Methods for specifying the movement of a point.
Set point movement - this means indicating a rule by which at any moment in time one can determine its position in a given frame of reference.
Mathematical expression this rule is called law of motion , or equation of motion points.
There are three ways to specify the movement of a point:
vector;
coordinate;
natural.
To set the movement in a vector way, need to:
à select a fixed center;
à determine the position of the point using the radius vector, starting at the stationary center and ending at the moving point M;
à define this radius vector as a function of time t: 
.
Expression
called vector law of motion dots, or vector equation of motion.
!! Radius vector – this is the distance (vector modulus) + direction from the center O to the point M, which can be determined in different ways, for example, by angles with given directions.
To set movement coordinate method , need to:
à select and fix a coordinate system (any: Cartesian, polar, spherical, cylindrical, etc.);
à determine the position of a point using the appropriate coordinates;
à set these coordinates as a function of time t.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, therefore, it is necessary to indicate the functions
In the polar coordinate system, the polar radius and polar angle should be defined as functions of time:
In general, with the coordinate method of specifying, those coordinates with which the current position of the point is determined should be specified as a function of time.
To be able to set the movement of a point in a natural way, you need to know it trajectory . Let us write down the definition of the trajectory of a point.
Trajectory points are called the set of its positions over any period of time(usually from 0 to +¥).
In the example with a wheel rolling along the road, the trajectory of point 1 is cycloid, and points 2 – roulette; in the reference system associated with the center of the wheel, the trajectories of both points are circle.
To set the movement of a point in a natural way, you need:
à know the trajectory of the point;
à on the trajectory, select the origin and positive direction;
à determine the current position of a point by the length of the trajectory arc from the origin to this current position;
à indicate this length as a function of time.
The expression defining the above function is
called law of motion of a point along a trajectory, or natural equation of motion points.
Depending on the type of function (4), a point along a trajectory can move in different ways.
3. Trajectory of a point and its definition.
The definition of the concept “trajectory of a point” was given earlier in question 2. Let us consider the question of determining the trajectory of a point when in different ways movement tasks.
The natural way: The trajectory must be given, so there is no need to find it.
Vector method: you need to go to the coordinate method according to the equalities
Coordinate method: it is necessary to exclude time t from the equations of motion (2), or (3).
Coordinate equations of motion define the trajectory parametrically, through the parameter t (time). To obtain an explicit equation for the curve, the parameter must be excluded from the equations.
After eliminating time from equations (2), two equations of cylindrical surfaces are obtained, for example, in the form
The intersection of these surfaces will be the trajectory of the point.
When a point moves along a plane, the problem becomes simpler: after eliminating time from the two equations
The trajectory equation will be obtained in one of the following forms:
When will be , therefore the trajectory of the point will be the right branch of the parabola:
From the equations of motion it follows that
therefore, the trajectory of the point will be the part of the parabola located in the right half-plane:
Then we get
Since the entire ellipse will be the trajectory of the point.
At 
the center of the ellipse will be at the origin O; at we get a circle; the parameter k does not affect the shape of the ellipse; the speed of movement of the point along the ellipse depends on it. If you swap cos and sin in the equations, then the trajectory will not change (the same ellipse), but the initial position of the point and the direction of movement will change.
The speed of a point characterizes the “speed” of change in its position. Formally: speed – movement of a point per unit of time.
Precise definition.
Then 
Attitude
The speed of a point moving in a straight line. Instant speed. Finding coordinates by known dependence speed over time.
The speed of movement of a point along a straight line or a given curved line has to be said both about the length of the path traveled by the point during any period of time, and about its movement during the same interval; these values may not be the same if the movement occurred in one direction or the other along the path
INSTANT SPEED()
– vector physical quantity equal to the ratio of the movement Δ made by the particle in a very short period of time Δt to this period of time.
By a very small (or, as they say, physically infinitesimal) period of time is meant here one during which the movement can be considered uniform and rectilinear with sufficient accuracy.
At each moment of time, the instantaneous velocity is directed tangentially to the trajectory along which the particle is moving.
Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s).
Vector and coordinate methods of point movement. Speed and acceleration.
The position of a point in space can be specified in two ways:
1) using coordinates,
2) using the radius vector.
In the first case, the position of the point is determined on the axes of the Cartesian coordinate system OX, OY, OZ associated with the reference body (Fig. 3). To do this, from point A it is necessary to lower perpendiculars to the plane YZ (x coordinate), XZ (coordinate / y), XY (z coordinate), respectively. So, the position of a point can be determined by the entries A (x, y, z), and for the case shown in Fig. C (x = 6, y = 10, z - 4.5), point A is designated as follows: A (6, 10, 4.5).
On the contrary, if specific values of the coordinates of a point in a given coordinate system are given, then to depict the point it is necessary to plot the coordinate values on the corresponding axes and construct a parallelepiped on three mutually perpendicular segments. Its vertex, opposite the origin of coordinates O and located on the diagonal of the parallelepiped, is point A.
If a point moves within a plane, then it is enough to draw two coordinate axes OX and OY through the selected reference * at the point.
Velocity is a vector quantity equal to the ratio of the movement of a body to the time during which this movement occurred. With uneven movement, the speed of a body changes over time. With such movement, the speed is determined by the instantaneous speed of the body. Instant speed - speed body at a given moment in time or at a given point in the trajectory.
Acceleration. With uneven movement, the speed changes both in magnitude and direction. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is equal to the ratio of the change in the speed of the body to the period of time during which this movement occurred.
Ballistic movement. Uniform motion of a material point around a circle. Curvilinear movement of a point in space.
Uniform movement in a circle.
The movement of a body in a circle is curvilinear, with it two coordinates and the direction of movement change. The instantaneous velocity of a body at any point on a curvilinear trajectory is directed tangentially to the trajectory at that point. Movement along any curvilinear trajectory can be represented as movement along the arcs of certain circles. Uniform motion in a circle is motion with acceleration, although the absolute speed does not change. Uniform circular motion is periodic motion.
Curvilinear ballistic motion of a body can be considered as the result of the addition of two rectilinear motions: uniform motion along the axis X and uniformly alternating movement along the axis at.
Kinetic energy of a system of material points, its connection with the work of forces. Koenig's theorem.
The change in the kinetic energy of a body (material point) over a certain period of time is equal to the work done during the same time by the force acting on the body.
The kinetic energy of a system is the energy of motion of the center of mass plus the energy of motion relative to the center of mass:
,
where is the total kinetic energy, is the energy of motion of the center of mass, and is the relative kinetic energy.
In other words, the total kinetic energy of a body or system of bodies in complex motion is equal to the sum of the energy of the system in translational motion and the energy of the system in rotational motion relative to the center of mass.
Potential energy in the field of central forces.
Central is a force field in which the potential energy of a particle is a function only of the distance r to a certain center point fields: U=U(r). The force acting on a particle in such a field also depends only on the distance r and is directed at each point in space along the radius drawn to this point from the center of the field.
The concept of moment of force and moment of impulse, the connection between them. Law of conservation of angular momentum. Moment of force (synonyms: torque; torque; torque) is a physical quantity that characterizes the rotational action of a force on a solid body.
In physics, moment of force can be understood as “rotating force.” The SI unit for moment of force is the newton meter, although the centinewton meter (cN m), foot pound (ft lbf), inch pound (lbf in) and inch ounce (ozf in) are also often used to express moment of force. Symbol for moment of force τ (tau). The moment of a force is sometimes called the moment of a couple of forces, a concept that originated in Archimedes' work on levers. The rotating analogues of force, mass and acceleration are moment of force, moment of inertia and angular acceleration respectively. The force applied to the lever, multiplied by the distance to the axis of the lever, is the moment of force. For example, a force of 3 newtons applied to a lever whose distance to the axis is 2 meters is the same as 1 newton applied to a lever whose distance to the axis is 6 meters. More precisely, the moment of force of a particle is defined as the vector product:
where is the force acting on the particle, and r is the radius vector of the particle.
Angular momentum (kinetic momentum, angular momentum, orbital momentum, angular momentum) characterizes the amount rotational movement. A quantity that depends on how much mass is rotating, how it is distributed relative to the axis of rotation, and at what speed the rotation occurs.
It should be noted that rotation here is understood in a broad sense, not only as regular rotation around an axis. For example, even when a body moves in a straight line past an arbitrary imaginary point, it also has angular momentum. The angular momentum plays the greatest role in describing the actual rotational motion.
Momentum closed system is saved.
The angular momentum of a particle relative to a certain origin is determined by the vector product of its radius vector and momentum:
where is the radius vector of the particle relative to the selected origin, and is the momentum of the particle.
In the SI system, angular momentum is measured in units of joule-second; J·s.
From the definition of angular momentum it follows that it is additive. Thus, for a system of particles the following expression is satisfied:
.
Within the framework of the law of conservation of angular momentum, a conservative quantity is the angular momentum of rotation of the mass - it does not change in the absence of an applied moment of force or torque - the projection of the force vector onto the plane of rotation, perpendicular to the radius of rotation, multiplied by the lever (distance to the axis of rotation). The most common example of the law of conservation of angular momentum is a figure skater performing a spinning figure with acceleration. The athlete enters the rotation quite slowly, spreading her arms and legs wide, and then, as she gathers the mass of her body closer to the axis of rotation, pressing her limbs closer to her body, the speed of rotation increases many times due to a decrease in the moment of inertia while maintaining the moment rotation. Here we are clearly convinced that the lower the moment of inertia, the higher the angular velocity and, as a consequence, the shorter the rotation period, which is inversely proportional to it.
Law of conservation of angular momentum: The angular momentum of a system of bodies is conserved if the resulting moment of external forces acting on the system is equal to zero:
.
If the resulting moment of external forces is not zero, but the projection of this moment on a certain axis is zero, then the projection of the angular momentum of the system on this axis does not change.
Moment of inertia. Huygens-Steiner theorem. Moment of inertia and kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body around a fixed axis.
^ Moment of inertia of a point- a value equal to the product of the mass m of a point by the square of its shortest distance r to the axis (center) of rotation: J z = m r 2, J = m r 2, kg. m 2.
Steiner's theorem: The moment of inertia of a rigid body relative to any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia relative to the axis passing through the center of mass and the product of the mass of this body by the square of the distance between the axes. I=I 0 +md 2. The value of I, equal to the sum of the products of elementary masses by the squares of their distance from a certain axis, is called. moment of inertia of the body relative to a given axis. I=m i R i 2 Summation is carried out over all elementary masses into which the body can be divided.
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Kinetic energy of rotational motion- the energy of a body associated with its rotation.
The main kinematic characteristics of the rotational motion of a body are its angular velocity () and angular acceleration. The main dynamic characteristics of rotational motion - angular momentum relative to the axis of rotation z:
and kinetic energy
where I z is the moment of inertia of the body relative to the axis of rotation.
A similar example can be found when considering a rotating molecule with principal axes of inertia I 1, I 2 And I 3. The rotational energy of such a molecule is given by the expression
Where ω 1, ω 2, And ω 3- the main components of angular velocity.
In general, the energy during rotation with angular velocity is found by the formula:
, where is the inertia tensor
Invariance of the laws of dynamics in ISO. The reference system moves progressively and accelerated. The reference system rotates uniformly. (The material point is at rest in the NISO, the material point moves in the NISO.). Coriolis theorem.
Coriolis force- one of the forces of inertia that exists in a non-inertial frame of reference due to rotation and the laws of inertia, manifested when moving in a direction at an angle to the axis of rotation. Named after the French scientist Gustave Gaspard Coriolis, who first described it. Coriolis acceleration was derived by Coriolis in 1833, Gauss in 1803, and Euler in 1765.
The reason for the appearance of the Coriolis force is the Coriolis (rotary) acceleration. In inertial reference frames, the law of inertia operates, that is, each body tends to move in a straight line and at a constant speed. If we consider the motion of a body, uniform along a certain rotating radius and directed from the center, it becomes clear that in order for it to take place, it is necessary to impart acceleration to the body, since the further from the center, the greater the tangential rotation speed must be. This means that from the point of view of the rotating frame of reference, some force will try to displace the body from the radius.
In order for a body to move with Coriolis acceleration, it is necessary to apply a force to the body equal to , where is the Coriolis acceleration. Accordingly, the body acts according to Newton's third law with a force in the opposite direction. The force that acts from the body will be called the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force should not be confused with another inertial force - centrifugal force, which is directed along the radius of a rotating circle.
If the rotation occurs clockwise, then a body moving from the center of rotation will tend to leave the radius to the left. If the rotation occurs counterclockwise, then to the right.
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
– a system that performs harmonic oscillations
Oscillations are usually associated with the alternating transformation of energy of one form (type) into the energy of another form (another type). In a mechanical pendulum, energy is converted from kinetic to potential. In electrical LC circuits (that is, inductive-capacitive circuits), energy is converted from electrical energy capacity (energy electric field capacitor) into the magnetic energy of the inductor (energy magnetic field solenoid)
Examples of harmonic oscillators (physical pendulum, mathematical pendulum, torsion pendulum)
Physical pendulum- an oscillator, which is a solid body that oscillates in a field of any forces relative to a point that is not the center of mass of this body, or a fixed axis perpendicular to the direction of action of the forces and not passing through the center of mass of this body.
Mathematical pendulum- an oscillator, which is a mechanical system consisting of a material point located on a weightless inextensible thread or on a weightless rod in a uniform field of gravitational forces [
Torsion pendulum(Also torsion pendulum, rotational pendulum) - a mechanical system, which is a body suspended in a gravitational field on a thin thread and possessing only one degree of freedom: rotation around an axis specified by a fixed thread
Areas of use
The capillary effect is used in non-destructive testing (penetrant testing or testing by penetrating substances) to identify defects that appear on the surface of the controlled product. Allows you to detect cracks with an opening of 1 micron, which are not visible to the naked eye.
Cohesion(from Latin cohaesus - connected, linked), the cohesion of molecules (ions) of a physical body under the influence of attractive forces. These are the forces of intermolecular interaction, hydrogen bonding and (or) other chemical bonding. They determine the totality of physical and physicochemical properties of a substance: state of aggregation, volatility, solubility, mechanical properties, etc. The intensity of intermolecular and interatomic interactions (and, consequently, cohesive forces) decreases sharply with distance. Cohesion is strongest in solids and liquids, that is, in condensed phases, where the distance between molecules (ions) is small - on the order of several molecular sizes. In gases, the average distances between molecules are large compared to their sizes, and therefore cohesion in them is negligible. A measure of the intensity of intermolecular interaction is the cohesion energy density. It is equivalent to the work of removing mutually attracted molecules at an infinitely large distance from each other, which practically corresponds to the evaporation or sublimation of a substance
Adhesion(from lat. adhaesio- adhesion) in physics - adhesion of surfaces of dissimilar solids and/or liquids. Adhesion is caused by intermolecular interaction (van der Waals, polar, sometimes by the formation chemical bonds or mutual diffusion) in the surface layer and is characterized by the specific work required to separate the surfaces. In some cases, adhesion may be stronger than cohesion, that is, adhesion within a homogeneous material; in such cases, when a breaking force is applied, a cohesive rupture occurs, that is, a rupture in the volume of the less strong of the contacting materials.
The concept of liquid (gas) flow and continuity equation. Derivation of Bernoulli's equation.
In hydraulics, a flow is considered to be the movement of a mass when this mass is limited:
1) hard surfaces;
2) surfaces that separate different liquids;
3) free surfaces.
Depending on what kind of surfaces or combinations thereof the moving fluid is limited, the following types of flows are distinguished:
1) free-flow, when the flow is limited by a combination of solid and free surfaces, for example, a river, a canal, a pipe with an incomplete cross-section;
2) pressure, for example, a pipe with a full cross-section;
3) hydraulic jets, which are limited to a liquid (as we will see later, such jets are called flooded) or gaseous media.
Free section and hydraulic radius of flow. Continuity equation in hydraulic form
The Gromeka equation is suitable for describing the motion of a fluid if the components of the motion function contain some kind of vortex quantity. For example, this vortex quantity is contained in the components ωx, ωy, ωz of the angular velocity w.
The condition for the motion to be steady is the absence of acceleration, that is, the condition that the partial derivatives of all velocity components be equal to zero:
If we now add
then we get
If we project the displacement by an infinitesimal value dl onto the coordinate axes, we get:
dx = Uxdt; dy = Uy dt; dz = Uzdt. (3)
Now let’s multiply each equation (3) by dx, dy, dz, respectively, and add them:
Assuming that the right-hand side is zero, which is possible if the second or third rows are zero, we get:
We have obtained the Bernoulli equation
Analysis of Bernoulli's equation
this equation is nothing more than the equation of a streamline during steady motion.
This leads to the following conclusions:
1) if the motion is steady, then the first and third lines in Bernoulli’s equation are proportional.
2) lines 1 and 2 are proportional, i.e.
Equation (2) is the vortex line equation. The conclusions from (2) are similar to those from (1), only streamlines replace vortex lines. In short, in this case condition (2) is satisfied for vortex lines;
3) the corresponding terms of lines 2 and 3 are proportional, i.e.
where a is some constant value; if we substitute (3) into (2), we obtain the streamline equation (1), since from (3) it follows:
ω x = aUx; ωy = aUy; ω z = aUz. (4)
Here follows an interesting conclusion that the vectors of linear velocity and angular velocity are co-directional, that is, parallel.
In a broader understanding, one must imagine the following: since the motion under consideration is steady, it turns out that the particles of the liquid move in a spiral and their trajectories along the spiral form streamlines. Therefore, streamlines and particle trajectories are one and the same. This kind of movement is called helical.
4) the second line of the determinant (more precisely, the terms of the second line) is equal to zero, i.e.
ω x = ω y = ω z = 0. (5)
But the absence of angular velocity is equivalent to the absence of vortex motion.
5) let line 3 be equal to zero, i.e.
Ux = Uy = Uz = 0.
But this, as we already know, is the condition for fluid equilibrium.
The analysis of Bernoulli's equation is completed.
Galilean transformation. Mechanical principle of relativity. Postulates of special (particular theory) relativity. Lorentz transformation and consequences from them.
The main principle on which classical mechanics is based is the principle of relativity, formulated on the basis of empirical observations by G. Galileo. According to this principle, there are infinitely many reference systems in which a free body is at rest or moving with a speed constant in magnitude and direction. These reference systems are called inertial and move relative to each other uniformly and rectilinearly. In all inertial reference systems, the properties of space and time are the same, and all processes in mechanical systems obey the same laws. This principle can also be formulated as the absence of absolute reference systems, that is, reference systems that are in any way distinguished relative to others.
The principle of relativity- fundamental physical principle, according to which all physical processes in inertial reference systems proceed in the same way, regardless of whether the system is stationary or in a state of uniform and rectilinear motion.
Special theory of relativity (ONE HUNDRED; Also special theory of relativity) - a theory that describes motion, the laws of mechanics and space-time relations at arbitrary speeds of movement less than the speed of light in a vacuum, including those close to the speed of light. Within special theory relativity, classical Newtonian mechanics is a low-velocity approximation. A generalization of STR for gravitational fields is called general theory relativity.
Deviations in the flow described by the special theory of relativity physical processes from the predictions of classical mechanics are called relativistic effects, and the speeds at which such effects become significant are relativistic speeds
Lorentz transformations- linear (or affine) transformations of vector (respectively, affine) pseudo-Euclidean space, preserving lengths or, equivalently, the scalar product of vectors.
Lorentz transformations of pseudo-Euclidean signature space are widely used in physics, in particular, in the special theory of relativity (STR), where the four-dimensional space-time continuum (Minkowski space) acts as an affine pseudo-Euclidean space
Transference phenomenon.
In a gas in a nonequilibrium state, irreversible processes called transport phenomena occur. During these processes, spatial transfer of matter (diffusion), energy (thermal conductivity), and impulse of directed motion (viscous friction) occurs. If the course of a process does not change with time, then such a process is called stationary. Otherwise it is a non-stationary process. Stationary processes are possible only under stationary external conditions. In a thermodynamically isolated system, only non-stationary transport phenomena can occur, aimed at establishing an equilibrium state
Subject and method of thermodynamics. Basic concepts. First law of thermodynamics.
The principle of thermodynamics is quite simple. It is based on three experimental laws and the equation of state: the first law (the first law of thermodynamics) - the law of conservation and transformation of energy; the second law (second law of thermodynamics) indicates the direction in which natural phenomena occur in nature; The third law (third law of thermodynamics) states that absolute zero temperatures are unattainable. Thermodynamics, unlike statistical physics, does not consider specific molecular patterns. Based on experimental data, basic laws (principles or principles) are formulated. These laws and their consequences apply to specific physical phenomena associated with the transformation of energy in a macroscopic way (without taking into account the atomic-molecular structure), the properties of bodies of specific sizes are studied. The thermodynamic method is used in physics, chemistry, and a number of technical sciences.
Thermodynamics – the doctrine of connection and mutual transformations various types energy, heat and work.
The concept of thermodynamics comes from the Greek words “thermos” - heat, heat; "dynamikos" - strength, power.
In thermodynamics, a body is understood as a certain part of space filled with matter. The shape of a body, its color and other properties are unimportant for thermodynamics; therefore, the thermodynamic concept of a body differs from the geometric one.
The internal energy U plays an important role in thermodynamics.
U is the sum of all types of energy contained in an isolated system (energy thermal movement all microparticles of the system, particle interaction energy, energy of electrical shells of atoms and ions, intranuclear energy, etc.).
Internal energy is an unambiguous function of the state of the system: its change DU during the transition of the system from state 1 to 2 does not depend on the type of process and is equal to ∆U = U 1 – U 2. If the system makes a circular process, then:
The total change in its internal energy is 0.
The internal energy U of the system is determined by its state, i.e. U of the system is a function of the state parameters:
U = f(p,V,T) (1)
At not too high temperatures, the internal energy of an ideal gas can be considered equal to the sum of the molecular kinetic energies of the thermal motion of its molecules. The internal energy of a homogeneous, and to a first approximation, heterogeneous systems is an additive quantity - equal to the sum internal energies all its macroscopic parts (or phases of the system).
Adiabatic process. Poisson's equation, adiabatic. Polytropic process, polytropic equation.
Adiabatic is a process in which there is no heat exchange
Adiabatic, or adiabatic process(from ancient Greek ἀδιάβατος - “impenetrable”) - a thermodynamic process in a macroscopic system, in which the system does not exchange thermal energy with the surrounding space. Serious research into adiabatic processes began in the 18th century.
An adiabatic process is a special case of a polytropic process, since in it the heat capacity of the gas is zero and, therefore, constant. Adiabatic processes are reversible only when at each moment of time the system remains in equilibrium (for example, the change in state occurs quite slowly) and there is no change in entropy. Some authors (in particular, L.D. Landau) called only quasi-static adiabatic processes adiabatic.
The adiabatic process for an ideal gas is described by the Poisson equation. Line representing adiabatic process on a thermodynamic diagram is called adiabatic. Processes in a number of natural phenomena can be considered adiabatic. Poisson's equation- elliptical differential equation in partial derivatives, which, among other things, describes
- electrostatic field,
- stationary temperature field,
- pressure field,
- velocity potential field in hydrodynamics.
It is named after the famous French physicist and mathematician Simeon Denis Poisson.
This equation looks like:
where is the Laplace operator or Laplacian, and is real or complex function on some variety.
In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the equation takes the form:
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the Laplace operator is written in the form and the Poisson equation takes the form:
If f tends to zero, then Poisson’s equation turns into Laplace’s equation (Laplace’s equation - special case Poisson's equations):
Poisson's equation can be solved using the Green's function; see, for example, the article Screened Poisson's equation. There are various methods for obtaining numerical solutions. For example, an iterative algorithm is used - the “relaxation method”.
Also, such processes have received a number of applications in technology.
Polytropic process, polytropic process- thermodynamic process during which specific heat gas remains unchanged.
In accordance with the essence of the concept of heat capacity, the limiting particular phenomena of a polytropic process are the isothermal process () and the adiabatic process ().
In the case of an ideal gas, the isobaric process and the isochoric process are also polytropic ?
Polytropic equation. The isochoric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic processes discussed above have one common property- have a constant heat capacity.
Ideal heat engine and Carnot cycle. Efficiency ideal heat engine. Contents of the second law of K.P.D. real heat engine.
The Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle. Carnot heat engine, operating according to this cycle, has the maximum efficiency of all machines in which the maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle being carried out coincide, respectively, with the maximum and minimum temperatures of the Carnot cycle.
Maximum efficiency is achieved with a reversible cycle. In order for the cycle to be reversible, heat transfer in the presence of a temperature difference must be excluded from it. To prove this fact, let us assume that heat transfer occurs at a temperature difference. This transfer occurs from a hotter body to a colder one. If we assume the process is reversible, then this would mean the possibility of transferring heat back from a colder body to a hotter one, which is impossible, therefore the process is irreversible. Accordingly, the conversion of heat into work can only occur isothermally [Comm 4]. In this case, the reverse transition of the engine to starting point only through an isothermal process is impossible, since in this case all the work received will be spent on restoration starting position. Since it was shown above that an adiabatic process can be reversible, this type of adiabatic process is suitable for use in the Carnot cycle.
In total, two adiabatic processes occur during the Carnot cycle:
1. Adiabatic (isentropic) expansion(in the figure - process 2→3). The working fluid is disconnected from the heater and continues to expand without heat exchange with the environment. At the same time, its temperature decreases to the temperature of the refrigerator.
2. Adiabatic (isentropic) compression(in the figure - process 4→1). The working fluid is disconnected from the refrigerator and compressed without heat exchange with the environment. At the same time, its temperature increases to the temperature of the heater.
Boundary conditions En and Et.
In a conducting body located in an electrostatic field, all points of the body have the same potential, the surface of the conducting body is an equipotential surface and the field strength lines in the dielectric are normal to it. Denoting by E n and E t the normal and tangent to the surface of the conductor, the components of the field strength vector in the dielectric near the surface of the conductor, these conditions can be written in the form:
E t = 0; E = E n = -¶U/¶n; D = -e*¶U/¶n = s,
where s is surface density electric charge on the surface of the conductor.
Thus, at the interface between a conducting body and a dielectric, there is no component of the electric field strength tangent to the surface (tangential), and the vector electrical displacement at any point directly adjacent to the surface of a conducting body is numerically equal to the density of electric charge s on the surface of the conductor
Clausius's theorem, Clausius's inequality. Entropy, its physical meaning. Change in entropy during irreversible processes. Basic equation of thermodynamics.
the sum of reduced heats during a transition from one state to another does not depend on the form (path) of the transition in the case of reversible processes. The last statement is called Clausius' theorem.
Considering the processes of converting heat into work, R. Clausius formulated the thermodynamic inequality that bears his name.
“The reduced amount of heat received by the system during an arbitrary circular process cannot be greater than zero”
where dQ is the amount of heat received by the system at temperature T, dQ 1 is the amount of heat received by the system from the sections environment with temperature T 1, dQ ¢ 2 – the amount of heat given off by the system to areas of the environment at temperature T 2. The Clausius inequality allows us to establish upper limit thermal efficiency at variable temperatures of the heater and refrigerator.
From the expression for a reversible Carnot cycle it follows that or , i.e. for a reversible cycle, the Clausius inequality becomes an equality. This means that the reduced amount of heat received by the system during a reversible process does not depend on the type of process, but is determined only by the initial and final states of the system. Therefore, the reduced amount of heat received by the system during a reversible process serves as a measure of the change in the state function of the system, called entropy.
The entropy of a system is a function of its state, determined up to an arbitrary constant. The entropy increment is equal to the reduced amount of heat that must be imparted to the system in order to transfer it from the initial state to the final state according to any reversible process.
, 
.
An important feature of entropy is its increase in isolated
1.2. Straight-line movement
1.2.4. average speed
A material point (body) retains its speed unchanged only with uniform rectilinear motion. If the movement is uneven (including uniformly variable), then the speed of the body changes. This movement is characterized by average speed. A distinction is made between average travel speed and average ground speed.
Average moving speed is vector physical quantity, which is determined by the formula
v → r = Δ r → Δ t,
where Δ r → is the displacement vector; ∆t is the time interval during which this movement occurred.
Average ground speed is a scalar physical quantity and is calculated by the formula
v s = S total t total,
where S total = S 1 + S 1 + ... + S n; ttot = t 1 + t 2 + ... + t N .
Here S 1 = v 1 t 1 - the first section of the path; v 1 - speed of passage of the first section of the path (Fig. 1.18); t 1 - time of movement on the first section of the route, etc.
Rice. 1.18
Example 7. One quarter of the way the bus moves at a speed of 36 km/h, the second quarter of the way - 54 km/h, the remaining way - at a speed of 72 km/h. Calculate the average ground speed of the bus.
Solution. General path traversed by the bus, we denote S:
Stot = S.
S 1 = S /4 - the path traveled by the bus on the first section,
S 2 = S /4 - the path traveled by the bus on the second section,
S 3 = S /2 - the path traveled by the bus in the third section.
The bus travel time is determined by the formulas:
- in the first section (S 1 = S /4) -
t 1 = S 1 v 1 = S 4 v 1 ;
- in the second section (S 2 = S /4) -
t 2 = S 2 v 2 = S 4 v 2 ;
- in the third section (S 3 = S /2) -
t 3 = S 3 v 3 = S 2 v 3 .
The total travel time of the bus is:
t total = t 1 + t 2 + t 3 = S 4 v 1 + S 4 v 2 + S 2 v 3 = S (1 4 v 1 + 1 4 v 2 + 1 2 v 3) .
v s = S total t total = S S (1 4 v 1 + 1 4 v 2 + 1 2 v 3) =
1 (1 4 v 1 + 1 4 v 2 + 1 2 v 3) = 4 v 1 v 2 v 3 v 2 v 3 + v 1 v 3 + 2 v 1 v 2 .
v s = 4 ⋅ 36 ⋅ 54 ⋅ 72 54 ⋅ 72 + 36 ⋅ 72 + 2 ⋅ 36 ⋅ 54 = 54 km/h.
Example 8. A city bus spends a fifth of its time stopping, the rest of the time it moves at a speed of 36 km/h. Determine the average ground speed of the bus.
Solution. Let us denote the total travel time of the bus on the route by t:
ttot = t.
t 1 = t /5 - time spent stopping,
t 2 = 4t /5 - bus travel time.
Distance covered by the bus:
- during time t 1 = t /5 -
S 1 = v 1 t 1 = 0,
since the speed of the bus v 1 at a given time interval is zero (v 1 = 0);
- during time t 2 = 4t /5 -
S 2 = v 2 t 2 = v 2 4 t 5 = 4 5 v 2 t ,
where v 2 is the speed of the bus at a given time interval (v 2 = 36 km/h).
The general route of the bus is:
S total = S 1 + S 2 = 0 + 4 5 v 2 t = 4 5 v 2 t.
We will calculate the average ground speed of the bus using the formula
v s = S total t total = 4 5 v 2 t t = 4 5 v 2 .
The calculation gives the value of the average ground speed:
v s = 4 5 ⋅ 36 = 30 km/h.
Example 9. The equation of motion of a material point has the form x (t) = (9.0 − 6.0t + 2.0t 2) m, where the coordinate is given in meters, time in seconds. Determine the average ground speed and the average speed of movement of a material point in the first three seconds of movement.
Solution. For determining average moving speed it is necessary to calculate the displacement of a material point. The module of movement of a material point in the time interval from t 1 = 0 s to t 2 = 3.0 s will be calculated as the difference in coordinates:
| Δ r → | = | x (t 2) − x (t 1) | ,
Substituting the values into the formula to calculate the displacement modulus gives:
| Δ r → | = | x (t 2) − x (t 1) | = 9.0 − 9.0 = 0 m.
Thus, the displacement of the material point is zero. Therefore, the modulus of the average movement speed is also zero:
| v → r | = | Δ r → | t 2 − t 1 = 0 3.0 − 0 = 0 m/s.
For determining average ground speed you need to calculate the path traveled by a material point during the time interval from t 1 = 0 s to t 2 = 3.0 s. The movement of the point is uniformly slow, so it is necessary to find out whether the stopping point falls within the specified interval.
To do this, we write the law of change in the speed of a material point over time in the form:
v x = v 0 x + a x t = − 6.0 + 4.0 t ,
where v 0 x = −6.0 m/s - projection initial speed to the Ox axis; a x = = 4.0 m/s 2 - projection of acceleration onto the indicated axis.
Let's find the stopping point from the condition
v (τ rest) = 0,
those.
τ rest = v 0 a = 6.0 4.0 = 1.5 s.
The stopping point falls within the time interval from t 1 = 0 s to t 2 = 3.0 s. Thus, we calculate the distance traveled using the formula
S = S 1 + S 2,
where S 1 = | x (τ rest) − x (t 1) | - the path traveled by the material point to the stop, i.e. during the time from t 1 = 0 s to τ rest = 1.5 s; S 2 = | x (t 2) − x (τ rest) | - the path traveled by the material point after stopping, i.e. during the time from τ rest = 1.5 s to t 1 = 3.0 s.
Let's calculate the coordinate values at the specified times:
x (t 1) = 9.0 − 6.0 t 1 + 2.0 t 1 2 = 9.0 − 6.0 ⋅ 0 + 2.0 ⋅ 0 2 = 9.0 m;
x (τ rest) = 9.0 − 6.0 τ rest + 2.0 τ rest 2 = 9.0 − 6.0 ⋅ 1.5 + 2.0 ⋅ (1.5) 2 = 4.5 m ;
x (t 2) = 9.0 − 6.0 t 2 + 2.0 t 2 2 = 9.0 − 6.0 ⋅ 3.0 + 2.0 ⋅ (3.0) 2 = 9.0 m .
The coordinate values allow you to calculate the paths S 1 and S 2:
S 1 = | x (τ rest) − x (t 1) | = | 4.5 − 9.0 | = 4.5 m;
S 2 = | x (t 2) − x (τ rest) | = | 9.0 − 4.5 | = 4.5 m,
as well as the total distance traveled:
S = S 1 + S 2 = 4.5 + 4.5 = 9.0 m.
Consequently, the desired value of the average ground speed of the material point is equal to
v s = S t 2 − t 1 = 9.0 3.0 − 0 = 3.0 m/s.
Example 10. The graph of the projection of the velocity of a material point versus time is a straight line and passes through the points (0; 8.0) and (12; 0), where the velocity is given in meters per second, time in seconds. How many times does the average ground speed for 16 seconds of movement exceed the average speed of movement for the same time?
Solution. A graph of the projection of body velocity versus time is shown in the figure.
To graphically calculate the path traveled by a material point and the module of its displacement, it is necessary to determine the value of the velocity projection at a time equal to 16 s.
There are two ways to determine the value of v x at a specified point in time: analytical (through the equation of a straight line) and graphical (through the similarity of triangles). To find v x, we use the first method and draw up an equation of a straight line using two points:
t − t 1 t 2 − t 1 = v x − v x 1 v x 2 − v x 1 ,
where (t 1 ; v x 1) - coordinates of the first point; (t 2 ; v x 2) - coordinates of the second point. According to the conditions of the problem: t 1 = 0, v x 1 = 8.0, t 2 = 12, v x 2 = 0. Taking into account specific coordinate values, this equation takes the form:
t − 0 12 − 0 = v x − 8.0 0 − 8.0 ,
v x = 8.0 − 2 3 t .
At t = 16 s the velocity projection value is
| v x | = 8 3 m/s.
This value can also be obtained from the similarity of triangles.
- Let us calculate the path traveled by the material point as the sum of the values S 1 and S 2:
S = S 1 + S 2,
where S 1 = 1 2 ⋅ 8.0 ⋅ 12 = 48 m - the path traveled by the material point during the time interval from 0 s to 12 s; S 2 = 1 2 ⋅ (16 − 12) ⋅ | v x | = 1 2 ⋅ 4.0 ⋅ 8 3 = = 16 3 m - the path traveled by the material point during the time interval from 12 s to 16 s.
The total distance traveled is
S = S 1 + S 2 = 48 + 16 3 = 160 3 m.
The average ground speed of a material point is equal to
v s = S t 2 − t 1 = 160 3 ⋅ 16 = 10 3 m/s.
- Let us calculate the value of the movement of a material point as the modulus of the difference between the values S 1 and S 2:
S = | S 1 − S 2 | = | 48 − 16 3 | = 128 3 m.
The average speed of movement is
| v → r | = | Δ r → | t 2 − t 1 = 128 3 ⋅ 16 = 8 3 m/s.
The required speed ratio is
v s | v → r | = 10 3 ⋅ 3 8 = 10 8 = 1.25.
The average ground speed of a material point is 1.25 times higher than the module of the average speed of movement.
The speed of a point is a vector that determines at any given moment in time the speed and direction of movement of the point.
The speed of uniform motion is determined by the ratio of the path traveled by a point in a certain period of time to the value of this period of time.
Speed; S-path; t- time.
Speed is measured in units of length divided by unit of time: m/s; cm/s; km/h, etc.
In the case of rectilinear motion, the velocity vector is directed along the trajectory in the direction of its movement.
If a point travels unequal paths in equal periods of time, then this movement is called uneven. Speed is a variable quantity and is a function of time.
The average speed of a point over a given period of time is the speed of such uniform rectilinear motion at which the point during this period of time would receive the same displacement as in its movement under consideration.
Let's consider point M, which moves along a curvilinear trajectory specified by the law
Over a period of time?t, point M will move to position M1 along the arc MM 1. If the time period?t is small, then arc MM 1 can be replaced by a chord and, to a first approximation, find the average speed of the point
This speed is directed along the chord from point M to point M 1. We find the true speed by going to the limit at?t> 0
When?t> 0, the direction of the chord in the limit coincides with the direction of the tangent to the trajectory at point M.
Thus, the value of the speed of a point is defined as the limit of the ratio of the increment of the path to the corresponding period of time as the latter tends to zero. The direction of the velocity coincides with the tangent to the trajectory at a given point.
Point acceleration
Note that in the general case, when moving along a curved path, the speed of a point changes both in direction and in magnitude. The change in speed per unit time is determined by acceleration. In other words, the acceleration of a point is a quantity that characterizes the rate of change in speed over time. If during the time interval?t the speed changes by an amount, then the average acceleration
The true acceleration of a point at a given time t is the value to which the average acceleration tends at?t> 0, that is
As the time interval tends to zero, the acceleration vector will change both in magnitude and direction, tending to its limit.
Acceleration dimension
Acceleration can be expressed in m/s 2 ; cm/s 2, etc.
In the general case, when the motion of a point is given in a natural way, the acceleration vector is usually decomposed into two components, directed tangentially and normal to the trajectory of the point.
Then the acceleration of the point at time t can be represented as follows
Let us denote the component limits by and.
The direction of the vector does not depend on the value of the time interval?t.
This acceleration always coincides with the direction of the velocity, that is, it is directed tangentially to the trajectory of the point and is therefore called tangential or tangential acceleration.
The second component of the acceleration of a point is directed perpendicular to the tangent to the trajectory at a given point towards the concavity of the curve and affects the change in the direction of the velocity vector. This component of acceleration is called normal acceleration.
Since the numerical value of the vector is equal to the increment in the speed of the point over the considered period?t of time, then the numerical value of the tangential acceleration
The numerical value of the tangential acceleration of a point is equal to the time derivative of the numerical value of the velocity. The numerical value of the normal acceleration of a point is equal to the square of the point’s speed divided by the radius of curvature of the trajectory at the corresponding point on the curve
The total acceleration during uneven curvilinear motion of a point is composed geometrically of the tangential and normal accelerations.
Mechanical motion is the change over time in the position in space of points and bodies relative to any main body to which the reference system is attached. Kinematics studies the mechanical movement of points and bodies, regardless of the forces causing these movements. Any movement, like rest, is relative and depends on the choice of reference system.
The trajectory of a point is a continuous line described by a moving point. If the trajectory is a straight line, then the movement of the point is called rectilinear, and if it is a curve, then it is called curvilinear. If the trajectory is flat, then the motion of the point is called flat.
The movement of a point or body is considered given or known if for each moment of time (t) it is possible to indicate the position of the point or body relative to the selected coordinate system.
The position of a point in space is determined by the task:
a) point trajectories;
b) the beginning O 1 of the distance reading along the trajectory (Figure 11): s = O 1 M - curvilinear coordinate of point M;
c) the direction of the positive count of distances s;
d) equation or law of motion of a point along a trajectory: S = s(t)
Point speed. If a point travels equal distances in equal periods of time, then its motion is called uniform. The speed of uniform motion is measured by the ratio of the path z traveled by a point in a certain period of time to the value of this period of time: v = s/1. If a point travels unequal paths in equal periods of time, then its movement is called uneven. The speed in this case is also variable and is a function of time: v = v(t). Let's consider point A, which moves along a given trajectory according to a certain law s = s(t) (Figure 12):
 |
Over a period of time t t. A moved to position A 1 along the arc AA. If the time period Δt is small, then the arc AA 1 can be replaced by a chord and find, as a first approximation, the average speed of the point v cp = Ds/Dt. The average speed is directed along the chord from point A to point A 1.
The true speed of a point is directed tangentially to the trajectory, and its algebraic value is determined by the first derivative of the path with respect to time:
v = limΔs/Δt = ds/dt
Dimension of point speed: (v) = length/time, for example, m/s. If the point moves in the direction of increasing curvilinear coordinate s, then ds > 0, and therefore v > 0, otherwise ds< 0 и v < 0.
Point acceleration. The change in speed per unit time is determined by acceleration. Let's consider the movement of point A along a curvilinear trajectory in time Δt from position A to position A 1 . In position A the point had a speed v, and in position A 1 - a speed v 1 (Figure 13). those. the speed of the point changed in magnitude and direction. We find the geometric difference of speeds Δv by constructing the vector v 1 from point A.
 |
The acceleration of a point is the vector “, which is equal to the first derivative of the point’s velocity vector with respect to time:
The found acceleration vector a can be decomposed into two mutually perpendicular components but tangent and normal to the trajectory of motion. Tangential acceleration a 1 coincides in direction with the speed during accelerated motion or is opposite to it during replaced motion. It characterizes the change in speed and is equal to the derivative of the speed with respect to time
The normal acceleration vector a is directed along the normal (perpendicular) to the curve towards the concavity of the trajectory, and its modulus is equal to the ratio of the square of the velocity of the point to the radius of curvature of the trajectory at the point in question.
Normal acceleration characterizes the change in speed along
direction.
Total acceleration value: 
, m/s 2
Types of point motion depending on acceleration.
Uniform rectilinear movement (motion by inertia) is characterized by the fact that the speed of movement is constant, and the radius of curvature of the trajectory is equal to infinity.
That is, r = ¥, v = const, then ; and therefore . So, when a point moves by inertia, its acceleration is zero.
Rectilinear uneven movement. The radius of curvature of the trajectory is r = ¥, and n = 0, therefore a = a t and a = a t = dv/dt.