Literature is described in accordance with GOST 7.1-84 “Bibliographic description of a document”. Descriptions are accompanied by annotations. The publication is equipped with author and subject indexes

Dialogism of philosophical space.<...>Multidimensional space concept. 84 Code: 26897632 Frolova S.M.<...>Category of mentality in the space of psychology of faith // Vestn. WITH.<...>The relationship between the categories “social space” and “cultural space” – to the formulation of the problem /<...>Artistic space and Russian cosmism // Vestn.

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No. 12 [Problems of management theory and practice, 2007]

The international journal “Problems of Management Theory and Practice” is the official publication of the International Research Institute for Management Problems, published since 1983. The magazine covers world experience and modern trends in the field of management, economics, and marketing. Topics of the magazine: economic policy, processes of globalization and integration, business systems, strategic and operational management, management and marketing, social partnership.

Organizational accounting system and economic information space, No. 10, p. 42.<...>Unfortunately, it has become legitimate to talk about the fragmentation of the economic space of our country,<...>whereas the concept of a “single economic space” is a big convention for today’s Russia.<...>Consolidation of the post-Soviet space.<...>Contrary to many years of declarations, the unity of the economic space within the former borders of the USSR does not develop

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No. 9 [New literature on social and human sciences. Science: Bibliography. decree, 2012]

The index has been published since 1947 and is published monthly. Its purpose is information about domestic and foreign literature on the theory, history and current state of scientific studies, on the logic and methodology of science, methodological problems of historical and scientific research, on the sociology of science, scientific creativity and psychology of science.

Historian of science in the historiographical space of Caucasian studies // Questions of theory and methodology of history<...>Man and science in the knowledge society // Man in intellectual and spiritual spaces: Sat. scientific<...>Internet space as a communicative environment of social communities // Collection of scientific works of the department<...>"Historical materialism": science VS ideology // Man in the intellectual and spiritual spaces<...>Cultural and educational space of museums as a pedagogical phenomenon // Knowledge. Understanding.

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No. 10 [Posev, 1988]

a novel whose action takes place, if not outside, then, as it were, outside of time, and at the same time in abstract space<...>Sometimes Italian motifs with a bizarre play of sounds burst into his “space inhabited by people”:

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Materials of the VI scientific session of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS (November 9-10, 2000, Novosibirsk)

Publishing house of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS

The next scientific session of the State Public Library for Science and Technology SB RAS is dedicated to the results of work in the main scientific areas in the field of library science, bibliographic science, computer science and book science for 1996-2000. The collection includes presentations of reports and abstracts of messages.

In the future, it is planned to develop principles and conditions for the formation of a unified information space<...>thematically, containing fixed scientific information intended for transmission in time and space<...>Siberian and Far Eastern districts is the first step in implementing the idea of creating a unified information space<...>informatization of society - “information society”, “intellectualization of society”, “information space<...>Therefore, one of the first questions that arises is: who will perform the storage function in time and space?

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No. 3 [Ecumene. Regional studies, 2014]

Scientific and theoretical journal OIKUMEN regional studies. The subject of the journal is related to the general assessment of the current state of socio-humanitarian research in the Far East

Criteria for a safe educational space / 5. L.I.<...>Safety of the educational space “Vostok-6. West" / S.V.<...>Some aspects of the safety of educational 8. space / S.V.<...>Educational space as a pedagogical 10. reality / O.<...>Metageography: Space of images and images of 10. space. M.: Agraf, 2004. 512 p.

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The article covers a range of issues related to the crisis around Iran and its nuclear program. The author analyzes in detail the phenomenon of the “six” great powers and considers the question of whether this crisis can, in principle, be resolved using conventional diplomacy. He pays special attention to the geopolitical background of the modern Iranian crisis and its main features. The author covers in detail the options for the outcome of this crisis.

It even seemed that the United States and Iran would begin the negotiation process and would come to an agreement.<...>process or assisting them in an already ongoing negotiation process.<...>Some light in the negotiation process came in mid-August 2011.<...>space, which for a long period of time seems to be created by the world's involved in this process<...>Thinking in Space. – Ed. 4th. – M.: Arktogeya-center, 2000. Lewis B.

Lecture notes on the academic discipline “Sociology”. Direction of training: 210700 Infocommunication technologies and communication systems. Training profile: 210700 - Multichannel telecommunication systems, 210700 - Communication networks and switching systems

Publishing house PGUTI

Lecture notes on the academic discipline “Sociology” are intended for university students studying in the field of study 210700 Infocommunication technologies, training profiles: Multichannel telecommunication systems, Communication networks and switching systems.

move on to studying the processes of social development; secondly, taking into account changes in the structure of social space<...>Huizinga places not only art, but also science, everyday life, law, military<...>It is defined as the aggregation of a certain number of people gathered in a certain physical space<...>Response measures; degree of readiness for the negotiation process; possibility of normal development and resolution<...>Humanity realizes itself in various types of societies, ethnic communities, cultural spaces

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No. 7 [Philosophy of social communications, 2009]

The materials of the scientific and theoretical journal are devoted to the analysis of philosophical problems of social communications in the field of political, legal, social and spiritual development of man and society, the development of theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of social communications.

This area is called the negotiation space.<...>Sometimes the negotiation space is called the bargaining space.<...>It is important to keep in mind that the negotiation space is not fixed once and for all.<...>The presence of negotiation space in the absence of BATNA is the basis for a peaceful resolution of the conflict<...>What if the parties to the conflict have neither bargaining space nor BATNA?

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Business communication educational method. complex for all specialties

The educational and methodological complex is addressed to students of specialty 100103.65 Social and cultural service and tourism (full-time and part-time courses, as well as those receiving a second higher education). The curriculum includes the course program “Business Communication”, a list of references, topics of seminar classes, topics of tests, guidelines for their implementation, questions for self-testing and preparation for the exam, topics for independent work of students, certification and pedagogical measuring materials.

<...> <...> <...>Human zonal spaces and population density differ among different peoples.<...>

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Business communication in socio-cultural services and tourism educational method. complex

The educational and methodological complex is addressed to students of specialty 100103.65 Social and cultural service and tourism (full-time and part-time courses, as well as those receiving a second higher education). The curriculum includes the course program “Business Communication in SKST”, a list of references, topics of seminar classes, topics of tests, guidelines for their implementation, questions for self-testing and preparation for the exam, topics for independent work of students, certification and pedagogical measuring materials.

Human zonal spaces and population density differ among different peoples.<...>Zonal spaces: intimate zone, personal zone, social zone, public zone.<...>Practical use of zonal space in the process of communication.<...>Human zonal spaces and population density differ among different peoples.<...>Practical use of zonal space in the process of communication.

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Advanced technologies of Situation Centers, including the use of virtual meeting rooms that support the natural nature of face-to-face communication, and visionariums as innovative multimedia tools for displaying information in stereoscopic mode, ensuring collective work with spatial objects, make it possible to comprehensively improve the ergonomics of the general information and communication space and effectiveness of group actions in analyzing complex situations. There are no boundaries to the use of these technologies: education, science, public administration, business, social sphere. Thanks to their use, it is possible to hold meetings, seminars, and electronic conferences at a fundamentally new level, when participants, on the one hand, interact in the usual, natural mode of “live communication”, and on the other hand, can be actively involved in joint work on documents and spatial models , other complex content

 [email protected] Advanced technologies of Situation Centers, including the use of virtual meeting rooms<...>Keywords: Digital technologies, virtual meeting room, multimedia, analysis of a complex situation,<...>The virtual meeting room combines effective means of conducting meetings and collective activities<...>Special attention in the virtual meeting room is paid to the means of collaboration and organization of collective<...>Thus, the creation of virtual meeting rooms helps to increase the efficiency of collaboration

The work carried out a comparative economic and mathematical analysis of various algorithms for solving a certain class of problems of coordinating the economic interests of entities located at different levels of the hierarchical management system and having different criteria for assessing their activities. Coordination problems are represented by multicriteria optimization models with the presence of an ideal point (models by A. Verzhbitsky), the solution of which can be carried out both by formal methods and by algorithms including heuristic procedures. The methodological basis of the work is the concept of Pareto optimality, which defines an agreed solution as a compromise of the economic interests of the participants and O. Larichev’s methodology, used to analyze the correctness of heuristic procedures in multicriteria optimization problems. A series of iterative formal heuristic algorithms for searching for an agreed (compromise) solution are proposed, which are modifications of their well-known analogues (Wierzbicki and Zeleny) and implement possible schemes for bringing the ideal point closer to the boundary of the Pareto optimality region. The correctness of the heuristic procedures used in these algorithms is assessed and the advantages of the developed formal heuristic tools are shown (including the speed of convergence to a compromise solution and the consideration of non-formalizable criteria of economic entities when solving the problem) in comparison with existing methods intended for the coordination of economic interests in multi-level systems management. A conclusion is made about the feasibility of developing and applying the proposed tools in the context of the increasing role of informal factors in the management of modern economic processes and the need to integrate them into a decision support system.

It is assumed that a reduction of the top-level criterion into the space of criteria can be carried out<...>Thus, the interests of the upper level are displayed in the space of criteria of the lower level and characterize<...>to get an agreed solution into them (narrowing the negotiation set through iteration).<...>The matching process is carried out in the space of criteria yi( ) .<...>The search for the initial points of the negotiation set f is carried out by solving problem (1) with ρ = 0.

No. 1 [Anesthesiology and Reanimatology, 2012]

Founded in 1956 (under the name "Experimental Surgery and Anesthesiology", since 1977 - "Anesthesiology and Reanimatology"). The editor-in-chief of the journal is Armen Artavazdovich Bunyatyan - academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, professor, head of the department of anesthesiology and resuscitation of the Federal State Budgetary Institution Russian Scientific Center for Surgery named after. Academician B.V. Petrovsky Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Head of the Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimatology, FPPOV GBOU HPE First Moscow State Medical University named after. THEM. Sechenov. clinical journal. The journal focuses on the problems of general anesthesia in surgery, intensive care and resuscitation. A significant place on the pages of the magazine is occupied by the promotion of advanced methods of anesthesiology and resuscitation in obstetrics, gynecology and pediatrics (including micropediatrics), dentistry, otorhinolaryngology, outpatient practice and much more.>Issues of intensive care and resuscitation are systematically covered (outside of trauma surgery , poisoning, infectious diseases). The journal publishes reviews and lectures on current problems of anesthesiology and resuscitation, discussion articles (introduces readers to the methods and practice of teaching general anesthesiology, intensive care and resuscitation). Related issues of physiology, pharmacology and hematology are covered. The magazine widely covers the use of new anesthesiological equipment, monitoring equipment and express diagnostics, and introduces new drugs for anesthesia. Publishes minutes of meetings of societies of anesthesiologists and resuscitators in Moscow, reports on world congresses, congresses and plenums of the board of the Scientific Society of Anesthesiologists and Resuscitators, information materials and reviews of various publications. For practical anesthesiologists and resuscitators, a special section has been introduced dedicated to rare or instructive practical observations, errors and complications with their analysis and comments from leading specialists.

The technique of puncture and catheterization of the epidural space in patients with cirrhosis was Fig. 1.<...>In group 3, an anesthetic in a volume of 0.5 ml ∙ kg was injected into the epidural space: 0.5% marcaine solution<...>, puncture and catheterization of the epidural space in the interspinous space LIV-V.<...>Catheterization of the perineural space was performed inferoclavicular (n = 12) or axillary (n = 11)<...>To visualize the process of catheterization of the perineural space of the brachial plexus, we used

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No. 1 [Posev, 1993]

Social and political magazine. Published since November 11, 1945, published by the publishing house of the same name. The motto of the magazine is “God is not in power, but in truth” (Alexander Nevsky). The frequency of the magazine has changed. Initially published as a weekly publication, for some time it was published twice a week, and from the beginning of 1968 (number 1128) the magazine became monthly.

In this regard, the vast expanses of Siberia provided little.<...>play its own imaginative role in creating what the Vice President of Russia called “a single democratic space<...>understands in what ways, what methods and in what forms the economy is capable of uniting space<...>Florensky and Losev bring together cosmological and sociological realities, seeing in a homogeneous Newtonian space<...>On the coastal border, an area of three nautical miles from the coast was recognized as a maritime customs strip

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The article examines in detail the evolution of the Russian position regarding the status of the Caspian Sea, and examines the approaches of other Caspian states: Iran, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. It is noted that the Caspian Sea occupies a special place in the foreign policy calculations of the new independent states formed after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The negotiation process to determine the international legal status of the Caspian Sea after its completion<...>international law, according to which, when new states appear in a particular region, the status and regime of spaces<...>Republic of Azerbaijan, sector of the Caspian Sea (lake) belonging to the Republic of Azerbaijan, airspace<...>There are two main approaches to the delimitation of maritime spaces.<...>Five strategies for Russian space development after the collapse of the USSR // Questions of Philosophy. 2003. No. 10.

Climate beams: design, installation, operation.

Climate beams are an alternative energy-efficient solution for ventilation and air conditioning systems in modern public buildings. For the first time in domestic practice, a separate publication is devoted to this issue. The book comprehensively covers the theory and practice of designing systems with active and passive climate beams, as well as their integration into the building's air conditioning system, and discusses the features of installation and operation. Numerous examples of systems with climatic beams for buildings for various purposes clearly illustrate the design and selection processes. Special coverage was given to the topic of software used to design air conditioning systems, including those using climate beams. The book contains a disk with a demo version of the program “Calculation of the load on the air conditioning system for non-stationary heat inputs”, developed by leading domestic specialists.

When installing, it is necessary to provide space for servicing the beams.<...>The free space between the beam and the ceiling in the vertical plane must be a minimum<...>In the space of the room it is possible to create: a meeting room; office space for two employees<...>(two sections) Meeting room size 4.8 × 5.0 × 3.0 m = 24 m2 (72 m3).<...>Based on the need to reduce the installation space behind the ceiling (the height of the beam body in the option

Negotiation processes between agents 41 Fig. 2.1.<...>So, in two-dimensional space it is an equilateral triangle with three vertices.<...>Multi-agent model with negotiation strategies Negotiation process between agents in a multi-agent system<...>Negotiation processes between agents.........39 2.2.<...>Multi-agent model with negotiation strategies 7.2.

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The article analyzes the evolution of Russian foreign policy in the Caspian region at the present stage (1991-2012). Changes in the approaches of Russian foreign policy on key problems of the region are considered: the international legal status of the Caspian Sea, production and transportation of Caspian hydrocarbon resources, militarization and ecology.

Almost from this time, the negotiation process on the delimitation of the sea began.<...>As a result, Turkmen gas was forced out of the post-Soviet space and found itself in complete isolation from the main<...>Russia's proposals intensified the negotiation process of the Caspian states. September 9, 2000 was<...>Russian policy in the Caspian region: the modern stage 81 to its implementation has intensified the negotiation<...>In general, the Caspian region, as part of the post-Soviet space, continues to be the focus of attention

One of the features of the economy of the last decade is the accelerated development of the service sector. Outsourcing, as one of the new and promising types of services, is the transfer of non-core functions of enterprises to other specialized companies that have professional personnel to perform them effectively

premises 3 Separate room intended to perform the functions of an outsourcer B2 Insufficient space<...> <...>for organizing a workplace 2 Compliance of the space of one workplace with certain standards<...>Therefore, these parameters can be included in the negotiation process in favor of outsourcing services.<...>Therefore, these parameters can be included in the negotiation process in favor of outsourcing services.

The article presents an analysis of the prerequisites, development, stages of settlement and the current state of the Transnistrian conflict. Particular attention is paid to studying the positions of its direct participants - the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic and the Republic of Moldova, mediators in resolving the conflict - Russia, Ukraine and the OSCE, as well as observers - the USA and the EU. The role and place of the conflict in modern international relations in the post-Soviet space is characterized and the main directions of its further development are analyzed. Based on the analysis, a conclusion was made about the possibility of maintaining peace in the conflict zone and prospects for resolving contradictions were identified.

. No. 1 in the CIS space d.v. Malyshev* TRANSNISTRIAN CONFLICT: DEVELOPMENT TRAJECTORY The article presents<...>characterizes the role and place of conflict in modern international relations in the post-Soviet space<...>Republic (PMR), is one of the most intense and, as time has shown, intractable disputes in space<...>This was the case when resolving other conflicts in the post-Soviet space, but specifically in Transnistria<...>“We will continue the dynamics of the negotiation process so that it is not worse this year than in

The article examines the influence of the personal factor on the effectiveness of the negotiation process using the example of V. V. Putin’s personal negotiating style.

FACTORS IN THE PROCESS OF POLITICAL NEGOTIATIONS The article examines the influence of the personal factor on the negotiation<...>The basis of the negotiation process is communication between the parties aimed at joint problem solving<...>negotiation style of Prime Minister V.V.<...>These components in a certain way influence the formation of a personal negotiation style.<...>In the political space, he, first of all, strives to find allies, partners, and create his own team

M.: PROMEDIA

The author studies and analyzes the features of interaction between state institutions and civil society in the Penza region. Sociological research has revealed imperfections in the mechanisms of interaction between the state and civil society. Institutional design allowed the author to create a Coordination Council to prevent problems of interaction between government institutions and civil society in the region. This structure contributes to the transformation of the negotiation process between the state and civil society, taking into account modern requirements for the development of public relations.

This structure contributes to the transformation of the negotiation process between the state and civil society<...>This structure promotes the transformation of the negotiation process between state and civil society with<...>The social space includes several fields, and the agent can occupy positions simultaneously<...>Sociology 77 In general, the results of the study allow us to conclude that the general space of interaction<...>Features of the functioning of institutions and social networks in the post-Soviet space / D. Sh.

2015 is rich in significant anniversaries. One of them, of course, is the 40th anniversary of the signing of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, which laid the legal foundations of the modern European security system in the form of CSCE/OSCE mechanisms. Over the course of all these years, discussions have continued among politicians and scientists regarding the goals, forms and prospects for the development of this format. In order to try to assess the effectiveness of the OSCE mechanisms in modern conditions, this article makes an attempt to analyze the evolution of the organization from the point of view of the basic principles and ideas that were originally embedded in it. The author identifies several major stages in the development of the European security system. The first covers the period from the mid-1960s, when the idea of creating “Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals” was systematically presented, until 1983 and includes the first successes of the “Helsinki process” and its subsequent crisis against the backdrop of worsening bipolar confrontation. The next stage, from the proclamation of the policy of “new thinking” by the Soviet leadership until 1991, was marked by the institutionalization of CSCE activities within the framework of the “Paris process”. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian leadership sought to transform and expand the activities of the CSCE, turning it into the basis of the Euro-Atlantic security system, but this course was curtailed with the beginning of the process of NATO's eastward expansion. The failure of the “Paris process” raised the question of the need for deep reform of the OSCE institutions, and also intensified the search for alternative negotiation formats. As the author notes, these searches were unsuccessful, which revived interest in the role of the OSCE as a traditional safety mechanism in relations between Russia and the United States. However, as an analysis of the OSCE’s activities during the South Ossetian conflict and the crisis in Ukraine shows, the prospects for implementing the concept of a “common European home” are becoming less and less.

the need for deep reform of the OSCE institutions, and also intensified the search for alternative negotiating<...>Third, it is permissible to replace the OSCE with some other negotiating platform, less bureaucratic and<...>By mid-2011, disagreements began between the EASI participants regarding the structure of the negotiation packages.<...>According to him, international conferences are convened in the absence of negotiation formats, while<...>However, the prospects for maintaining the OSCE as a unique negotiating format raise serious concerns

No. 4 [Bulletin of psychosocial and correctional and rehabilitation work, 2011]

In March 1994, the Consortium “Social Health of Russia”, together with the Russian Association of Social Service Workers, established the professional periodical journal “Bulletin of Psychosocial and Correctional and Rehabilitation Work”. This was the first periodical for the newly emerging professional community of social workers and social educators in Russia, practical psychologists working in various interdepartmental institutions of a new social infrastructure for Russia, providing socio-psychological and psychological-medical-pedagogical assistance to children and families at risk. This journal is also intended for the faculties of social work and social pedagogy that are opening in Russia for the first time, and for the rapidly growing psychological faculties that train practical psychologists for social services and education. THE EDITION WILL NOT BE PUBLISHED FROM 2017!!!

They come with their problems to this special space of professional relationships that has developed<...>space, it is necessary for partners to go beyond the narrow boundaries of their vision and their positions.<...>Compliance with this principle helps to sharpen the attention of negotiators on expanding the negotiation space<...>space, which leads to a correction of their positions and a departure from narrowly understood interests.<...>The way out of the impasse is to expand the negotiating field to include the interests of the king, the main of which are

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The article analyzes the objective conditions and possibilities of a national state’s subjective choice of an international integration policy option. The example of Belarus shows the importance of the presence of technological and infrastructural prerequisites, as well as pragmatic orientations of mass consciousness for the optimal course of the integration process. The specificity of geopolitical and sociocultural factors of the international integration of Belarus is revealed. The author characterizes the risks that arise in the process of choosing an international integration option and considers the prospects for minimizing them

between the European and Eurasian integration spaces raises the question of the relationship between this space<...>the result of the strategic choice of national ruling elites, the subject of coordination of interests, complex negotiations<...>All this only emphasizes the importance of the negotiation process and the role of the political actors participating in it<...>This significantly reduces the opportunities to influence the conditions and rules of integration, but does not exclude negotiations.<...>As we have already shown, these are the risks of the subjective choice of the political elite, realized in the negotiation process

Technology for organizing additional services in a hotel and ways to improve it (using the example of the DoubleTree by Hilton Moscow – Marina hotel)

Checked through the text borrowing search system

requirements for excursion services, 32 including the length of the excursion in time, availability of space<...>has 10 conference rooms with daylight with a total area of 1350 m². 48 Multifunctional space<...>It includes the provision of meeting room services.<...>automatically assembled, forming a separate zone, and disassembled into a compact parking lot, re-opening the common space<...>We will purchase two tables for meeting rooms.

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