TRIUMPH(Triumphus). The word triumph probably comes from the exclamation " triumphe"(associated with θρίαμβος), issued by soldiers and people during the procession (Varro, L. L. VI. 68, also found in the chants of the Arval brothers), but may be an early transliteration of the word θρίαμβος itself (see also Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, With. 394).
Initially, the triumph was undoubtedly simply the return of a victorious army led by a general, whose first act, naturally, was to offer a sacrifice to the supreme god of the city. A notable feature of this entry into the city was the display of prisoners and booty. This is the essence of triumph. (Varro, l. c. : « Triumphare appellatum quod cum imperatore milites redeuntes clamitant per urbem in Capitolium eunti Io triumphe". An early triumph of this kind is described in Liv. III. 29, 4.) It occurred after every successful campaign, as a matter of course. After the ceremony had been developed, and the importance of the triumph had consequently increased, there naturally arose a tendency, coinciding with the weakening of power, to limit its performance to cases of exceptional success, and a set of rules gradually arose to condition and limit the receipt of what had become a coveted favor. First of all, the consent of the Senate became necessary.
The triumph had two aspects: religious and military.
1. Before a general departed from Rome for the theater of war, his last activity was a visit to the Capitol, where (if he was a magistrate) he received the auspices, without which the war could not properly begin, and on each occasion made vows for success in war (Liv. XLV. 39, &c.; Caes. B. C. I. 6; Plin. Pan. 5). If the campaign was successful and he was granted a triumph, it took the form of a procession to the Capitol, where vows were to be fulfilled and sacrifices made to Jupiter. This religious character of the triumph was emphasized by the fact that the commander appeared in the procession in the form of a god. His clothes were the same as those of the god, and belonged to the temple, from where they were delivered on this occasion. (That's why they talk about her as exuviae Jovis:Suet. Aug. 94; Wed Juv. X. 38; Liv. X. 7, 10. Gordian was the first to own these clothes as his own: Vita Gord. 4; Wed Vita Alex. Sev. 40.) The golden crown also belonged to God (Tertull. de Coron. 13) and a scepter with an eagle; the body of the general (at least in early times) was painted red, like a statue in a temple (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111); and the white chariot horses used by the emperors, and earlier by Camillus, resembled the white horses of Jupiter and the Sun (Liv. V. 23, 5, and v. inf.). On the importance of such identification of the priest (which in this case was the triumphant) with the deity, see S ACERDOS.
2. Triumph was also a military event, the last one performed by a commander during his command; therefore, it was important that when it was carried out, the commander had the fullness of the military empire; this was inherent in the positions of the highest magistrates (consul, praetor, dictator). If these magistrates achieved a triumph while in office, they already possessed the necessary quality (although it was usually suspended in the city) and thus in this case had the opportunity (with the prior permission of the Senate) to carry out military empires within the city. (For problems associated with loss of auspices in certain cases, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 124, approx. 5.) As long as the command of an army was usually exercised by one of the higher magistrates during the term of his office, the right to triumph belonged exclusively to this class (in an exceptional case, for example, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo, consul of 327 BC). e., when the command was extended beyond the usual period, the right was not lost: Liv. VIII. 26, 7); therefore, when during the second Punic War it became necessary to appoint commanders who did not occupy one of the ordinary higher magistrates, in such cases the triumph was denied (for example, P. Scipio in 206 BC, Liv. XXVIII. 38, 4; L. Manlius Acidinus in 199 BC, Liv. XXXII. 7, 4; Gn. Cornelius Blasion in 196 BC, Liv. XXXIII. 27; and L. Lentulus in 200 BC, Liv. XXXI.20, 3, " exemplum a majoribus non accepisse ut qui neque dictator neque consul neque praetor res gessisset triumpharet". This rule is also formulated in Plut. Pomp. 14, ὑπάτῳ ἢ στρατηγῷ μόνῳ [θρίαμβον] δίδωσιν ὁ νόμοσ ). Later, when the custom arose (eventually legalized by Sulla) according to which the command of an army in a province was assumed only after the expiration of a year's term of office in Rome, it was found necessary to relax the rule, for the practical reason that if none of the ordinary magistrates had a chance win, then no triumph could be granted. Accordingly, the triumphs celebrated in the late Republic are usually those of the proconsuls and propraetors. The fact that these persons already occupied one of the highest magistrates in the city undoubtedly facilitated the change of the old rule; however, even if this was not the case (as in the exceptional case of Pompey in 81 and 71), the triumph was not denied. In the case of proconsuls and propraetors of empires, it was provided (by prorogatio) strictly for command in the province only; to facilitate the triumph, Sulla legalized the custom of considering empires valid until the commander reaches the city (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9, 25: Wed. Liv. XXXIV. 10; Momsen, Staatsrecht, I. 619, approx. 1 and 2). However, this expansion could only be useful until the death, and in order to maintain the existing empire inside the city on the day of triumph, a special law was required ( privilegium accepted by the people ex auctoritate senatus, Liv. XXVI. 21, Wed. XLV. 35). Until his acceptance, the commander remained outside the walls, for if he had entered the city, the continuity of his empire would have been lost and he would have become privatus, not entitled to triumph. (Therefore Lucullus remained outside the city walls for three years: Cic. Acad. pr. II. 1, 3: Wed. the case of Cicero in 50 BC. e., ad Att. VII. 10.)
After an important victory, the troops proclaimed their commander emperor (a common but not universal first step to triumph: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 123); He took fasces laureati(Cic. pro Lig. 3, 7, ad Att. VII. 10) and sent to the Senate litterae laureatae(Liv. V. 28, 13; Plin. H. N. XV. § 40; Zon. VII. 21; Wed Tac. Agr. 18), i.e., a report announcing victory. If this information turned out to be satisfactory, p.895 the Senate announced public prayers, which were so often harbingers of triumph that Cato considered it necessary to remind Cicero that this was not necessarily the case (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 5, 2). After the commander returned with the army to the outskirts of Rome, the next step was to obtain the consent of the Senate; but it could only be given if certain conditions were met.
1. Until the end of the ceremony, the triumphant must have had the highest power of magistrate, i.e., the imperium of consul, praetor, dictator, proconsul and propraetor, and this imperium had to be obtained in the correct constitutional way (thus, for tribunes with consular power, the possibility of triumph was excluded ; with the triumvirs it was different, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 126 c). This point has already been discussed, but it remains to mention a few exceptions and consequential consequences. When a promagistrate was elected consul while in command, his triumph occurred on the day he took office (for example, Marius in 104 BC: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 124, approx. 4). Empire outside Rome was unlimited, therefore only one person could exercise it at one time and on one territory; if there were two generals, then only one triumph could be given; therefore it was granted either to a commander of a higher rank (for example, a dictator, not a consul; a consul, not a praetor: Liv. II. 31, IV. 29, 4; Ep. XIX), or, in the case of two consuls, to the one whose turn it was to hold the empire and auspices on the day of the battle (for example, the battle of Metaurus: Liv. XXVIII. 9, 10). Therefore, a commander who won a victory in the territory where a foreign empire operated (Liv. l. c. The Battle of Metaurus took place in the province of M. Libya: Wed. Liv. X. 37, XXXIV. 10). Exceptions to these rules appear after the First Punic War, and a minor triumph ( ovatio) was usually granted if more significant honors were denied. In accordance with the same principle, the one who commanded alienis auspiciis, i.e., as a representative of an absent commander or a subordinate of a present one, he had no right to triumph (Dio Cass. XLIII.42). Caesar broke this rule at the end of his life in relation to his legates (Dio Cass. l. c. , Sq. Fabius Maxim and Kv. Pedius: Wed. Momsen, Staatsrecht, I. 127, approx. 3). This example was followed during the reign of the triumvirate (for example, P. Ventidius, Antony's legate: Dio Cass. XLVIII.41, 5). Finally, despite the rule formulated by Cicero ( de Leg. Agr. II. 12, 30) about the necessity of the curiat law for the military imperium, at the end of the republic there is an example of a triumph obtained by a person to whom the imperium had never been awarded in this way (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16, 12; C. I. L. I. s. 460, XXVII).
2. Victory must be won in a just struggle against the enemies of the state ( justis hostilibusque bellis, Cic. pro Deiot. 5, 13), and not in civil war and not in the revolt of slaves (Val. Max. II. 8, 7; Dio Cass. XLIII. 42; Florus, II. 10, 9; Lucan. I. 12; Gell. V 6, 21; Plut. Caes. 56). Therefore, there were no triumphs after the capture of Capua in 211 BC. e., or Fregellus in 125 BC. BC, although the first city did not have full citizenship, and the second was only a Latin colony (the reason given in Val. Max. l. c. as if Capua belonged to Rome, and triumph was granted only pro auto imperio, incorrect: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 129, approx. 3). The triumphs of Caesar after Thapsus and Munda and Octavian after Actium did not violate this rule, for in each case the victory was presented as having been won over foreigners; although, on the other hand, Caesar did not celebrate the triumph for Pharsalus. This attitude is found even in Septimius Severus (Herodian, III. 9, 1).
3. Victory must be won during a major battle (Gell. V. 6, 21); and, according to Valerius Maximus (II. 8, 1), the law established that the enemy must suffer a loss of no less than 5,000 people in one battle. (The plebiscite of 62 BC obliged the commander to confirm his information under oath and established penalties for falsification). This rule was clearly established recently, and even after this there are many examples of the granting of triumphs for general results (in the case of P. Cornelius and M. Baebius, Liv. XL. 38, there was no war. Cf. VIII. 26, 7; XXXVII. 46; Cic. in Pis. 26, 62).
4. The war had to be brought to a conclusion ( debellatum) so that the army can be recalled ( deportatio exercitus); the presence of the victorious soldiers was an essential part of the ceremony (Liv. XXVI.21; XXXI.49). Therefore, initially the transfer of the army to a successor in the theater of war deprived the right to triumph. Later, when circumstances required the presence of standing armies at a great distance from Italy, the condition of deportatio was canceled if the war was brought to a conclusion (Liv. XXXIX.29, 4).
Decisive victories in a large-scale or prolonged war could be rewarded with triumph, that is, they were considered as the end of individual wars: for example, in the war with Hannibal - the battle of Metaurus and the capture of Tarentum. Claims of triumph after the conquest of Sicily and Spain in the same war were rejected for other reasons (cf. Tac. Ann. I. 55; II. 41).
Given that the high magistrate had the absolute right to use unlimited imperium within the city on the day of his triumph, the existence of a set of rules implies the recognition of some authority other than the general himself who must decide on their applicability. As a matter of fact, we see that from ancient times this right was recognized for the Senate (Liv. II. 47, 10; III. 29, 4; 63, 9: cf. Polyb. VI. 13; Sen. de Ben. V. 15), that his decisions were always considered final (for example, Liv. X. 36, 19; Dionys. IX. 26) and only in exceptional cases were overturned by appeal to the people (Liv. III. 63, 8; VII. 17 , 9; Zon. VIII. 20) or by force (cases of L. Postumius Megellus, Liv. X. 37; and Appius Claudius, Cic. pro Cael. 14, 34; Suet. Tib. 2). There is not a single case known where the Senate was not addressed first. Undoubtedly, the point where this body made its power felt was the resolution of the Senate, without which public funds could not be allocated for expenses for the triumph (Polyb. VI. 15, 8; Liv. XXXIII. 23, 8: cf. Dio Cass. LXXIV. 2). In the case of the promagistrates, whose empire was founded on prorogatio, the consent of the Senate followed privilegium, allowing p.896 the preservation of the empire within the city for triumph (see above). Probably from confusion with this, it is sometimes said that the consent of the senate must be confirmed by the people: for example, Suet. Fr. VIII. ed. Roth. See Willems, Le Senat de la République Romaine, vol. II. With. 672, approx. 2. But the early mention of popular participation in Liv. IV. 20, in 437 BC. e. (cf. Dionys. iii. 59) perhaps indicates that in early times things were different. For these discussions, the senate met outside the city walls, usually in the temple of Bellona (Liv. XXVI.21, XXXVI.39) or Apollo (Liv. XXXIX.4), so that the commander had the opportunity to personally defend his claims. After Augustus erected a temple to Mars the Avenger in his forum, at least the last meeting was held there (Suet. Aug. 29).
When the appointed day arrived, all the people poured out of their houses in festive clothes; some stood on the steps of government buildings, while others climbed onto the stage erected to give a view of the spectacle. All the temples were open, flower garlands decorated every temple and statue, incense was burned on every altar. (Plut. Aem. Paul. 32; Ov. Trist. IV. 2, 4). Meanwhile, the commander who arrived at night on the Field of Mars (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4), addressed his soldiers on contio and announced rewards to be distributed between officers and soldiers (Liv. X. 30, 46; XXX. 45, 3; XXXIII. 23, &c.; Plin. H. N. XXXVII. § 16; Dio Cass. XLIII. 21).
The procession then lined up on the Campus Martius, where it was met by the Senate and magistrates (Josephus, l. c.). Usually the following order was followed, but, naturally, in certain circumstances there could be deviations (a good example of these is the triumph of Aurelian, described in Vita Aurel. 33).
1. Magistrates and Senate (Dio Cass. LI. 21, 9).
2. Trumpeters ( tubicines:Plut. Aem. Paul. 33; Appian, Pun. 66).
3. Tangible fruits of victory, including captured weapons, objects of material or artistic value, representations of conquered countries, cities, rivers, etc. in the form of paintings, models and allegorical figures (Liv. XXVI. 21, 7; Cic. Phil. VIII. 6, 18;. Tac. Ann. II. 41; Plin. H. N. V. § 5. On one of the internal reliefs of the Arch of Titus, all the bearers of these objects are crowned with laurel wreaths), as well as tables on which the names of conquered peoples and countries are written. Along with this, golden wreaths presented to the commander by the cities of the conquered province were exhibited (Liv. XXVI. 21, XXXIV. 52; Plut. Aem. Paul. 34. In early times they were made of laurel: Gell. V. 6, 7).
4. White bull, intended for sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated vittae And serta, who is accompanied by priests with their utensils and followed by Camillians, carrying in their hands patera and other sacred vessels and instruments (Plut. Aem. Paul. 33).
5. The most important captives in chains (for example, Perseus, Jugurtha, Vercingetorix, Zenobia. The deceased Cleopatra was represented by the image: Dio Cass. LI. 21, 8).
6. Lictors of the general in red tunics, with fasces decorated with laurel (Appian, Pun. 66. Probably the fasces were without axes; so on the relief of the Arch of Titus. See, however, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129; L ICTOR p. 66 a).
7. Cyfarists ( citharistae) or ludiones, dancing and singing, as if triumphing over a defeated enemy (Appian, l. c. : Wed Dionys. VII. 72).
Triumphal chariot: from the relief. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. IV. pl. CV).
For the use of white knights, see above. After Camillus (Liv. V. 23; Dio Cass. LII. 13; Plut. Cam. 7), not a single commander is known who decided to use them before Caesar (Dio Cass. XLIII. 14, 3), but his example, apparently, was constantly followed by emperors (Suet. Nero, 25; Plin. Pan. 22. Poets of the Augustan era mention this as a common detail: Ovid, A. A. I. 214; Propert. V. 1, 32). Both the chariot and the horses were decorated with laurel (Suet. Aug. 94; Ov. Ex Pont. II. 1, 58; Flor. I. 5, 6; Zon. VII. 8). In the 3rd century, if a triumph was celebrated over the Parthians ( triumphus Persicus), the chariot was pulled by four elephants ( Vita Alex. Sev. 57, 4; Gord. Tert. 27, 9; and Wed coin of Diocletian and Maximian, described in Cohen, Medailles Impériales,VI. With. 479, 3). Pompey tried unsuccessfully to obtain permission for this during the African triumph (Plut. Pomp. 14: Wed. Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, II. With. 586, approx. 7). Incense was burned in front of the chariot (Appian, Pun. 66). The commander's dress (see above for its general character) consisted of a tunic decorated with a floral pattern ( tunica palmata) and gold embroidered robe ( toga picta), both are purple (Plut. Aem. Paul. 34; Liv. X. 7, 9). In his right hand he held a laurel branch (Plut. Aem. Paul. 32; Plin. H. N. XV. § 137), and on the left is an ivory scepter crowned with an eagle (Dionys. III. 61, V. 47; Val. Max. IV. 4, 5; Juv., X. 43). In ancient times his body was apparently painted red (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111, and see above). On his head he had a laurel wreath (Plin. H. N. XV. § 137). Behind him stood a state slave, holding over his head the heavy golden crown of Jupiter in the form of an oak wreath (Juv. X. 39; Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 11, XXXVIII. § 7; Zon. VII. 21; Tertull. de Cor. 13). So that this culmination of human and almost divine honors may not have such bad consequences as pride, invidia, and the evil eye, the commander put on an amulet ( fascinus) or attached it to the chariot, together with a small bell and a whip (Plin. H. N. XXVIII. § 39; Zon. VII. 21; Macrob. Sat. I. 6, 9); and the slave riding behind him whispered in his ear: “Respice post te, hominem te memento” (Tertull. Apol. 33, confirmed in Arrian, Diss. Epict. III. 24, 85, and Plin. H. N. l. c. : Wed Juv. X. 41). It can hardly be assumed that a slave was present at the emperor's triumph. On monuments, Victory is almost always depicted behind the emperor, holding a laurel wreath above his head. Apparently, the triumphant also held a state seat ( sella), for it is mentioned in connection with other triumphal distinctions (Liv. X. 7, 9; Dio Cass. XLIV. 6; Suet. July. 76; Momsen, Staatsr. I. s. 423). The triumphant's minor children (both boys and girls) rode with him in a chariot or on horseback (Liv. XLV. 40, 8; Val. Max. V. 7, 1; 10, 2; Tac. Ann. II. 41; Vita M. Ant. Phil. 12, 10; Cic. pro Mur. 5, 11; Suet. Tib. 6). His adult sons rode behind (Liv. XLV. 40, 4), after the apparitors (Appian, Pun. 66), together with his legates and tribunes (Cic. in Pis. 25, 60; Appian, Mithr. 117). Then sometimes came the Roman citizens whom he had saved from slavery by his victory, in the form of freedmen (Liv. XXX.45, 5; XXXIII.23, 6; XXXIV.52, 12). The procession was completed by the entire mass of infantry in marching order, with spears decorated with laurel (Plin. H. N. XV. § 133), shouting "Io, triumph!" (Varro, L. L. V. 7; Hor. Od. IV. 2, 49; Tibull. II. 6, 121) and singing songs, both with praise and with gross obscenities addressed to the commander (Liv. IV. 20; 53, 11, &c.; Suet. July. 49, 51; Mart. I. 5, 3; other references are given in Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. With. 588, approx. 2. See also Munro, Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus, With. 90).
The procession entered the city through the Triumphal Gate. Here sacrifices were made to certain deities (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4). The procession then passed through the Circus of Flaminius and through, or at least past, the theaters in the same area, which housed crowds of spectators (Plut. Lucul. 37, Joseph. B. J. l. c.), and probably entered the city directly through the Carmental Gate, since we know that it crossed the Velabre (apparently the Etruscan Street) and the Bull Market (Suet. July. 37; Cic. Verr. I. 59, 154). The procession then went around the Palatine Hill through the Circus Maximus (Cic. l. c. ; Plut. Aem. Paul. 32) and along the street between the Palatine and Caelium, reaching at the end of the Sacred Way, which led the procession to the forum (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 35; Epod. 7, 8). The route probably ran along the southern side of the forum (Jordan, Capitol, Forum, and Sacra Via, Berlin, 1881). At the end of the Sacred Way began the Capitoline Descent, and when the commander approached it, the main prisoners were led aside to a nearby prison, and there they were executed (Cic. Verr. V. 30, 77; Liv. XXVI. 13; Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 22. Initially, their heads were cut off with an ax, later they were strangled: cf. Liv. XXVI. 13, 15 with Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 22, 8, and see Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129). Saving the lives of such captives was possible only as an exception. The earliest case is that of Perseus, who was pardoned by Aemilius Paulus (Plut. 37), whose example was followed by Pompey (Appian, Mithr. 117), Tiberius in the Pannonian triumph in 12 AD. e. (Ov. ex Pont. II. 1, 45) and Aurelian in relation to Zenobia (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 30, 27). The sacrifice in the temple could not begin before the execution took place (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 6).
Then the commander climbed the Capitol (Alexander Severus walked, Vita, 57, 4). When he reached the temple, a laurel branch and wreaths from the fasces were placed on the god's knees (Sen. Consol. ad Helv. 10; Plin. H. N. XV. § 40; Plin. Pan. 8; Sil. Ital. XV. 118; Stat. Silv. IV. 1, 41; Pacatus, P aneg. in Theod. 9, 5), and later - a palm branch (cf. Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. With. 589, approx. 2). Then the sacrifice was made. Insignia triumphi, i.e., the most significant booty (for example, the returned standards of Crassus, Dio Cass. LIV. 83, and, undoubtedly, Varus, Tac. Ann. II. 41), subsequently placed in the temple of Mars the Avenger (Suet. Aug. 29). Finally, the general and the senate were treated to a public feast in the temple (Liv. XLV. 39). It was the custom to invite the consuls to this feast and then send them a letter asking them not to come, no doubt so that the triumphant would be the most distinguished person among those assembled (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 80; Val. Max. II. 8, 6). The same treat was arranged for soldiers and citizens in the temple of Hercules (Plut. Lucul. 37; Athen. V. s. 221 f).
All these procedures were generally completed within one day, but when the amount of spoil was very large and the troops very numerous, a longer time was required for the presentation. Thus, the Macedonian triumph of Flaminius lasted three days in a row (Liv. XXXIX. 52; cf. Plut. Aem. Paul. 32).
The honors of the triumphant did not end that day. At public spectacles he appeared wearing a laurel wreath (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and in exceptional cases - in vestis triumphalis(eg L. Aemilius Paulus and Pompey; Auctor, de Vir. ill. 56; Well. II. 40). It was the custom to provide him with a place for a house at public expense; such mansions were called triumphales domus(Plin. H. N. XXXVI. § 112). His name was included in the Triumphal fasts ( C. I. L. I. s. 453); he was allowed to decorate the entrance to his house with trophies (Plin. H. N. XXXV. § 7; Cic. Phil. II. 28; Liv. X. 7, 9), and a statue in a laurel wreath, standing in a triumphal carriage, exhibited in the vestibule, transmitted his glory to posterity (Juv. VIII. 3). Finally, after his death, his ashes could be buried inside the city walls (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 79; Momsen, Staatsr. I. s. 426, approx. 1).
Triumphus in Monte Albano was a procession to the temple of Jupiter Latiarius on Mount Alban. It was held jure p.898 consularis imperii(Liv. XXXIII.23, 3), sine publica auctoritate(Liv. XLII.21, 7), but it was resorted to only in cases where the Senate refused an ordinary triumph, and it was considered an honor of a lower order (Liv. XXXIII.23). Although it was recorded in the Triumphal fasts, it was not equivalent to a triumph in the city, for when Marcellus in 211 BC. e. denied a big triumph, but gave permission for a small one ( ovatio), he nevertheless celebrated his triumph on Alban Mountain on the eve of the ovation (Liv. XXVI. 21, 6). The first example of such a triumph was given by G. Papirius Mazon in 231 BC. e. (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and his example was followed by many others (Liv. XXVI. 21, 6; XXXIII. 23, 3; XLII. 21, 7; XLV. 38; - Plut. Marc. 22).
Sea triumph (triumphus navalis). - The earliest known one was celebrated by G. Duilius for the naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 BC. e. (Liv. Ep. XVII; Flor. I. 8, 10; Plin. H. N. XXXIV. § 20). Other examples are M. Aemilius Paulus in 254 BC. e. (Liv. XLII. 20, 1), G. Lutatius Catulus in 241 BC. e. (Val. Max. II. 8, 2), Sq. Fabius Labeo in 189 BC e. (Liv. XXXVII. 60, 6), Gn. Octavius in 167 BC e. (Liv. XLV. 42, 2); and see Triumphal fasts to 497, 498, 513, 526. Nothing is known about the specific features. G. Duilius and M. Aemilius Paulus erected rostral columns in memory of their victories (Liv. XLII. 20, 1).
Camp triumph (triumphus castrensis). - Procession of soldiers through the camp in honor of an officer subordinate to the commander-in-chief who accomplished a brilliant feat (Liv. VII. 36).
In the age of the Empire, when the monarch became the sole possessor of the imperium, and all commanders were only legates acting under his auspices, the above condition regarding the possession of the imperium was strictly observed, and the precedent set by Caesar in favor of his legates was followed only by Augustus at the beginning of his reign (Dio Cass. LIV. 12; Suet. Aug. 38). Even among holders of a subordinate proconsular empire, triumph became rare and was then granted only if they were members of the imperial family (Dio Cass. LIV. 24 gives 14 BC as the date of change, when Agrippa abandoned the triumph as he also entered in 19 BC, Dio Cass. LIV. 11). The triumphs were celebrated by Tiberius (7 BC, Vell. II.97, Dio Cass. LV.6; and 12 AD, Vell. II.121, Suet. Tib. 20), Germanicus (26 AD.
Arch of Constantine This is the largest surviving Roman triumphal arch. It has reached us in almost its original condition, with the exception of metal parts, in particular, a four-meter quadriga at the top. The history of the arch, as well as the deeds of Emperor Constantine in Rome and beyond, continue to cause controversy to this day.
In addition to arches, temples, sanctuaries, and civil buildings were built along or near the route of the triumphal procession in honor of the victory.
In order to understand the purpose for which the Romans built triumphal arches, you need to understand what a triumphal procession was.
Northern façade of the arch
Triumphal processions in Rome
Triumph was a ritual ceremonial procession with which the Senate awarded Roman military leaders. This was a tradition that formed in the 4th century BC. to demonstrate power and glorify the emperor.
Initially the triumph was a procession carrying the broken weapons of the defeated enemy. According to the Roman historian Lucius Annaeus Florus (c. 70 - 140), before the victory of Manius Curius Dentatus over the king of Epirus Pyrrhus in 275 BC. the triumphal processions were not so spectacular: “until that time, the only booty that could be seen were the cattle of the Volcinians, the herds of the Sabines, the carts of the Gauls and the broken weapons of the Samnites” (Florus, 1.13.26). After defeating Pyrrhus in the triumphal processions one could see “Molossians, Salonicians, Macedonians, Bruttians, Apulians and Lucanians ... statues of gold and charming Tarentine painted panels” (Florus, 1.13.27). The more lands Rome conquered, the more money, metals, jewelry, weapons, statues, paintings, rare trees, animals and prisoners its generals (“triumphants”) brought to the city.
According to the historian Titus Livy, there was no reward more honorable for a Roman than triumph. In order for a military leader to be awarded a triumph, he had to meet all criteria:
- hold a certain position (dictator, consul, proconsul, praetor or propraetor);
- defeat a foreign enemy of equal status, killing at least 5,000 people (rebellious slaves, for example, were not considered an “equal enemy”);
- to be proclaimed emperor by his soldiers;
— bring the army home (i.e. finish the war to the end);
- obtain approval from the Senate to hold a triumphal procession.
Due to the high demands, the triumph was very a rare and prestigious award. Before the Punic Wars (264 - 146 BC), there was rarely more than one triumph per year. During the expansion of the empire, triumphs were held more frequently, for example from 200 to 170 BC. 35 triumphal processions took place.
Approximate route triumphal procession in Rome
The triumphant was allowed distribute captured loot between the state, the army, the generals and himself at his own discretion. From his share, each commander, first of all, donated part of what was captured to Jupiter Optima Maximus, since, when going to war, he usually promised this to him in exchange for support. Then, from his own share of the spoils, the victor could organize special games.
The ritual nature of the triumphal procession meant that the order of the procession was strictly defined (at least during the Republican period). At the head of each procession rode senators and other high-ranking Romans, followed by musicians, then they carried booty, and led animals intended for sacrifice on the altar of Jupiter Optima Maximus. The prisoners were led before the army, which headed by a triumphant. If someone from the family of the ruler of the conquered people was captured in the war, then he was led directly in front of the triumphant, riding on a quadriga. Behind him stood a slave who was supposed to hold a laurel wreath over his head and whisper throughout the procession “respice post te!” Hominem te memento!” (“look back! Remember that you are human!”).
Triumphal processions never didn't follow the same path, because, firstly, the city was constantly being rebuilt, and secondly, each military leader visited altars and temples associated with the history of his family.
South facade of the arch
Arch history and questions
After Constantine ended the civil war and went to Rome with his army, the Roman Senate ordered construction to begin in his honor. triumphal arch. As it is written on it, it was dedicated simultaneously to the tenth anniversary of the imperial reign of Constantine and his victory over the then reigning Emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, which occurred 28,312 years ago. The official opening of this triumphal arch took place on 25,315. In the same year, Decennalia took place in Rome - sports games that were held in honor of the gods once every ten years of the emperor's reign.
The arch is 25.7 meters wide, 21 meters high and 7.4 meters deep. It was built from used Pro-Connessian marble (modern Turkish island of Marmara).
Since the arch consists from details from different periods, the history of its construction causes a lot of controversy. Many scholars believe that this was Hadrian's triumphal arch, which was partially rebuilt under Constantine.
Others are of the opinion that the arch was built, or at least began to build under Maxentius(306 – 312). This emperor was distinguished by the fact that, unlike his predecessors, he concentrated his attention not on protecting the borders, but on restoring the city, for which he even earned the epithet “conservator urbis suae” (“guardian of his city”). Constantine, among other things, was perceived as the man who overthrew one of Rome's greatest benefactors, which is why he had to issue a decree on the “damnatio memoriae” of Maxentius, and erase his name from all monuments. Therefore, there is a possibility that initially this was not the triumphal arch of Constantine, but of Maxentius, whom he defeated.
In the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was turned into strengthening for one of the rich Roman families (the same fate befell, for example,). The first restoration work took place here in the 18th century, and the last archaeological excavations took place in the late 1990s. During the 1960 Summer Olympics, the Arch of Constantine served as the finishing line for the running competition.
View of the Arch of Constantine from the second level of the Colosseum
Choosing a location for the Arch of Constantine
Triumphal arches in Rome usually stood along the route of the triumphal procession. Before the architects of Constantine stood not an easy task: They needed to place an arch where the road (called in modern times the "Via Triumphala") entered the Piazza Flavius, and due to the asymmetry they had to choose between orienting the arch to the road or to the square. Adding to the complexity was the fact that at the intersection there was already a Meta Sudans fountain, which had nothing to do with military victories and with its appearance could destroy the symbolic content of the future arch. The architects found an unusual elegant solution all these topographical problems. They chose a place not on the road itself, but somewhat to the north, which is why the arch ended up in the square. Thanks to this, they got rid of the need to place the central span of the arch above the road and moved it two meters to the east. This was not very noticeable to contemporaries, but because of this shift, the architects were able to ensure that the high cone of the Meta Sudans fountain was almost completely hidden behind the second support of the arch. In addition, thanks to this shift, a giant bronze statue became visible across the central span. sun god statue(“Colossus”, from which the Flavius Theater received its second name), which was located 108 meters from it. The creation of an association between the sun god ("Invincible Sun" or Sol Invictus) and the emperor was necessary during the period civil wars and strengthening the eastern provinces.
Arch of Constantine and the round base of the Meta Sudans fountain
Description of the arch
Northern facade (from the Colosseum side)
Northern façade of the arch dedicated to peaceful activities Emperor Constantine.
On the wide upper part of the arch above each column stands Daka sculpture, the creation of which dates back to the reign of Emperor Trajan (98 – 117). The Dacians stand on square pedestals made of gray Karysto marble from the Greek island of Euboea.
Above the central part is located inscription, identical from both facades. It reads:
IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO
P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R
QVOD INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS
MAGNITVDINE · CVM · EXERCITV · SVO
· TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS
FACTIONE VNO TEMPORE IVSTIS
REMPVBLICAM VLTVS EST ARMIS
ARCVM TRIVMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT
“To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine, the great, virtuous and blessed Augustus: because, inspired by a higher power and his great mind, his army and force of arms, he liberated the state from a tyrant and from all his followers, the Senate and people of Rome dedicated to him this triumphal arch."
Inscription on the south side of the arch
This inscription was originally made bronze letters, but to date only well-readable gaps have been preserved.
The expression “INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS” causes the greatest amount of controversy in this inscription, i.e. " inspired by a higher power/deity." It is considered to be a symbol of the beginning of a change in the religious preferences of Emperor Constantine. The early Christian writers Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea referred to the story that before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312, the Christian god sent Constantine a sign in the form of a large cross in the sky (the original cross that later became part of the labarum). From the same year, the emperor began to support Christians, although until 324 only the Sun god was listed in official documents (including on coins). With the vague wording “inspired by a higher power,” the author of the inscription on the arch probably wanted to please both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the defeated enemy is not named, but is simply called a “tyrant,” emphasizing the legality of his murder.
On the sides of the inscription, above the small arches, located in pairs relief panels of Carrara marble, which were taken from an unknown structure erected in honor of the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni and Sarmatians, thanks to which he was awarded a triumph in 176. The panels show (from left to right):
- an emperor returning to Rome after a military campaign;
- the emperor leaving the city, greeted by the personification of Flaminia Street;
- an emperor distributing money to the people (the figure of Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, who was punished with the “curse of memory” is erased here);
- Emperor interrogating a German prisoner.
Two panels on the left and two ducks
Two panels on the right
Couples circlelow reliefs of white Carrara marble with a diameter of about 2 meters, located above each of the two side arches, date back to the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138), since they are made in the style of the early - mid-second century and in one of the scenes a close friend of the emperor stands in the background Adriana Antinous. However, their identification poses a problem because some of them are incomplete.
The medallions depict scenes of hunting and sacrifice (from left to right):
- willing to hunt wild boar;
- sacrifice to Apollo;
— lion hunting;
- sacrifice to Hercules
The head of Emperor Hadrian was redone on all medallions: in scenes of the hunt for Constantine, and in scenes of sacrifice - for Licinius or Constantius I. The space around the circular reliefs was decorated with porphyry, however, this decoration is preserved only around the right pair of medallions on this side.
Medallions on the left, the inscription VOTIS X and a panel with Constantine's address to the Romans from the rostra
Two medallions with porphyry frame on the right, the inscription VOTIS XX and a panel on which Constantine distributes money to the Romans
Above the circular reliefs on this side of the arch is written " VOTISX" (left) and " VOTISXX" (on right). These inscriptions can be translated as "sacred oath for the 10th anniversary" and "sacred oath for the 20th anniversary." They refer to the 10th anniversary of Constantine's reign, which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315 (according to another version, he left Rome in early 313 and returned only in 326).
Below the circular reliefs on both the long and short sides are long narrow “historical” panels created under Constantine. They illustrate his military campaign against the Emperor Maxentius, in which he was victorious and for which he was granted a triumph. The western short panel depicts the departure of the army from Milan ("profectio"). The story continues on the south facade, which depicts the siege of Verona (obsidio) on the left and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (praelium, on the right), in which Constantine's army defeated the enemy and drove him into the Tiber. In the panel on the eastern narrow facade, Constantine's army enters Rome ("ingressus"), but not in the form of a triumphal procession, since Constantine probably did not want to show off his triumph. The northern facade, looking towards the city, depicts his actions after he became sole ruler: he addresses the Romans in the forum from the rostra, behind which the arches of Septimius Severus and Tiberius (orazio, left) are visible, and distributes money to them (“liberalitas”, right).
On each long side of the Arch of Constantine there is four Corinthian columns with flutes on high bases. Seven of the columns are carved from Numidian yellow marble, and the eighth is carved from white marble, since the original column was transported to the Lateran Basilica (later there it was replaced by a column of yellow-violet Phrygian marble). Bases of all columns decorated with reliefs similar to the reliefs of the Arch of Septimius Severus and the destroyed New Arch of Diocletian. The front depicts the goddess of victory Victoria, who either writes an inscription on a shield or holds palm branches, and on the sides there are reliefs in the form of captive barbarians or captive barbarians and Roman soldiers. Probably, such decorations were standard for triumphal arches of their time. The bases of the columns were made during the reign of Emperor Constantine.
Bases (plinths) of columns on the north side of the arch
The extreme plinth on the right on the north side
In the axils of the vaults The central arch on both sides has high reliefs in the form of Victorias holding trophies. In the axils of the vaults of the side arches there are high reliefs in the form of river gods. All of them, like the bases of the columns, date from the era of Constantine.
Victoria in the vaults of the central arch on the north side
River gods above the arch on the left
River gods above the right arch
South façade (forum side)
The southern façade of the arch is dedicated to the military activities of Emperor Constantine.
On the upper reliefs
- a captured enemy commander who was brought to the emperor;
- a prisoner who was brought to the emperor;
— the emperor makes a speech to the army;
- the emperor is going to sacrifice a pig, a sheep and an ox
Duckies and two panels on the left
Ducks and panels on the right
Below in round medallions above the side arches it is shown (from left to right):
- going hunting;
- making a sacrifice to Silvanus;
— bear hunting;
- sacrifice to Diana
On these medallions, Hadrian's head was remade into Licinius or Constantius I in hunting scenes and Constantine in sacrificial scenes.
Medallions on the left, inscription SIC X and panel depicting the Siege of Verona
Two medallions on the right, the inscription SIC XX and a relief panel depicting the Battle of the Milvian Bridge
Above the medallions on this side of the arch is written " SICX" (left) and " SICXX"(right), i.e. “for both the 10th and 20th anniversaries.” As on the opposite side, these inscriptions are made in honor of the tenth anniversary of the reign of Constantine.
Plinth in the center
Leftmost plinth on the south side (Victoria in the center, prisoners on the right)
Victoria in the vault of the central arch from the south side
River gods above the left arch on the south side
River gods in the vaults above the right arch on the south side
Short sides
On the top On the short sides, as well as inside the central arch, there are high (3 m) panels depicting scenes of Trajan's war with the Dacians. Initially, they formed a large frieze of Pentelic marble, which was located either in the Forum of Trajan or on the barracks of the imperial horse guard, which stood on the Caelian hill. These panels also date from 98 to 117 years.
Top panel on the west side
Top panel on east side
Below on the short sides of the arch is by medallion with reliefs depicting rising Sun(east side) and the moon(west side). Both in the form of women on chariots. These, unlike the medallions on the long sides, were made under Constantine. Their presence on the arch is a symbol of the eternity of the capital of Rome and links its reign with endless prosperity.
Moon medallion and panel depicting the departure of Constantine's army from Milan
Personification of the sun and panel depicting Constantine's army entering Rome (east side)
Interior of the Arch of Constantine
Inside central arch there are two panels depicting the war of Trajan (converted into Constantine) with the Dacians. On one, he is depicted on horseback slaying enemies, and on the other, standing awaiting his coronation by Victoria in the presence of personified Honor and Virtue.
Above each of the panels of the central arch there is a inscription, emphasizing that Constantine fought not to capture anything, but to liberate Rome from a tyrant:
"LIBERATORI VRBIS" ("liberator of the city")
"FUNDATORI QVIETIS" ("founder of the world")
Panel inside the central arch with Trajan (Constantine) on horseback and the inscription “liberator of the city”
Inside side arches two busts were carved on each side (8 in total), degraded to such an extent that they cannot be identified.
Busts in a side arch
Busts in a side arch
Explanation of the description
The Arch of Constantine is an important example destruction of the classical Greek sculptural canon, which took place in Rome in the 4th century. The arch clearly shows the contrast between the panels made under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius and the panels made during the reign of Constantine. For example, on medallions from the era of Hadrian, hunting scenes are made in such a way that a feeling of free space is created in which people can go wherever they want, whereas on panels from the era of Constantine, people stand very close to each other, their gestures are not coordinated, and their poses are illogical. In addition, these figures have disproportionately large heads, short legs, identical cap hairstyles and angular capes. Their rank is shown not by composition, but very roughly - by changing the size of the entire body.
Why did the degradation occur? both style and execution?
This question gave rise to a lengthy discussion that did not end with a single conclusion. Possible reasons:
— destruction of the process of transfer of skill due to the political and economic crisis of the third century;
- increased influence of oriental and other pre-classical regional styles from the outskirts of the empire (unlikely);
- strengthening the influence of the simple “folk” or “Italic” style, which existed in parallel with the high Greek style for the needs of poor Romans;
— conscious rejection of the classical style.
Why were they used? details of other monuments?
- the placement of reliefs with the acts of Constantine next to the reliefs of the emperors of the “golden” second century symbolically equated him with them;
— the arch took only three years to build, and perhaps the craftsmen did not have time to create the required number of reliefs from scratch;
- the sculptors of the era of Constantine believed that they were not able to surpass their predecessors;
- the Romans of the 4th century lacked the skill to do a job worthy of an emperor.
Probably, to one degree or another, all these reasons together led to the use of old sculpted panels in the Arch of Constantine.
View of the northern façade of the arch from the Colosseum
Nearby attractions: Colosseum, Forum, Palatine Hill, Golden House of Nero, Ludus Magnus
Useful information about the triumphal arch of Constantine in Rome
Where is:
Between the Colosseum and the Forum
How to get there:
Colosseo metro station on line B (blue)
Colosseo Tourist Bus Stop
LESSON 2. ROMAN CONQUESTS IN THE 2nd CENTURY B.C.
Under consideration further development Roman aggression and the establishment of Roman dominance throughout the Mediterranean. The aggressive nature of the wars of the 2nd century is emphasized on the part of the Romans. BC e., as a result of which the once independent flourishing regions were turned into powerless provinces, plundered by the conquerors.
Options for starting a lesson: I. B 1, 3-5; A 1, 3; B 6-7. II. B 1, 3-4; A 2; B 6-7. III. B 1, 3-5, 7; A 3. IV. B 1-7. Questions and tasks:
A. 1. What began first: the second Punic War or the campaign of Alexander’s troops in Asia? How much earlier? Draw a “time line” on the board and mark the required dates on it. 2. One student should draw on the board a plan of the location of the Roman troops at Cannae, the direction of military attacks, and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of its legionnaire participant. Another student should draw the formation of the Carthaginian troops, the direction of their attacks and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of a warrior in Hannibal’s army. The teacher guides the answers, giving the floor to either the “Roman” or the “Carthaginian.” 3. What do you see as Hannibal's outstanding leadership abilities? Students are able to give a detailed justification using the following facts: a) Hannibal’s sudden invasion of Italy (crossing the Alps); b) encirclement and defeat of the numerically superior Roman army at Cannae; c) a plan to win over the peoples of Italy conquered by Rome (Gauls, Greeks, etc.).
B. 1. What were the names of the wars between Rome and Carthage? Why were they called that? What were their reasons? 2. How did the Romans create a navy and defeat the Carthaginians at sea?
(Based on the filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage.”) 3. How did the first Punic War end? 4. Tell us about Hannibal’s invasion of Italy. Show on the map the path of his troops. 5. Show on the map the locations of Hannibal's two main battles. (Cannes, Zamy.) What are the results of each battle? 6. Why couldn't Hannibal conquer Italy? 7. How did the second Punic War end?
Study plan ( This plan follows the chronology of events. The textbook covers the Third Punic War before the Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean (an advantage of the textbook outline is that the destruction of Carthage is thematically linked to the previous lesson). The teacher can choose any plan for studying the material): 1. Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. 3. Robbery of conquered countries by the Romans.
1. Rome, having crushed Carthage, began to reign supreme in the Western Mediterranean. It is useful to show students on a wall map the approximate boundaries of both of these regions (Western and Eastern Mediterranean). “What states arose in the Eastern Mediterranean after the campaigns of Alexander the Great?” asks the teacher. Complementing the answers, he recalls that the Syrian kingdom, Egypt, Macedonia and other smaller states were constantly at enmity with each other. The internecine wars of the eastern parishes were beneficial to the Romans; the rule of the Roman Senate was: “divide and conquer!” (“How do you understand this expression?” Students are able to point out that the Romans deliberately set neighboring peoples and states against each other and separately defeated their troops.)
A more detailed story about the fate of Hannibal than in the textbook will help to connect the material of the previous and this lessons.
Soon after the end of the second Punic War Hannibal was forced to flee to the east, where he became an adviser to the Syrian king Antiochus. Hannibal was old and sick, but remained true to his oath and was ready to fight the Romans. “Zay, king,” he said to his master, “the Romans are warlike and cruel; they strive to conquer the whole world. Remember how they humiliated my homeland. The Romans took almost all of Carthage's possessions for themselves. Forget, king, your old enmity with the kings of other states of the East. Unite! Only by working together will you be able to defeat the Romans. Otherwise, slavery awaits you all.” But the king of Syria did not heed the wise advice of the famous commander.
Students can learn about the defeat of the Syrian kingdom by reading the textbook aloud (§ 46, paragraph 2). After this, the teacher ends the story of Hannibal, who fled to Bithynia (Asia Minor). And here he became a military adviser to the king.
Having learned about this, the Romans demanded the extradition of Hannibal. One day the old commander saw that his house was surrounded by armed men. Not wanting to become a prisoner of the Romans, Hannibal took poison.
The teacher says that after Syria, the Romans subjugated Macedonia. He can offer compare the formation of Roman and Macedonian troops in battle and draw a conclusion. (Which army was more perfect? What?) After listening to the answers, the teacher either again uses the technique of loud reading (§ 46, paragraph 3), or talks about the Battle of Pydna himself.
The blow of the Macedonian phalanx was so strong that the Roman advance detachments were crushed and began to retreat to the hills located near the Roman camp itself. The Roman consul, who had turned gray in battle, later often recalled what a terrible impression the attack of the phalanx made on him. But the very swiftness of the blow destroyed the Macedonians. The ranks of the phalanx broke in some places due to their rapid pursuit of the Romans and uneven ground. The consul took advantage of this and threw mobile detachments into the resulting intervals. The Romans began to attack the Macedonians from the flanks and rear, disrupting their ranks. The Macedonian king Perseus, confused, fled from the battlefield. The battle lasted less than an hour. 20 thousand Macedonians remained on the battlefield. 11 thousand were captured. Roman losses were ridiculously small ( See: Kovalev S.I. History of Rome. L., 1948, p. 284-285).
Students will learn about the conquest of Macedonia and Greece by Rome, and the death of the largest trading center in Greece - Corinth (146 BC). Roman merchants insisted on the destruction of the city. The place where Corinth stood was cursed, the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and works of art were taken to Rome.
2. Militarily, Carthage did not pose any threat to Rome, but Roman merchants were afraid of the rivalry of more experienced Carthaginian merchants. The Carthaginians were engaged in peaceful work, they grew grapes and olives and traded wine and oil in all Mediterranean countries.
One day, the old and influential senator Cato arrived in Carthage at the head of the Roman embassy. He looked at the Carthaginian port with displeasure: many ships stood at the piers and merchants sported bright clothes. “Fifty years ago,” thought Cato, “when I fought here under Scipio, the Poonas trembled with fear. And now they have forgotten everything - they enjoy life and get rich.” Returning to his homeland, Cato spoke in the Senate. “Carthage is thriving! - he said indignantly. - Maritime trade has enriched the Poons, and meanwhile our merchants are suffering losses. I believe that Carthage must be destroyed." From now on, speaking at every meeting of the Senate, no matter what was discussed, Cato always ended his speech with the same words: "Still I believe that Carthage must be destroyed". Cato was supported by Roman merchants, who knew that wine and olive oil from the African possessions of Carthage were more readily bought than Italian ones. The Senate openly demanded that Carthage be wiped off the face of the earth.
In the story about the siege and assault of Carthage, you can use either the color filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage” (frames 37-46) or the drawings on pp. 191-192. The last picture gives an idea of the heroism of the inhabitants who defended Carthage for six days, when there was no longer any hope of salvation. The brutal Roman legionnaires stormed house after house, slowly moving through the burning streets towards the city center, killing everyone in their path.
Carthage burned for seventeen days. Choking smoke lay low on the ground. Instead of a beautiful city full of life, a lifeless field with shapeless ruins stretched all the way to the bay. The place where Carthage stood, where artisans worked and merchants traded, was given over to eternal damnation, so that from now on neither houses nor arable land would appear on it. So the Senate commanded ( See: Nemirovsky A.I. Three wars. L., 1961, p. 131-132).
Summarizing, the teacher notes that as a result of victorious wars, Rome became in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the strongest state in the entire Mediterranean. Egypt and several smaller states still retained their independence, but none of them dared to fight Rome.
3. The question is revealed in the volume of the textbook (§ 46, paragraphs 4-5); concepts are introduced province and triumph.
It is advisable to use the painting by S. Ankundinov “The Triumph of the Roman Emperor”. Before showing it, the teacher says that in Rome, after every major victory, a holiday was held, which was called a triumph: an army led by a commander solemnly entered the city.
Having hung the picture, the teacher explains that the front gate in the shape of an arch was erected especially for the festival: all participants in the triumph passed through it. He invites students to construct a story based on the picture and helps them do this: “We see three groups of people in the picture: 1) Roman soldiers; 2) prisoners; 3) citizens meeting the army. Include a description of each group in the story.” Typically, students complete the task successfully; the teacher corrects errors in answers and makes additions (see manual, table 19).
| - | When describing a picture, students are able to express the following thoughts: | Teacher's additions as students describe the picture |
| ROMAN ARMY | The commander rides on a gilded chariot. It is harnessed to white horses. He is wearing red clothes and has a wreath on his head. In one hand of the commander there is a staff, in the other there is a green branch. In front of the chariot are trumpeters and the consul's guard. The commander's chariot is followed by his army | The clothes are painted purple. The slave holds another wreath over the commander's head - a golden one. This commander received the honorary nickname - emperor (in Latin, “lord, commander-in-chief”). It was given to him by the Senate or directly by the army for his success in the war. A distinguished commander was called emperor not throughout his life, but for a certain period of time - usually during a holiday on the occasion of a victory. The teacher either invites students to remember what they know about lictors (see manual, p. 273), or talks about them himself |
| PRISONERS | Prisoners tied with one chain are driven ahead. They are wearing rags. It is clear from their looks that they hate the Romans. A woman holds a child in her arms | These are probably the most noble captives, they will be turned into slaves, and possibly executed. The child is dead, he didn't survive the long journey |
| CROWD | The townspeople greet the soldiers, wave branches, and hold out flowers. There are smiles on their faces | Priests stand in front of the fires of the altars (on the right), they thank the gods for the victory |
At the end of working with the painting, a possible task: “Think about how triumph would make you feel if you were in Rome. What would be your personal attitude towards such celebrations? After listening to the answer, the teacher draws attention to the contrast between the jubilant Roman crowd and the sad figures of the prisoners. For some, triumph is joy, for others - humiliation and loss of freedom. The magnificent spectacle of triumph was nothing more than a display of plundered booty and enslaved people.
The teacher can write a description of the picture himself, without assigning it to the students. (If the school does not have the named picture, color Fig. 17 can be used.)
Homework: § 46. Answer the question for the document “Plutarch’s Description of Triumph” (p. 194). Questions and tasks 1-3 to § 46.
Original taken from mayak_parnasa at the Festival "Times and Epochs. ROME" - Triumph.
Last weekend in Kolomenskoye Park there was a festival "Times and Epochs" dedicated to the reconstruction of ancient events. Today we want to tell you about the most memorable event in the entire history of Ancient Rome - the meeting of the Triumphant. All guests could attend and take part in the honoring of the triumphant and his legions last Sunday.
Next we will try to talk about this significant event.
Spectators gathered in the stands, where preparations began for a rare and solemn event - a triumph.
Vestals.
Triumph (lat. triumphus) in Rome is the ceremonial entry into the capital of a victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning at the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, Triumph began to be allowed only under a number of conditions. Triumph was considered the highest award for a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had an empire and led the war as commander-in-chief, without submitting to the authority of another commander.
The first to enter the sand of the arena were the saviors of Rome - the geese. In ancient times, it was these birds who managed to rouse the guards with their screams and prevent enemies from storming the Capitol.
The passage of geese through the arena, to the applause of the audience.
One of the beautiful birds managed to escape from the pen and when trying to drive it back, this proud bird managed to take off and leave the arena to the approving roar of the crowd.
Freedom-loving goose.
The flag bearers and dancers appeared next in the arena.
And then the fanfare began to sound.
Fanfara (Italian fanfara, French fanfare) - natural brass musical instrument, used primarily for signaling, is an elongated pipe with a narrow bore, usually without valves. Also, fanfare is a musical phrase of a solemn or warlike nature, presented with the help of this instrument.
To the sound of fanfare, lictors appeared carrying fasces representing power.
Lictor with fascia.
Lictor (lat. lictor) is a special type of civil servant; mentioned in history since the reign of the Etruscan kings in Rome (VII century BC). Initially, lictors were executors of the orders of magistrates cum imperio. Subsequently, they carried out only ceremonial and security functions with them, which consisted of accompanying the highest magistrates and ensuring that they were given proper honors. They were armed with fasces.
Fasces (lat. fasces) (otherwise chamfers, fasces, also lictorial bundles) are an attribute of the power of kings, and in the era of the Roman Republic - high magistrates. Bunches of elm or birch twigs tied with red cord or tied with belts. Initially they symbolized the magistrate's right to enforce his decisions by force. Outside the city limits, an ax (often an ax) was stuck into the fasces, symbolizing the magistrate’s right to execute and pardon his subjects (within cities, the people were the highest authority for death sentences). The right to wear fasces was assigned to lictors. Subsequently, in heraldry, lictor's fasces began to symbolize state and national unity, and are also perceived as a symbol of the protection of statehood. In this interpretation, they are used in our time by many states and organizations.
The scent of disposable oil filled the air and rose petals covered the sand of the arena.
It's time to join the cheers" Io triumphe" of the hero of the occasion himself.
Triumphant.
Triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who was seeking triumph, was awaiting a decision on whether he would be granted triumph while outside the city limits, due to the fact that a magistrate who had not yet formed an imperium was not allowed to enter the city. Therefore, in this case, the Senate gathered outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, triumphants received imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those participating in it gathered early in the morning on the Campus Martius, where the triumphant was staying in a public building (lat. villa publica) at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious suit, similar to the robe of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga (lat. toga picta) decorated with gold stars, gilded shoes, took a laurel branch in one hand, and in the other held a richly decorated scepter of Ivory with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
Empire (Latin imperium, from the Latin verb imperare - to command) in Ancient Rome is a public legal concept that characterizes the highest executive power in the Roman community. Imperium was used in the military (militiae) and civil (domi) spheres. The one to whom the empire was given could act on behalf of the state in all areas of public life.
The triumphant rode standing on a round gilded chariot drawn by four horses. When Camill first harnessed white horses during his triumph, it was met with a murmur from the public, but subsequently white horses during his triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and wealth of captured military booty.
Triumphant and state slave.
The triumphant man was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was just a mortal (said memento mori), and he should not be too proud.
The triumphant was followed by carts with trophies and booty. IN ancient times, while Rome waged wars with its poor neighbors, the spoils were simple: the main part of it was weapons, livestock and captives. But when Rome began to wage war in the rich, cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought so much booty that they had to stretch out the triumph for two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried many weapons, enemy banners, and subsequently also images of captured cities and fortresses and various kinds symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the objects carried. Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. They often carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
War booty.
Signs with captured cities and countries.
A strange animal, a leopard.
The enemy of Rome is the leader of the barbarians.
Noble prisoners.
Noble prisoners.
The victorious legions of Rome entered the arena behind the trophies and slaves, bearing the power of the Senate and the People throughout the entire Oecumene.
Once again the audience's attention was captured by the beautiful dancers. Meanwhile, the priestesses of Vesta were preparing a triumphal arch of flowers, passing under which the troops were cleared. Before passing through the arch of war, they disarmed and entered the city as civilians. But during the time of a professional army, legionnaires again took up arms to protect the interests of the Empire.
Starting on the Campus Martius, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two crowded circuses (Flaminiev and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum up to the Capitol. There the triumphant dedicated laurels of fasces to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the refreshment of magistrates and senators, often soldiers, and even the entire public; For the latter, games were also organized in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave gifts to the public. There were gifts for the soldiers general rule and sometimes reached significant sums (for example, Caesar’s soldiers received five thousand denarii).
The triumphant makes a sacrifice to Jupiter.
Persons who received a triumph had the right to subsequently wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s reluctance to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having reserved the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders, in return for the triumph, only the right to wear triumphal attire (lat. ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on special occasions and placed statues of the winners among the statues of the triumphants.
So this triumph passed. Like everything bright and solemn, it is as short-lived as everything in this world. The triumph is over, but the celebration will still last.
This is how our weekend went, we were able to immerse ourselves in Roman history, look at the triumphant, and see the battles of the legions. IN Once again The Ratobortsy club gave Moscow a wonderful holiday, we hope that this tradition will not be interrupted.