Why are the ancient people settled on the planet and how did they find themselves in the most remote points? The emergence of a person in the tropics and features of our physiology. Why did people go north? The desire to have a new life space with resources. The property of all living beings to occupy free territory. Why are animals spread faster than Homo Erectus? Natural migration limitations: oceans, mountain ranges and rivers. Requirements on comfortable ways along the marine coasts. What are the most remote traces of the first hominid and scapiens known to scientists? The settlement of the entire planet for about 10,000 years ago by man. Stanislav Drobyshevsky, Anthropologist, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of Anthropology of the Biological Faculty of Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov will tell us about this and many other things.
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Stanislav Drobyshevsky
How did an ancient people get to remote lands? Is there a hunter-collector everywhere? Warming. Three ways from Africa. Path to Indonesia. The distances that Homo Erectus could overcome water and our idea of \u200b\u200btheir mental and physical abilities. Why do we underestimate the possibilities of our ancestors, Cryanons, and parallel humanity - Neanderthalsev, Deniceov, Floresian man? What swimming agents are able to make modern primitive tribes? Coaster swimming and swimming in the open sea and the ocean. The exchange of obsidian between the inhabitants of Melanesia islands separated by hundreds of kilometers. Path to Australia. The desire of a person to research a new space. This will tell us the anthropologist Stanislav Drobyshevsky.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
Is it true that a person happened from the monkey? Is anthropologists really invent everything? How many finds are forged? Who were our ancestors - dirty troglodites or high-dimensional eloos?
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
Man There are thousands and millions of years ago. Not all the details of this process are known to scientists, but the more interesting is the anthropogenesis. Every year brings new discoveries. Fancy species, dating, about which no one suspected, the technologies and skills of the ancients, whom no one expected from them - the information is so much and it appears so quickly that any book is obsolete until its release. On the newest achievements in the science of our past - in the lecture S. V. Drobyshevsky.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
The lecture took place at the Institute of Biology and Chemistry of the IFSU at the Department of Zoology with the support of the cultural and educational center "Arhet"
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
Anthropologist Stanislav Drobyshevsky about the sexual differences of monkeys and people, gender roles and the emergence of inequality together with labor instruments.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
What do we know about the time of the start of using fire ancient man? Scientifically not substantiated myths about maintaining fire Australopitek. Where was the ancient fire? Parallel existence of standings with traces of the use of fire and without such, starting with ancient Homo 1700,000 years ago and up to Neanderthals 30000 years ago. How could an ancient people be able to do without fire even in the most severe conditions? When and with what methods learned to independently breed a primitive fire? How did Homo Sapiens become completely dependent on it?
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
What is nonsense? Examples of this phenomenon in the animal world. Is it really possible to manifest one person? True, the adult Homo Sapiens is an unsuberic larva of Australopithek or more ancient Homo? Is this hypothesis of scientific and does she have the right to exist? What features of an adult can not be considered childish and why? What does science talk about searching for such features? Are there "children's" and "senile" signs from modern races? This tells the anthropologist Stanislav Drobyshevsky.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
What were the reasons for the emergence of morality at Primates? Is it only Homo Sapiens inherent in the care of neighbor? How did the altruism and aggression manifested in other species of people? Stanislav Drobyshevsky, anthropologist, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Anthropology of the Anthropology of the Biological Faculty of Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov talks about the ways of the formation of human morality, how the morality and behavior of a person throughout the history have been connected, and what archaeological findings Come with the morality of a person in the near future.
Stanislav Drobyshevsky
What was the food of an ancient person? What did our ancestors eat? What kind of food ancient people was that they preferred to whom they hunted and what they were satisfied, sitting by the fire, the Anthropologist Stanislav Drobyshevsky will tell us. You will know what was the food of a primitive man and how she influenced our story and on our development.
Only 80,000 years ago, all people were with black skin, and there was no races and in risen. We wanted to know how a small group of black immigrants from East Africa settled the rest of the world and became the Chinese, Indians, Chukchi and our right ancestors. We talked about this with an anthropologist, editor of the portal Antropogenez.ru Stanislav Drobyshevsky.
The World History. Volume 1.
Development of primitive-communal system. Late Waterfish Century
Resettlement of Paleolithic hunters
Causes of the oldest migration
What was the cause of complex movements of the population of the ancient century, which sometimes covered whole continents? What power made the people of Paleolithic time in a number of cases to leave the spaces found? These reasons should be sought in the material conditions of the life of Paleolithic hunters, in their farm, in their public life.
As the ethnography shows, a continuous and uncontrollable process of settlement is a normal and natural phenomenon in the life of hunting and fishing tribes. With a low level of development of productive forces and need for large spaces of the Earth necessary to feed the hunters, collectors and fishermen of the stone age, the natural increase in the population in certain, the most favorable areas inevitably led to the search for new lands and to the resettlement of people in new Areas.
The settlement was not random, but strictly legiturated, as he touched in the form of continuous dismemberment of the ancient communities. Its reasons gives us a presentation of the resettlement of Indian childbirth and the North America tribes in the new time described by the American ethnographer L. Morgan.
According to the description of Morgan, new tribes and new births were constantly formed due to natural growth; This process is greatly accelerated due to the high length of the American continent. From some overpopulated geographical center, which had special advantages regarding the mining of the livelihood, a gradual population took place. Since it lasted from year to year, at some distance from the initial location of the tribes grew a significant population; Over time, the immigrants had special interests, they became alien to their tribe, differences appeared in the language. It was repeated from the century to the century, both in the newly "occupied and in the old regions. When the growth of the population aroused the lack of means of existence, the excess part of the population went to a new place.
These were not, therefore, the waves of nations moving through the whole continents were not the rapid and catastrophic movements of large ethnic masses. Such movements are already related to significantly later times when large breeding unions prepared by the long preceding historical development have become the usual phenomenon. In Paleolit, there was a completely different in the pace and character, a slow and spontaneous process of leakage of individual small groups. Then the movement of small groups of Paleolithic people from some regions to Other, which often became more complicated by the inverse movement were made; Often, it is necessary to believe this kind of movement was as if zigzag and intermittent, as we see it in the streets of Dlga and in the bonuses.
The resettlement of ancient hunting tribes has acquired a particularly wide territorial scale in the upper Paleolithic. Further improvement of hunting equipment compared to the Mustian time facilitated the growth of the population, which led to the reduction of the amount of game in the territories adjacent to the old settlements.
Inevitable consequence, apparently, there was a population of the population from the most populated and previously mastered places in the deserted to the region of the North of Europe and especially Asia. Such a settlement was all the more natural that all these events took place at the end of the glacial era, during the period of exemption from ice of the huge space of sushi.
At the same time, the development of new territories in the north has become possible because it has now existed significantly more developed than before, a special hunting weapon, various means for catching animals (kopsemetalka, bone tips of copies and throwing darts, lifts, networks, networks and Hollow). Various methods of artificial mining of fire were known. People learned how to build both durable permanent dwellings for the winter and portable light tents from the skins. A fur clothing stitched with tendon threads appeared.
All this, taken together, made it possible to man to overcome the difficulties that have put the harsh natural conditions before it, who did not allow them to reach far beyond the limits of regions with a temperate and warm climate.
At the end of November last year, the All-Russian Scientific Conference "Paths of Evolutionary Geography" was held in Moscow, dedicated to the memory of Professor Andrei Alekseevich Velichko, the creator of the scientific school of evolutionary geography and paleoclimatology. The conference was interdisciplinary, many reports were devoted to the study of geographical factors of human settlement on the planet, its adaptation to various natural conditions, the influence of these conditions on the nature of the settlements and the path of migration of an ancient person. We present a brief overview of some of these interdisciplinary reports.
The role of the Caucasus in the resettlement of man
Report of the Corresponding Member. Ran. Kh.A.amirkhanova (Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences) was devoted to the archaeological monuments of the North Caucasus in the context of the problem of the initial settlement of the person (long before the appearance Homo Sapiens. And their exit from Africa). For a long time in the Caucasus there were two monuments of Older type, one of them - Dmanisi parking (1 million 800 thousand years) in Georgia, received broad fame. 10-15 years ago in the Caucasus, Stavropol Hills and in South Azovia, 15 monuments were opened, which were attributed to the same time - early Pleistocene. This is the largest minimum idea of \u200b\u200bthe monuments of Older culture. Now the North Caucasian monuments of this type are confined to the plateau and its average, but during the habitat there they were on the sea coast.
Monuments of Oldovan Caucasus and the Predogascia. 1 - Monuments of Armenian Highlands (Kutan: Points of Nurnus Paleoomer; 2 - Dmanisi; 3 - Monuments of Central Dagestan (Iikanb, Mukhai, Gegalashur); 4 - Zhukhovskoye; 5 - Monuments of the Southern Priazia (heroes, Rodniki, Kermek). From the presentation x .A.Amirkhanova.
North Caucasian early Pleistocene monuments are directly related to the problem of time and ways of the initial resettlement of a person in Eurasia. Their study allowed to obtain unique materials (archaeological, geological, paleobotanical, paleontological) and draw the following conclusions:
1 - The initial settlement of the North Caucasus occurred about 2.3 - 2.1 million years ago;
2 - The picture of the path of resettlement of a person in the Eurasia space was supplemented with a new direction - along the western coast of the Caspian Sea.
Ways of the initial settlement of man. Solid lines indicate migration paths confirmed by open monuments; Dotted lines - alleged migration paths. From the presentation of H.A.amirkhanov.
On the settlement of America
Dr. Eastor. Science S.A.Vasiliev (The Institute of History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in his speech presented a picture of the settlement of North America, based on the last paleogeographic and archaeological data.
In the era of the late Pleistocene, the Beringian land existed in the range from 27 to 14.0-13.8 thousand years. In the boring of a person attracted fishing fauna, said S.A.vasiliev, although Mammoth had no man here, he was hunted on Bizon, the northern and noble deer. It is assumed that a person remained in the territory of Beringi for several tens of thousands of years, at the end of Pleistocene there was a settlement of groups to the East and the rapid growth of their numbers. Ancient reliable traces of human habitat in the American part of Beringia are about 14.8-14.7 thousand years old (the lower cultural layer of Svon Point parking). The microplastic monument industry reflects the first migration wave. There were three different groups of cultures on Alaska - this belonging to the Beringian province complex Denali, complex Napanen, and Paleo Indian cultures with various types of tips. Little John's parking lot on the border of Alaska and Yukon belong to the complex. Denali type monuments are similar to the monuments of Duktai culture in Yakutia, but these are not a copy of it: Rather, we are talking about the community of microplastic industries, which covered East Asia and the American part of Beringi. Very interesting finds with groove tips.
Two migration paths that indicate archaeological and paleoclimatic data, this is a Mackenzie Foreign Corridor and Free Ice Path along the Pacific Coast. However, some facts, for example, the findings of the grooved tips on Alaska suggest that, apparently, at the end of Pleistocena, there was an inverse migration - not from the North-West to the southeast, but on the contrary - on the McCenzi corridor in the opposite direction; It was connected with the migration of Bizon to the north, followed by Paleoenki.
Unfortunately, the Pacific Way was flooded with a post-free raising of the world's ocean, and most of the parking lots are now on the seabed. Only later data remained archaeologists: sheaps were found on the islands near the coast of California, traces of fisheries and tuber tips.
McCenzy Corridor, which becomes available after partial melting of glacial shields, 14 thousand years ago, according to new data, was more favorable for habitat than it was previously thought. Unfortunately, traces of human vital activity were found only in the southern part of the corridor, dating 11 thousand years old, these are traces of Klovis culture.
The opening of recent years is found in different parts of North America monuments, more ancient than Culture Klovis, most of them are focused on the east and the south-continent. One of the mains is a medical armor in Pennsylvania - a set of tips with datings of 14 thousand years ago. Including, there are points in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Great Lakes, where the skeletal remnants of the mammoth are found, accompanied by stone weapons. In the West, the opening of the Paisley caves was a sensation, where the culture of the cherry tips preceding the climb; In the future, these cultures coexisted. In the parking lot of Manis, the edge of Mastodont was found with a stuck bone tip, about 14 thousand years old. Thus, it was shown that Klovis is not the first culture that appeared in North America.
But Klovis is the first culture that demonstrates the full population of the continent man. In the West, it dates from 13,400 to 12,700 years ago very short for Paleolithic culture, and existed in the east to 11,900 years ago. For culture, Klovis is characterized by groove tips, which do not have analogies among the artifacts of old light. The Klovis Industry is based on the use of high-quality sources of raw materials. Flint was transferred at hundreds of kilometers in the form of bifasis, which were later used to produce tips. And the parking lots, mainly in the West, are not connected with rivers, but with ponds and minor reservoirs, whereas in the old world of Paleolithic is most often confined to river valleys.
Summing up, S.A.vasiliev outlined a more complex picture of the settlement of North America, which it seemed until recently. Instead of a single migration wave from Beringi, directed from the North-West to the southeast, on the McKenzi corridor, most likely there were several different and multidirectional migration. Apparently, the first wave of migration from Beringi walked along the Pacific coast, and then the settlement was seen east. Promotion on the Corridor Mackenzie probably happened at a later time, and this corridor was "Street with bilateral movement" - some groups were walking from the north, others from the south. On the territory of the southeast, the USA arose a culture of climis, which then spread in the northern and western directions throughout the continent. Finally, the Pleistocena final was marked by the "reverse" migration of the Paleo Indian group to the north, on the corridor Mackenzi, in Beringi. However, all these ideas, S.A.Vasiliev emphasized, are based on extremely limited material, incompatible with what is in Eurasia.
1 - Migration path from Beringia along the Pacific coast; 2 - Migration path to the southeast of Mackenzi corridor; 3 - the spread of Culture Culture in North America; 4 - distribution of ancient people in South Ammerization; 5 - Inverse migration to Beringi. Source: S.A. Vasilyev, Yu.E. Berezkin, A.G. Kozintsev, I.I. Peyaros, S.B. Slobodin, A.V. Tabarev. Matching by a man of new light: the experience of interdisciplinary research. St. Petersburg: Nestor-History, 2015. P. 561, Plotch.
He was not afraid to take the first step
E.I. Kurekkova (Cand. Geogr. Nauk, Ved. N.S. Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences) told about the problem of the interaction of nature and human society in the works of A.A.Velichko - the problem, which, according to her, was his "First Love" in Paleogeography. As emphasized E.I. Kurenkova, now some things for archaeologists and palegeographs seem obvious, but always someone said about it first, and in many matters it was Andrei Alekseevich, who was not afraid and knew how to take the first step.
So, in the 50s of the last century, he, being still a graduate student, questioned the dominant idea of \u200b\u200ban earlier age of the Upper Paleolithic in Eastern Europe. He sharply rejuvenated the upper Paleolithic, suggested that it corresponds to the time of Valdai (Vurm) glaciation. Such a conclusion was made on the basis of a detailed study of the Paleolithic parking lots of the Eastern European Plain. He denied the authoritative opinion about the famous "dugouts" of the Kostenkovsky parking - a detailed analysis showed that these are permanent wedges - natural traces of many years of milling, which tighten the cultural layers with finds.
A.A.Velichko One of the first to make an attempt to determine the role of natural changes in the resettlement of a person on the planet. He emphasized that the person was the only creature who was able to leave that environmental niche, where he appeared, and learn completely different environmental conditions. He tried to realize the motivation of human teams changing the usual habitat on the opposite. And the wide adaptive opportunities of a person who allowed him to bump up to the Arctic. A.A.Velichko initiated the study of the population of high latitudes - the purpose of this project was the creation of a holistic picture of the history of penetration of people to the north, their incentives and motivation, identifying the possibilities of a Paleolithic society to master the amateur spaces. According to E.I. Kurekova, he became the soul of collective atlas-monograph "The initial settlement of the Arctic by the person in the conditions of a changing environment" (Moscow, Geos, 2014).
In recent years, A.A.Velichko wrote about the anthroposphere, which was formed and stated from the biosphere, has its own development mechanisms and in the twentieth century it comes out from under the control of the biosphere. He writes about the collision of two tendencies - a general trend towards cooling and anthropogenic global warming. He emphasized that we insufficiently understand the mechanisms of this interaction, so it is necessary to be on guard. One of the first A.A.Velichko began to cooperate with genetics, while the interaction of Palegeographers, archaeologists, anthropologists, genetics - became absolutely necessary. A.A.Velichko also became one of the first to establish international contacts: he organized the Soviet-French multi-year work on the interaction of man and nature. It was very important and rare for those years on the scale of international cooperation (and also with the capitalist country).
His position in science - noted E.I. Kurenkov - sometimes it was controversial, but never was uninteresting, never was not advanced.
Path north
With the previous speech, the report of Dr. Geogr is echo. Science A.L.achepalygi (Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences) called "The Path to the North: the most ancient migration of Older culture and the primary settlement of Europe through the south of Russia." The path to the north - so A.A.Velichko called the process of mastering the man of Eurasia space. The exit from Africa was by north, and then this path continued on the expanses of Eurasia. It allows you to trace the last discoveries of the parking lots of Older Culture: in the North Caucasus, in the Transcaucasia, in the Crimea, along the Dunstra, in the Danube.
A.L. Chepalyega stopped on the studies of the terraces on the southern coast of Crimea, between Sudak and Karadag, who were previously considered continental, but after careful surveys were recognized as marine. Multi-layer parking lots of a person with Aldan type artifacts are dedicated to these eopleistocene terraces. Their age is determined and the connection with climatic cycles and the vibrations of the Black Sea basin is shown. This testifies to the littoral, coastal-marine adaptation of the Older person.
Archaeological and geomorphological materials made it possible to reconstruct human migration during its primary exit from Africa, which dates back to about 2 million years ago. After relocation to the Middle East, the path of the person followed strictly north through Arabia, Central Asia and the Caucasus up to 45 o S.Sh. (Manic Strait). On this latitude, a sharp turn of migration to the West is recorded - this is the North-Black Sea Pass, the Migration Corridor to Europe. It ended in modern Spain and France, almost reaching the Atlantic Ocean. The reason for this turn is not clear, there are only working hypotheses, emphasized A.L. Chepalyiga.
Source: "Ways of Evolutionary Geography", Materials of the All-Russian Scientific Conference dedicated to the memory of Professor A.A.Velichko, Moscow, November 23-25, 2016
Russet man in the Siberian Arctic
The study of the first wave of Paleolithic resettlement of a person in the north was dedicated to E.Yu.Pavlova(Arctic and Antarctic Nii, St. Petersburg) and Cand. East. Science V.Pitulko(Institute of History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg). This settlement could start about 45 thousand years ago, when the entire territory of the Northeast of Europe was free from the glacier. The most attractive people for habitat were sites with a mosaic landscape - low mountains, foothills, plains and rivers - such a landscape is typical for a primary, it provides an abundance of stone raw materials. For a long time, the population remained low, then began to increase, as evidenced by the monuments of the Upper and Late Paleolithic, open in recent years on the Jan-Indigir Lowland.
The report presents the results of the study of the Yansk Paleolithic parking - this is an ancient complex of archaeological sites, documenting the early resettlement of a person in the Arctic. Her dating is 28.5 - 27 thousand years ago. Three categories of artifacts were found in the cultural layers of the Yanskaya parking: stone macroquone (scrambed, peaks, bifesis) and micro utilitarian objects from horns and bones (weapons, clouds, needle, shill) and non-polymeric subjects (diadems, bracelets, decorations, beads, etc.). Nearby is the largest Yantic cemetery of Mammoths - its dating from 37,000 to 8,000 years ago.
For the reconstruction of the living conditions of an ancient person in the Arctic in the Yanskaya parking lot, studies were conducted on carbon dating, dispute-pollen analysis and the analysis of plant macro-oils of quaternary sediments for a period of 37 - 10 thousand years ago. It was possible to perform a paleoclimatic reconstruction, which showed the change of warming periods and cooling in the area of \u200b\u200bJan-Indigir lowland. A sharp transition to cooling occurred 25 thousand years ago, denoting the offensive of the Sartan Cryolon, the maximum of cooling was celebrated 21-19 thousand years ago, and then warming began. 15 thousand years ago, the average temperatures reached modern values \u200b\u200band even exceeded them, and 13.5 thousand years ago - returned to the maximum of cooling. 12.6-12.1 thousand years ago, a noticeable warming occurred, reflected in the spore-political spectra; The cooling of the average drias is 12.1-11.9 thousand years ago, it was short and 11.9 thousand years ago was replaced by warming; Then he followed the cooling of the late Dryas - 11.0-10.5 thousand years ago and warming about 10 thousand years ago.
The authors of the study conclude that in general the natural-climatic conditions on the Ian-Indigir lowland, as in the entire Siberian Arctic were acceptable for the settlement and habitat of a person. Probably, depopulation came for the first wave of the settlement, because between 27 to 18 thousand years ago there are no archaeological monuments on this territory. But the second wave of settlement is about 18 thousand years ago, was successful. 18 thousand years ago, a permanent population appeared in the Ural region, which, as the glacier retreat, was moving to the north-west. Interestingly, in general, the second wave of colonization took place in a colder climate. But a person has increased the level of adaptation, which allowed him to survive in harsh conditions.
Unique Paleolithic Courtest Complex
A separate section at the conference was devoted to research on one of the most famous complexes of Paleolithic parking in the bones (on the r. Don, Voronezh region). A.A.Velichko began working in bonuses in 1952, and the result of his participation was the replacement of the stadium concept with the concept of archaeological crops. Cand. Eastor Science A.A.Sitsyn (The Institute of History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg) described the parking lot of Koradska-14 (Markina Mountain) as a reference incision of the cultural variability of the Paleolithic of Eastern Europe against the background of climatic variability. The incision contains 8 cultivated layers and 3 paleontological.
I Cultural Layer (27.0-28.0 thousand years ago) contains typical tips of Kostenkovsky-Avdeevsky culture and "Kostenkovsky knives", as well as a powerful cluster of mammoth bones. The II Cultural Layer (33.0-34.0 thousand years ago) contains artifacts of the town archaeological culture (tools of Mustier-type). Belonging to the III of the cultural layer (33.8-35.2 thousand years ago) remains a debate due to the lack of specific objects of affiliation to culture. Under the III cultural layer in 1954, burial was opened, which is currently the most ancient burial of a modern person (36.9-38.8 thousand years ago at calibrated datding).
The resettlement of a person on the planet is one of the most exciting detective storylines in history. Deciphering migrations is one of the keys to understand historical processes. By the way, you can see the main routes on this interactive map. Recently, a lot of discoveries have been made -cheni learned to read genetic mutations, methods found in linguistics, in accordance with which the protofists and the relationship between them can be restored. New ways of dating archaeological finds appear. The history of climate change explains many routes - the person went on a great trip on the ground in search of a better life and this process continues until now.
The possibility of moving was determined by the level of seas and melting of glaciers who closed or opened opportunities for further promotion. Sometimes people had to adapt to climate change and sometimes it seems to be beneficial. In a word, I had a little bit of a bike here and sketched a brief summary of the land population, although Most of all I was interested in Eurasia, in general.
So maybe the first migrants looked like
The fact that Homo Sapires came out of Africa today is recognized by the majority of scientists. This event occurred plus minus 70 thousand years ago, according to the latest data it is from 62 to 130 thousand years. The numbers more or less coincide with the determination of the age of skeletons in Israeli caves in 100 thousand years. That is, this event still happened during a decent time interval, but we will not pay attention to the little things.
So, a person came out from the south of Africa, settled on the continent, crossed in a narrow part of the Red Sea on the Arabian Peninsula - the modern width of the Bab El Mandantry Strait 20 km, and in the glacial era, the sea level was much lower - perhaps it could be prohibited almost VJD. The world's ocean level climbed as the melting of glaciers.
From there, part of the people went to the Persian Bay and the territory of approximately Mesopotamia,part further to Europepart of the shore to India and further - to Indonesia and in Australia. Another part - in about the direction of China, Siberia settled, partially also moved to Europe, another part - through Bering Strait to America. So Homo Sapires basically settled around the world, and in Eurasia there were several large and very ancient foci of human settlements.Africa, where it all started, today it is studied worst, it is assumed that in the sand archaeological monuments can be pretty well, so interesting discoveries are also possible there.
The origin of the Homo Sapires from Africa is confirmed by the data of geneticists, which discovered that all people on Earth are the first gene (marker) the same (African). Even earlier, from the same Africa, the migrations of homoelectus (2 million years ago), which reached China, Eurasia and other corners of the planet, but then extinct. Neanderthals most likely got into Eurasia about the same routes as Homosapions, 200 thousand years ago, they extinct relatively recently, about 20 thousand years ago. Apparently, the territory is approximately in the area of \u200b\u200bMesopotamia - this is generally a courtyard for all migrants.
In Europe The age of the oldest skull of Homo Sapires is determined in 40 thousand years (found in the Romanian cave). Apparently, people rose here for animals, moving along the Dnieper. Approximately the same age at the Kroanonian man from the French caves, which is considered in all respects the same person as we, only the washing machine did not have.
Lion man is the most ancient statuette in the world, 40 thousand years old. Restored from microparticles for 70 years, finally restored in 2012, is stored in the British Museum. Found in an ancient settlement in the south of Germany, the first flute was found there for the same age. True, in my understanding of the statuette processes does not fit. In theory, it should be at least feminine.
The Kostenkov includes the same temporary interval - a large archaeological monument of 400 km south from Moscow in the Voronezh region, which was previously determined by 35 thousand years. However, there is grounds to ledit about the appearance of a person in these places. For example, archaeologists have discovered the ashes of ash -trail of volcanic eruptions in Italy 40 thousand years ago. Under this layer, numerous traces of human activity were found, therefore, a person in the bone more than 40 thousand years old, at a minimum.
The bones were very thickly populated, the remnants of more than 60 ancient settlements were preserved there and people lived for a long time, without leaving him even in the ice age, for tens of thousands of years. The bunks find the tools of labor from the stone, which could be taken no closer than 150 km, and the beads were supposed to be brought from marine coasts. This is the minimum of 500 km. There are figurines from the Mammoth's Tallery.
Diadem with ornament from Mammoth's Tallery. Kostenka-1, 22-23 thousand years, size 20x3,7 cm
Perhaps people went approximately simultaneously from the total transit pranodina and along the Danube, and along Don (well, other rivers, of course).Homosapines in Eurasia collided with the local people living here by the local population - Neanderthals who were decently blowing their lives, and then extinct.Most likely the process of settlement to one degree or another continued constantly. For example, one of the monuments of this period is Dolny Westonity (South Moravia, Mikulov, the nearest major city - Brno), the age of settlement 25 and a half thousand years.
Westonitskaya Venus (Paleolithic Venus) was found in Moravia in 1925, age of 25 thousand years old, but some scientists consider it ancient. Height 111 cm, stored in the Moravian Museum in Brno (Czech Republic).
Most of the neolithic monuments of Europe sometimes combine the term "old Europe". These include Tripolie, Vinca, Lendel, Culture of Trunno-shaped Cups. Do mines, Sikanov, Iberov, Baskov, Leliegov, Pelasgov consider pre-European European peoples. Unlike later those who came in Indo-European, who settled in fortified cities on the hills, the old Europeans lived on the plains in small settlements and did not have protective fortifications. They did not know the pottery and wheels. There were settlements of up to 3-4 thousand inhabitants on the Balkan Peninsula. Basqueon is considered the relic Stareoreline region.
In Neolithic, which begins about 10 thousand years ago, migrations begin to occur more active. The development of transport played a big role. Migration of peoples occur both by sea and with the help of a new revolutionary vehicle - a horse with a cart. The largest migrations of Indo-Europeans include the Neolithic. Regarding Indo-European Pranodina, almost unanimously refer to all the same area in the territory around the Persian Gulf, Malaya Asia (Turkey), etc. Actually, it was always known that the next settlement of people takes place from the territory near the mountain Ararat after a catastrophic flood. Now this theory is increasingly confirmed by science. The version needs evidence, therefore, the study of the Black Sea is of particular importance now - it is known that it was a small freshwater lake, and as a result of an ancient catastrophe, water from the Mediterranean Sea flooded nearby areas, possibly actively populated by proto-indeside escair. People with flooded territory rushed into different directions - theoretically, it could serve as an impetus for the new wave of migrations.
Linguists confirm that the unified language pyartado-european ancestor came out from there, from where migrations on the territory of Europe and in earlier times - approximately from the north of Mesopotamia, that is, roughly speaking, all of the same area near Ararat. A large migration wave went about from 6 millennia in almost all directions, moving in the directions of India, China and Europe. In earlier times, migration also took place from the same places, in any case it is logical, as in more ancient times, penetration of people into Europe along the rivers of about the territory of the modern Black Sea region. Also, people actively populate Europe from the Mediterranean, including the marine paths.
In times of neolithic, several types of archaeological crops have developed. Among them are a large number of megalithic monuments (Megalites are large stones). In Europe, they are distributed mostly in the seaside regions and belong to the Eneolyt and Bronze Age - 3 - 2 thousand BC. To an earlier period, neolithic - in the British Islands, in Portugal and France. There are found in Brittany, the Mediterranean coast of Spain, Portugal, France, as well as in the west of England, in Ireland, Denmark, Sweden. Most often there are dolmens - in Wales they are called Cromleh, in Portugal Ant, on Sardinia Statzone, in the Caucasus. Another common view - corridor tombs (Ireland, Wales, Brittany, etc.). Another type - gallery. Mengirs (separate large stones), mengirov groups and stone circles are also common, which include Stonehend. It is assumed that the latter were astronomical devices and they are not so ancient as megalithic burials, such monuments are associated with migrations by sea. Sophisticated and intricate relations of sedentary and nomadic peoples are a separate story, the zero year is a completely definite picture of the world.
On the great resettlement of peoples in 1 millennia, our era knows quite a lot due to literary sources - these processes were complex and diverse. Finally, throughout the second millennium, a modern world map is gradually folded. However, the history of migrations does not end this, and today it takes no less global scale than in antiquity. There is, by the way, the interesting series BBC "Great Relief of Peoples".
In general, the conclusion and dry residue is such - the resettlement of people is a living and natural process that has never stopped. Migrations occur according to certain and understandable reasons - well where we are not. Most often forced a person to move on the deterioration of climatic conditions, hunger, in one word - the desire to survive.
Passionarity is the term introduced by N. Gumilev, means the ability of peoples to move and characterizing it "age". High level of passionation - the property of young peoples. Passionarity, in general, went to the peoples to benefit, although this path was never easy. It seems to me that both a separate person would be better to be laughing and do not sit still :))) readiness for the journey is one of two: either full of hopelessness and forcedity, or youth of the soul .... Do you agree with me?
It is impossible to determine, with what time people began to travel. Most likely, the beginning of travel history should be held since the times when the process of highlighting a person from the animal world began to occur. In any case, there is no doubt that the beginning of the journey was laid when the foundations of human civilization were laid.
What made our distant ancestors move on endless expanses of the Earth? The motives of travel were as follows:
1. The primitive person was forced to move from one terrain to another in search of food (hunting, fisheries, etc.). Despite the fact that such transitions are made of animals (for example, the herds of the antelopes overcome up to a thousand kilometers per season), after all, such movements in space are characteristic of a person, as they are meaningful and focused.
2. With the emergence of cattle breeding, a primitive person began to perform long transitions. in search of pastures, laying the trails and remembering them. Often the shepherds celebrated their way with special signs on the ground.
3. With the development of primitive agriculture, the person's interest in the territorial placement of the plant world has significantly expanded. Man moved in search of better and fertile lands And even sought to change the landscape of land unsuitable for crops.
4. The development of crafts and trade set before the need to create schemes of routes. The landmarks served the most notable features of the relief (mountain, rock, high tree, etc.). The revolutionary stage of the movement of people has become manufacturing and use of plaels To overcome the distance on the water. First, the flow of water was used, and then the strength of the wind. Landmarks at the sea served the sun and stars.
5. With the development of intergroup communication, the usual ways between the villages are created. Develops interphemming communication. This communication had several varieties:
but) into-ethnic moving. Move within the territory occupied by the tribe or tribal union;
b) inter-ethnic communication. Moving beyond the limits of habitat of your tribe and loss with him further communication;
c) movement of the very tribe or a tribal union to another locality, which is characteristic of peoples leading nomadic lifestyle.
This type of movement is called migration.
At the same time, ancient people tried to fix the routes of their movements. It marked the beginning of the first elements of cartography.
The first so-called "cards" were drawn on Earth, stones, fragments of trees, in the skins and bones of animals. These were primitive schemes with symbols with drawing elements.
In the era of Mesolitis (10 - 3 thousand years ago) the first trading routes begin to develop.
Thus, in prehistoric times, the main motifs of travel were due to objective reasons, the main of which was survival. But there was an internal motivation for traveling people, namely, the mutual visits of representatives of different tribes, and a simple human curiosity to find out: "What is there behind the horizon?".
In ancient times, the main travel motifs were trade, educational and educational goals, pilgrimage, treatment, visiting and participation in mass events, conquest and colonization of new lands.
The first travel of antiquity (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoanya, China). The process of knowing the people of the surrounding world to one degree or another is associated with travels. The need to establish trading connections forced people to go to distant unknown edges. The first information about travel and their roles in the appearance of great crops reached us in the form of myths, legends, legends, biblical texts and evidence of the ancient authors.
Traveling in the ancient East was an integral part of the lifestyle of people. Since travel was associated with dangers, the traveler was perceived as the man marked by God. Before the journey, mandatory rites and sacrifices were performed. Similar examples can be found in Epos about Gilgamesh. Biblical travelers include the Prophet Moseswho drove his people in the desert in search of the best lands, But IWhich in his ark saved all the lives from the World Flood.
Other Center for World Civilization there was an ancient Egypt. Nature itself contributed to the navigation by a full-water Nile, flowing through the entire country from the south to the north. The Egyptians amounted to a map of the Nile who mastered the part, having traced it for more than 2,000 km. Thanks to this, the Egyptians have reached the south of Nubia and contacted the Mediterranean countries lying in the north and northeast (the islands of the Aegean Sea and the island of Crete).
A caravan way began from the central part of the country, led to the Red Sea, and from there to the Punt country. Puntom (More precisely, Puin) The ancient Egyptians called the country in East Africa, located on the coast of the Gulf of Aden. Currently, this is the territory of modern Somalia and Yemen.
But the most famous and almost fully preserved up to this day description of the trip is a trip Sinauchet (In another transcription - Sinuokht), held in about 2000-12 1960. BC. Sinauchet took a journey to the country Kedem, i.e. to the East. This story is recorded by an unknown author. Egyptians loved her to read and rewritten it from papyrus to papyrus.
Navigation activated contacts between countries. The necessary wood (for example, pine, cedar) was delivered from Syria and Lebanon. From the harbors of the Red Sea, the ships went to the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, India, also conducted intermediary trading with China. Trade with the states of East Africa actively went, from where Pharaohs were brought from gold, elephant bone, ston and faience products.
And yet the first Morelodes of antiquity were phoenicians. Their state was located in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Phoenicians built large and durable ships, went beyond the limits of the Mediterranean Sea basin to the ocean, and also floated along the Western coast of Europe and Africa.
In the VI century BC, on the instructions of the Egyptian Pharaoh Nekho II. The Phoenicians took a journey around Africa. The Phoenicians sailed out from the Eritrea Sea (Red Sea) and went out to the South Sea (Indian Ocean). At the occurrence of autumn, they picked up the shore to the wintering. On the shore, they arranged the parking lot, the land was sown and waited for a crop, then sailed on. So two years went swimming, and on the third they reinforced Africa and sailing through the "Herkulesov pillars", returned to Egypt. It is the efforts of Phynicians gibraltar Strait was openedAnd it became possible to go to the western banks of Europe, the British Islands and the West Coast of Africa. They laid when leaving the Atlantic Ocean of the city of Kadir (Cadiz) and Tingis (Tangier).
Descendants of the ancient Phoenicians - carthaginian - continued the development of new lands and spaces. The most famous military commander and fleeting trip Gennon. He explored the West Coast of Africa until modern Sieru-Leone.
Travel and opening was carried out by all the peoples of the world. Do not make up an exception in this regard and such centers of human civilization as China and India.
The civilization of ancient China is born in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. In the pool of the River Juan. By the end of the II millennium BC. The Chinese settled in East Asia. Chinese travelers were well known Geography of China. The ancient Chinese swam not only in their rivers, but also went out on their ships in the Pacific Ocean.
In addition to shopping and walking courts in ancient China existed and powerful warships.
The most famous traveler of the ancient China was Sum Tsyan.. Known three large travels Qian's Sum, which was held in the period 125 - 120 BC. e. in China.
Qian's Suma not only traveled, but also described his journey in detail. He is called the "Father of Chinese Historiography", in the European literature "Chinese Herodotus". His " Historical notes»Appeared for subsequent historians of a kind of standard. Its works also provide information from a geographical nature about the South-Western neighbors of China, for example, Korea.
One of the first Chinese travelers was Zhang Tsyanwho lived approximately in II century. BC. and held a diplomatic position under the imperial courtyard. Travel to Huns. I drove Mongolia, Central Asia.
Making travels, Zhang Tsyan constantly led the record. They describe Bukhara, the valley of the river or, steppe of Kyrgyzstan, the territory of modern Kazakhstan, located north of Syrdarya. Journey Zhang Qian has much economic importance. According to the route they have passed to the West, Chinese merchants rushed. They penetrated not only in Central Asia and India, but also to the countries of Malaya Asia and Palestine.
Travel Fa Xiang. Buddhist monk, 15 years traveled in Asia. He explored the North-West China, Gobi Desert, Central Asia, Afghanistan, North India. In India, Fa Xiang visited many cities, collected legends and legends about Buddha. There he lived for several years. In China, returned by sea through the Ceylon and Java. Published "Description of Buddhist states", where more than 30 states are given, valuable geographical, ethnographic information are given. In addition, the Fa Xiang gives an estimate of the distances and the exact position of objects.
China's value in the sociocultural space of that time was huge. In the chronicles of 166 BC It contains information about the visit to the Chinese merchants of the Roman Empire and their meeting with the emperor Mark Awrenie Anthony. Chinese merchants laid the way through Central Asia, the Middle East, Palestine to the ancient Rome, which gave the beginning " Great Silk Road" But China's closest trading partners were peoples inhabited by the Industan Peninsula.
Thus, in all major civilizations of antiquity, travels and trips with various purposes were actively accomplished. Humanity developed and mastered new territories. Along with this, the lifestyle changed, traditions, the interpenetration of cultures was happening.
6. The tavern of the ancient world (Carthage, Ancient Greece, Macedonia, etc.) of the era of antiquity includes several periods: the archaic period (Criton-Mycenaean culture); The period began to develop the civilization of ancient Greece; Hellenistic period (flourishing and sunset of civilization of ancient Greece and ancient Rome). The word "antiquity" itself translated from Latin means "antiquity", "older".
The roots of European civilization goes to the distant legendary times of Cretan culture, or, as they are also called, Mino (named Cretan Tsar Minos). Myths and legends about this land are inspired by romance and lyricism. It is enough to remember the MINOTOVR labyrinth, the thread of the Ariadna, the feats of the Tereus - the son of the Athens Tsar Egea, in honor of which the Aegean Sea, Medea, Jason, Argonauts, Homer's heroes, Homer's heroes, as he immediately ends with something native and loved ones. All generations of Europeans rose on this material and live it.
From the XII century. BC. You can talk about the emergence of civilization of ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks floated freely in the Aegean Sea to the shores of Malaya Asia and back, although these travels were not deprived of dangers and adventures. The history of the wanderings of the legendary Odyssey does not need comments, since Homer's poems are translated into all languages.
In ancient Greece, travels reaches the greatest lift in V - IV centuries. BC. The same period is a flourishing of philosophy, art, mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and other sciences. Civilizational centers were low-immiginous cities - Millet, Ephesis and Colofon. But the center of attraction was Athens.
In order to know the world, the wise men, natural philosophers and poets went to all ends of the world. Almost all major ancient Greek philosophers carried out distant wanderings. Sage and philosopher Falez Miletsky For more than twenty years studied in Egypt. In the Nile Valley, a philosopher and mathematician visited knowledge Pythagoras, legislator Solon. Philosopher PlatoBy having completed a long journey, after returning home founded a philosophical school.
But not only knowledge attracted travelers to these countries. They were attracted grandiose ancient architectural monuments.
One of the first scientists of travelers was Herodotuswhich, according to the expression of Cicero, is the "father of history". Herodotes traveled for 10 years (from 455 to 445 BC), and all his observations outlined in 9 books. He traveled all of Greece and Malaya Asia, then sailed to the Phoenician city of Tir. Most of all Herodotus attracted East and his rich cultural heritage. Herodot traveled in Libya, visited Babylon, but it was especially struck by Egypt, where he stayed for three months. Returning to Greece, herrotot shared with his compatriots gained knowledge. It was his first journey.
The second Herodota journey passed through Malny Asia, from where he arrived on the ship to the Northern Black Sea region, through Gleviewont to the Miletsky Colony of Olbia at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug Limana. There he met with nomadic tribes of Scythians, watched their customs, rites, studied their social system.
Naught third journey Herodotus devoted to the study of the Balkan Peninsula. He traveled the Peloponnese, the island of the Aegean Sea (Delos, Faros, Zakif and others), then traveled in southern Italy and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.
We reached us only passages of his writings, but the main thing is that heodose belongs glory of the first Greek tourist, since, unlike your predecessors, he wandered not to achieve some other purposes, but for the sake of the Travel itself, i.e. For the sake of pleasure, satisfying your inquisitive and curiosity.
In this era, travel was made mainly with economic, political and military purposes. One example of traveling with economic goals was the journey of the Greek merchant Pypheus. In 325 BC Pilli sailed on the same ship from his hometown of Messaly (now Marseille). Sleeping through Gibraltar and, having encouraged the Pyrenean Peninsula, went to the Biscay bay. Then sailed along the coast of the Celt Country and reached the strait of La Mans. There he stuck to Albion's island, which means "white" in translating due to frequent fogs. On this island, Pillov learned from the inhabitants that north of them are the Earth "Tula" that translated from the local adverb means "edge", "limit".
The Pinee was angled from the west of the British peninsula, and through the northern shed between Britain and Ireland came to the Atlantic Ocean. Pill tried to reach the Earth "Tula" (now Island Island). He sailed the Orkney and Shetland Islands and, reaching the Ferretic Islands, went on, to 61 ° Northern latitude. None of the ancient Greeks and even Romans came so far north.
Greece is home to sports tourism. The Olympic Games took place every four years and began with the first noving after the summer solstice. Special ambassadors of Feora during the games proclaimed the Holy World.
The place of the game was Olympia. All those traveling to Olympia were recognized by the guests of Zeus. Among them were honorable guests who were recognized by deputies of cities and feorary. As a rule, they were stirred and fed at the expense of the host. The stadium was accompanied to forty thousand people, but only men were allowed there. On the occasion of the Olympics, a big fair has always been arranged. Tourists examined the ancient temples, listened to a guide, telling various legends. The Olympics lasted 5 days.
In addition to the Olympic, there were other games that were wealthy: Eastian, held on the Corinth Ist,; Nemeyskyconducted in the Nemoy Valley of Argold, near the temple of Zeus, also every two years; Pythiy, as well as the Olympic, every four years in Chris (Fokyd).
Considering the travels of the era of Hellenism, it is impossible not to mark alexander Macedonian military hiking, launched for 10 years.
In 330 BC. Alexander Macedonian troops, defeating the Persian kingdom, reached South Afghanistan. Then, through modern Kandahar and Gazni, they poisoned in the cub. From there, having passed the Havak Pass (3,548 m) in the Gindukush mountain system, arrived in Northern Afghanistan. After that, the Macedonian king made his trip to Syrdarya and reached modern Hudget (until 1991 - Leninabad). Then the army turned to the south and invaded the Punjab, where, due to dissatisfaction with warriors, heat and diseases, Alexander was forced to go on the way back, during which his death fell.
Without going into the military details of this campaign, we can safely say that it ended for the Greeks, and then for the Romans, the opening of the way to India. Thanks to this campaign, the Greeks and Macedonians met little-known, or even unknown to this, the peoples, their culture, life, traditions. Personally, Alexander Macedonsky was interested in learning Asia. Surrounded by Alexander was not only warriors, but also outstanding scientists, artists. They described in detail in their works in detail everything they saw, heard and studied during this campaign.
There was a change in world-ups. Eurocentrism.
This campaign was it should be the beginning of museum. Alexander after the victory over the Persians sent Money Aristotle to his teacher. For this money, Aristotle founded a natural science museum. Aristotle asked his royal student to send him samples of unknown plants and skins or stuffed unusual animals, which was fulfilled on the command of Alexander.
Features of domestic travel in the Roman Empire. Types of "tourist" activities originated in the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek culture enriched humanity to knowledge about the world around the world, erecting traveling into the rank of mass phenomenon, but it is possible to talk about the initial stages of the tourism industry from the era of ancient Rome.
The highest bloom The Roman Empire reached in I - II centuries. ad. Travels could be carried out due to the presence of wonderful roads. In ancient Greece, an obstacle to land travel was the lack of convenient roads. Water travel.
The dimensions of the Roman Empire and the problems of management of it were the reason for creating dense network roads. Mostly, the Romans developed a road system based on military needs. Roman roads were built on all the rules of engineering art.
When laying the road, any obstacles were overcome. Bridges and viaducts were built to overcome water obstacles. These facilities in some places are not only preserved to the present day, but even still used.
Exist special road maps With the designation of stations where it was possible to stay for the night. The maps indicated the distance between the stations. On the main roads, postal stations were placed apart from 6 to 15 miles away. They were an integral part of the state postal service.
In ancient Rome was created network of state hotels In order to recoup the construction of roads. These hotels were built every 15 miles. Exist two types of hotels. Hotels that were intended for patrician were called mansiones. For Plebeev there were worse hotels, mostly private, which were called stabulary. These were ordinary inerty courtyards, where it was possible to eat and relax without amenities, feed or change the horses, repair the wagon, etc. In the arrays there are elements of tourist service and service (laundry, leisure and entertainment rooms, taverns, etc.).
In ancient Rome, there were already guidebooksIn which one or another route was not simply indicated, but also described the attractions found in the way, hotels were celebrated and prices were given.
Romans are even more than the Greeks, appreciated healing mineral sources. Objects of foreign tourism can be attributed to the famous and until today's resorts on the Rhine - Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden.
With the advent of Christianity, a new impulse gets pilgrimny tourism. Pilgrimage was distributed in ancient Greece. Especially often visited the famous temple of Apollon in Delphi, where Pythia, "chosen by God," was engaged in predictions.
Famous travelers of ancient Rome can be called Polybia (200 - 120 years BC), wrote "World History".
The first country specialist can be called Strabo. (64 - 23 years. BC). Strabo traveled all his life. He traveled to small Asia, visited the mountains of the brand (Crimea) and at the foot of the Caucasian Mountains, visited the Cycladic Islands and bypassed the Balkan Peninsula, thoroughly studied all the memorable places on the Apennine Peninsula, as well as Egypt.
After completing the travels, Strabo wrote the main work of his life - " Geography"- in 17 books. This work is the result of antiquity geographical knowledge.
Travelers in ancient Rome were emperorators (Traian, Adrian, Mark Azeri), commander and scientists.
Thus, thanks to antiquity travelers, new lands and peoples were opened, a rich geographical material was accumulated, contributing to further travel and discoveries.
The nature of the travels during this period was most often natural and forced. Types of travel can be classified according to ways to move: pedestrian, water transport, animals.
Travel motifs: informative, entertainment, wellness, shopping, research, conquest, sea expeditions.
Causes of the emergence and importance of roads and trade routes of antiquity and the Middle Ages. The paths of the message exist so much time as humanity exists. The oldest transport arteries were rivers, mastered by man in the era of Mesolita. Later, in Neolithic (VIII-V thousand BC) there were terrestrial paths for which there was between tribes at a distance at least to many hundreds of kilometers. Exchange of valuable types of raw materials (flint, obsidian, lapis, malachite, sea shells, ivory ). These were trails tied to natural relief - river valleys, mining passages; There are no real traces from them, but these ancient paths are reconstructed on archaeological findings from the settlements along the archaeological finds. Road construction begins with the emergence of the state. It has reached us to the ancient road, found in Egypt, it was laid to the place of construction of the Pyramid of Pharaoh Sakhura (III milk. BC)
The ancient states of the period of antiquity paid attention to the construction of roads and their safety. The duty of each of the numerous states of the ancient Greece was the construction of the road roads of the standard width (approx. 3 m. 3 m.) Pushed on the rocky soil, carving whole areas in the rocks. The roads were considered as inviolable as the temples. In the "History" of Herodotus described the royal road laid by the Persian rulers in the VI century. BC. From the city of Sarda in the west of Malaya Asia to the Suzam in Southwestern Iran. Its length was approx. 2400 km. Through equal intervals, stations were built with persistent yards, and in strategic locations, such as river crossings, were military posts and a fortified gate.
In the Northern Black Sea region, in the territory of modern Russia and Ukraine there were numerous ancient Greek cities. Their inhabitants owned road construction technology, which can be judged by open archaeologists with a paved urban streets. Mountains brought by stone slabs, laid dry without a solution, cross-strokes - rubble and shards of broken vessels. Roman roads became the highest achievement in the field of transport systems of antiquity. The Roman state paid great attention to the construction of roads, who played an important military and civil role in the functioning of a huge empire. The most ancient appiyev road was built in the IV century. BC, on the map of an ancient Rome, it can be seen how numerous roads that bind it with the most remote provinces from the city center. The Romans became the inventors of concrete and widely used it in road construction. The collapse of the Roman Empire in IV century. AD Under the strikes of the barbaric tribes and the onset of the period of the Middle Ages meant the loss of many achievements of civilization, including the destruction of the road network. In the medieval Old Russian state, the most important ways of communication were the rivers for which shipping was carried out from spring, and in the winter they laid a sun path. It was on the rivers that the most important trading routes were held: according to Dnieper and Volkhov - "From Varyag in the Greeks", i.e. From Scandinavia to the capital of Byzantium Constantinople. When moving from the pool of one river to another, it was necessary to overcome the land plots - the wolves (the name comes from the fact that the rooks needed to be overwhelmed with the lining rollers). In the places of the wolves there were cities - Smolensk, Volokolamsk, Vyshny Voloch, and smaller trade and craft settlements.
The princely administration took care of the state of land roads, one of its tasks was to guide the values \u200b\u200bin swampy places. In general, in the ancient Russia roads there was little, they were soil and weakly equipped. It was better about the case with the city streets. In the wooded lands of their bridge
The Great Volzhsky Path joined the medieval Russia, Scandinavia and Northern Europe with the Caspian and the countries of the East.
In early medieval regular road message existed thanks to Roman roads. With IV century They are starting to restore, and they acquire a "second life." In Central Europe, the first country of state value was built between Mainz and Koblenz. The dirt road - "Windobon Streth" crossed the entire central Europe - from the Baltic States before Windbos (Vienna). I was delivered to amber. The best roads in the Byzantine Empire were in the Balkans.
One of the most important elements of the country's development is trade. It is customary to share on the outer and inner. In the era of the Middle Ages, both types of trading are often mixed. It was connected with the time of finding the goods on the way. Bought or manufactured in his hometown, the goods could be sold throughout the path. Through the territory of Kievan Rus, two of the three significant trading tracks were held. It is at the expense of their state acquired fame and authority in the world. Over time, the paths changed, but the main directions remained the same.
Many scientists consider the largest trading through Volzhsky. Although many do not agree with it. Nevertheless, its meaning in the history of the formation of Russia is great. "From Varyag to Bulgars" - such a name is found in the chronicles. He joined the states of Scandinavia and Khazaria. From there the goods diverged further east. The path has developed early, in the 780 years of our era. Control over this way was essential. Rus becomes a trading mediator between Europe and the East. However, over time, the path loses its meaning. This is due to the establishment of control over the trading path leading to the Black Sea. The state was more profitable for the merchants to use them. Svyatoslav military campaigns on Khazaria strengthen the values \u200b\u200bof the Black Sea path. Crusades have further reduced its meaning. Trade through this path becomes not profitable.
The path connecting the countries of Scandinavia and Byzantium is becoming increasingly important. In the "Tale of Bygone Years", he was called "from the Varyag in the Greeks" or "East Way". According to large rivers, through many heavy wipes, he passed through the entire territory of Russia. South on it delivered iron, fur, amber, flax. North leaving luxury and gold. The state has been enriched at the expense of trading duties charged with passing merchants. In some European countries, references to "Russian silk" is found. On the territory of Russia, it was never made, however, it was established control over its sale to Europe countries, which brought significant income. With the beginning of the feudal fragmentation of Russia, the value of the path drops. The robber raids of Varyagov also did not contribute to the development of trade. The seizure in 1204 by Byzantia, the Crusaders seriously undermined the trade. Finally, the path ceases to exist after capturing the gold hordes of the lower and medium subway.
In any case, these trading paths allowed to form a state. Control over the movement of goods allowed the country to play a significant role in world politics.
The presence of trade routes for the development of medieval states was very important. This contributed not only to obtain the necessary goods and replenish the budget of trade states, but also the dissemination of new technologies, cultural achievements and religious ideas. Trading routes and their numerous branches in antiquity and Middle Ages were not only trading highways, but also a cultural and information network connecting remote peoples and states who received information about the material and spiritual culture of each other. They moved merchant caravans, embassies, communities of immigrants, artelle of free craftsmen, pilgrims, missionaries, stray actors. The authorities of the states, through the possessions of which trading tracks ran, usually made every effort for their safety.
In Eastern Europe, the Great Volzhsky Path is considered ancient, some sections of which began to function even during the period of the Eneolita and the Bronze Age. However, as a highway connecting Northern Europe and Central Asia with Iran, the Volzhsky path developed only in the VIII century of our era. True completely did not control it. The key - the Nizhaneolgian area of \u200b\u200bthe path was ruled by the Khazar Kaganat, a significant role in the trade of the Jewish merchants "Rachdonites" played. This allowed the Khazar authorities to receive the highest profits. The Middle Allolia Plot was controlled by the Volga Bulgaria. The upper Volga proceeded through the Slavic lands, which allowed them to trade with the eastern merchants. However, Normans (Varyags / Vikings) were the strongest group of the paths in the northern plot. The North Plot passed from the Vigraev Volga on Perevols and the River, Lake Ilmen, the Volkhov River and Neva - to the Baltic Sea.
In the global plan, the Volga trading path was a great branch of the Great Flushing Path, which combined the Far East with Europe. The Great Skilk Road passed through Central and Central Asia, Iran (south of the Caspian and Black Seas), the territory of modern Arab countries and Turkey (Western and Small Asia), and then in the state of the Mediterranean. Sometimes most of the Great Flip Route was controlled by one state, such as the Turkic Kaganat in the VI century or the Mongolian Empire in the XIII century.
The value of the Volga route was usually increased during the period of termination of the functioning (or a significant reduction in trade) of the West Asian segment of the flush path, for example, during the Arab conquests of the VII-VIII centuries, or the Seljuksky conquests of the XI century. As a result, in the VIII century, Volzhsky and Dneprovsky ("from the Varyag in the Greeks" the paths became more important and significantly competed with a way through West Asia. The greatest damage to the Great Flushing Way was caused by Seljuk (Oguz) conquests of the XI century in Central and West Asia. In This period, the silk path did not function for several decades.
A very significant scale of trade reached during the existence of the Mongolian Empire and the following Mongolian states (Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the Power of the Iranian Mongols of Hulaghaidov, Chagatai Ulus). Along with the full practically safe functioning of the classical (southern) track of the flush path (south of the Black and Caspian Seas, through Iran, and Byzantium (Constantinople) or Syria), a significant part of the trade flow went through the northern (Eastern European) branch of the flush path through the territory of the Golden Horde (average Asia - Lower Volga region - Don - Crimea - Black Sea - Constantinople - Mediterranean Sea). In the goldside period of the XIII-XIV centuries, the Volzhsky way again connected with Silkovoy, gained very important and large commodities. Again, Russian lands and principalities were included in the international trade, which became an important factor in the need to unite Russia.
The new period in trade began in the second half - the end of the XIV century, when due to the collapse of the Mongolian states (Hulagueid Empire, the Golden Orda) and the formation of the Tamerlan Empire again, trading in the silk and Volzhsky route sharply decreased. In truncated form, the flush path functioned until the middle of the XV century, while in 1453 the Ottoman Empire blocked its central part for Europeans. It is the need to trade with the East and the inability to do this through the Ottoman Empire, the search for sea routes to India and China were heated - that is, the great geographical discoveries of the second half of the XV - the beginning of the XVI centuries ...