In warring countries, social conflicts escalated, anti-war sentiment grew. The slogan “Down with the war!” Was one of the main slogans under which the monarchy was overthrown in Russia in February — March 1917. The torture of the Provisional Government to raise the soldiers to the “revolutionary war”, the goals of which were incomprehensible to them, did not succeed. Russia, exhausted by the war, embraced by dramatic revolutionary events, was not able to fight further. Understanding the impossibility of continuing the war in the conditions of the complete collapse of the army, in March 1918 the Bolshevik government concluded with Germany separate Brest peace.
The anti-war slogans put forward during the Russian revolution found wide support among the peoples of the warring countries. US President W. Wilson put forward a peace plan, known under the title "14 points." The American president at first strongly opposed the US entry into the war, but then, in 1917, insisted on the country's participation in the war on the side of the Entente. He proposed to make peace on the terms of the withdrawal of the troops of the German bloc from all the occupied territories. An important point of his proposals was the restoration of Poland's independence and the provision of autonomy to the peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
The German command, headed by Generals Paul Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, after signing the Brest Peace, freed from the need to fight on two fronts, in the spring of 1918 prepared a new offensive in France. Initially, the Germans were successful, in the summer they again appeared on the Marne, only 70 km from Paris. However, this was their last luck. Germany maneuvered its forces. The Entente turned out to be better prepared in military-technical terms, the fighting spirit of its armies was higher, finally, fresh American units arrived on the European front. In July 1918, the Entente troops, under the command of the French general Ferdinand Foch, went over to the counter-offensive. The prospect of transferring hostilities to German territory arose. Hindenburg demanded that Emperor Wilhelm II conclude a truce with the Entente. Material from the site
The course of the war was affected by the revolutionary actions of the soldiers. In September 1918, an uprising was launched in the victim of a series of defeats of the Bulgarian army, and Bulgaria withdrew from the war. In October, the Ottoman Empire surrendered. National revolutions in Czechoslovakia and Hungary in October 1918 led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and its military collapse. Following their allies, Germany also surrendered. The uprising of the military seamen that broke out on November 3 in Kiel, which the command sent to certain death, was the beginning of the German revolution. The new government, in which the Social Democrats played a key role, agreed to conclude a truce with the Entente. It was signed near Paris, in the Compiegne Forest, on November 11, 1918. First world War over.
The situation in Russia. In the years 1916-1917. important events took place in Russia. The Russian Empire was the weakest link of the Entente in economic, military and political relations. A crisis was brewing in the country. Defeats at the front, a sharp deterioration in economic
provisions led to an increase in antiwar and anti-government movement. Dissatisfaction with the domestic and foreign policies of the country grew not only among the common people, but also in the ruling elite. In order to save Russia from revolutionary upheaval, the influential part of the bourgeoisie was ready to replace Nikolai II, whose popularity was very low, with his brother Mikhail. But it was too late. Neither the abdication of Nicholas II in March 1917, nor the refusal of Michael to enter the throne led to the salvation of the monarchy. The February Revolution put an end to tsarism and led to the creation of the Provisional Government. Initially, it was headed by Prince G.S. Lvov, and then the Social Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky. P.N. Milyukov was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government; later, I. I. Tereshchenko replaced him.
At the regular conference of AEtanta representatives that ended in February 1917, the earlier decision on bringing the war to a victorious end was confirmed. At this conference, France and Russia secretly agreed to determine their borders with Germany on their own. The Foreign Minister of the Provisional Government announced that. that peace without victory over Germany is impossible and fraught with grave consequences. On the whole, Russia remained faithful to the policy pursued under Tsar Sazonov, although some changes were introduced in it in a number of directions. Confirming the obligations of tsarist crafts, the new Russian government received support from other countries. In March-April 1917, almost all states declared the legal recognition of the Provisional Government. The United States played an important role in this.
In connection with the zhonomic and mainly political events taking place in Russia, the Provisional Government turned to soy: nicknames with a proposal to postpone the beginning of the general offensive against Germany from spring to summer. But England and France insisted on the quickest start of the operation on the Eastern Front.
The new Russian government was even more dependent on the Entente than the tsarist government. At the insistence of England, France and the United States, Kerensky threw the exhausted, poorly armed Russian troops on the offensive, which choked and completely failed, bringing many new unjustifiable victims. It all ended with the German troops breaking through the front line near Ternopol and the Russian army retreating in its southwestern section. The domestic situation in the country has been further aggravated. An acute political crisis has begun.
The situation in Austria-Hungary and Germany. Serious events took place among the opponents of the Entente. A particularly difficult situation was in Austria-Hungary. The economic difficulties caused by the war made themselves felt. Opposition of oppressed nations intensifies
mode. Charles I, who replaced the deceased emperor Franz Joseph, was afraid of further negative developments in political events and was looking for ways to conclude a separate peace. Crouching in front of France, he spoke out for the return of Alsace and Lorraine to her. For Austria-Hungary, he considered the restoration of its pre-war borders sufficient. It is difficult to say whether he managed to agree with France if it were not for the harsh speech of Italy, which insisted on the accession of Trieste, Dalmatia and Trentino.
It was a little better internal position Germany. The February Revolution in Russia had a great influence on him. In Germany, strikes broke out, fermentation appeared on the navy.
The policy of England and France in relation to Russia. The decline in prestige and weight of Russia, which began even under the tsar, in the eyes of the allies after the February Revolution intensified. England and France sought to control the situation inside Russia and prevent its exit from the war. The resolution adopted by the German Reichstag calling for peace was met with hostility by the German command. The war went on. England and France, together with the United States, agreed on economic and military intervention in the internal affairs of Russia, dividing the spheres of influence on the reorganization of railways, the navy and the economy.
In the fall of 1917, governments agreed that the United States would reorganize the Russian railways, England would take over the Russian navy, and France would reorganize and modernize the army. This plan said a lot: it was clear that we were talking not only about interference in the internal affairs of Russia, but also about the division of spheres of influence in it between England, France and the United States.
Peace initiatives of Soviet Russia. However, the story went differently. November 7 (new style) 1917 in Russia there was a socialist revolution. Neither the Provisional Government nor the governments of the Entente countries understood the processes taking place in Russia. They made the main bet in their political strategy on the continuation of the war until complete victory over Germany.
The Bolsheviks opposed this policy to an immediate end to the war and the conclusion of peace. The day after the victory of the revolution, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Peace Decree. Now, when more than one decade has passed since that memorable time, its events are evaluated in different ways: with greater or lesser significance. But all researchers are united in the fact that the Decree on Peace plays a big role in historical development of our country and in international life. It was not a purely propaganda, designed for temporary success, transient act, but reflected the views of the new ruler
stv on the problems of war and peace and international relations. The ideas of the world revolution were not put forward in it, which at that time was fashionable among a certain part of socialists. The peace decree was, as it were, the theoretical basis of the course towards the peaceful coexistence of two systems. It is no accident that some of his propositions were reflected in a number of international documents.
The first People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs was L. D. Trotsky. But he was removed from this post on April 8, 1918 by decision of the Seventh Congress of the RCP (B.) For the disruption of peace talks with Germany that took place in Bres-Litovsk, and was replaced by G. V. Chicherin.
In connection with the refusal of officials of the Russian Foreign Ministry to cooperate with the Soviet government, they were fired and the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs was created almost anew. He immediately proceeded to publish secret treaties concluded by the governments of the European powers. Within a few months, a number of collections were published, which included agreements signed between Russia, England and France on the division of Turkey, the payment that Romania was supposed to receive for participating in the war on the side of the Entente, and other documents.
On November 8, the Soviet government instructed Commander-in-Chief General N. N. Dukhonin to immediately turn to all the warring countries with a proposal for a truce. On this day, the People’s Commissar conveyed to all ambassadors accredited in Russia a proposal to declare a truce and begin peace negotiations. However, it was ignored. General Dukhonin sabotaged the instructions of the government and for this he was removed from his post. Representatives of England and France, having arrived at the headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief in the city of Mogilev, demanded that Dukhonin disobey and continue military operations. But Russia was economically exhausted, and its army was tired and was in crisis.
Germany was in a difficult economic and political situation. In her political circles, the opinion was strengthened about the need to conclude peace with Russia, although the German military insisted that she would be able to quickly defeat the exhausted and morally undermined Russian troops and force the Soviet government to sign the peace on German-dictated terms. In the Reichstag, in the summer of 1917, a resolution on peace was adopted.
The Soviet proposal for peace aroused a sharp controversy in Germany. Nevertheless, she considered it possible to agree to peace talks. An attempt by the Soviet government to connect other warring countries to them was unsuccessful.
December 3, 1917 in Bre: t-Litovsk, negotiations began between representatives of Soviet Russia, on the one hand, and representatives of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, on the other.
The Soviet delegation proposed to proceed from the provisions put forward in the Decree on Peace, but the German delegation stated that it had arrived to conduct concrete negotiations on a cease-fire and refused to discuss this proposal, which it considered political. She also refused to discuss a number of specific proposals, in particular, clauses on the prohibition of the transfer of German troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front and on the liberation of Russian territories occupied during the war.
Subsequently, the parties reached an agreement on signing a truce between the German bloc and Russia from December 15
1917 for a period of 28 days. The Soviet government addressed the ambassadors of the United States, France, Italy, China, Japan, Romania, Belgium and Serbia with a notice on the progress of negotiations in Brest-Litovsk and with a proposal to take part in peace negotiations.
But this appeal, like others, remained unanswered.
Many countries tried to take advantage of the plight of the young Soviet republic. In December 1917, Romanian troops invaded and occupied Bessarabia, and in April
1918 she was annexed to Romania.
Brest peace. December 22, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk negotiations began on the conclusion of peace between Russia, Germany and other countries that were at war with it. They can be divided into three stages. The first - from December 22 to 28, 1917, the second - from January 9 to February 10, 1918, and the third - from March 1 to 2, 1918
The German delegation exerted strong pressure and dictated its terms. But the peace treaty, despite all the difficulties, could be signed already at the second stage. The refusal of Trotsky, who led the Soviet delegation, did not allow this to be done. As a result, German troops launched an offensive along the entire front: from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. In these critical hours, at the call of the Soviet government, urgent resistance units were urgently created. And in a number of places the Germans were stopped, and at Pskov and near Narva they were driven back. The Russian government said it was ready to immediately discuss German conditions and sign a peace.
March 3, 1918 in Brest-Litovsk, a peace treaty was concluded between Russia and the countries of the Fourth Union (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey). His conditions for Russia were very difficult. Poland, Lithuania, Courland, Livlyan-Diya, Estonia and the vast areas occupied by German troops departed from its territory. In the Caucasus, Kare, Ardagan and Batumi crossed over to Turkey. Ukraine and Finland became independent states. An exchange of prisoners of war was envisaged. In Brest-Litovsk, the following were also signed: the final protocol on customs duties and tariffs,
russian-German, Russian-Austrian, Russian-Bulgarian and RussKo. Turkish supplementary contracts.
Ratification of the contract was to occur within two weeks. Both during the negotiations and after the signing of the Peace Treaty, there was no unanimity in the government and the party. V.I. Lenin, however, once remained in the minority, and yet in the end he managed to obtain consent to the signing of the treaty and its ratification.
On March 15, an All-Russian Congress of Soviets was convened with an agenda for ratification of the Brest Treaty. Before this, the Seventh Party Congress voted in favor of approving the treaty by a majority vote, authorizing the Central Committee in the future, when the situation changes, to break it up as a violent one. After the debate, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets ratified the Brest Treaty on March 15.
Taking advantage of the difficult situation of our country, Germany continued to exert pressure on it after that. The Soviet government was forced to sign in August 1918 the so-called surplus treaty to the Brest Peace Treaty, which established a demarcation line in favor of Germany.
Shortly after the October Revolution, Finland formed its own government, which entered into negotiations with the Council of People's Commissars. As a result, on December 31, 1917, Soviet Russia recognized the independence of the Republic of Finland.
The final stage of the war. While Germany was exporting from Ukraine, Belarus and other regions of Russia everything that could be taken out and trying to impose its own rules, its position in the West worsened noticeably. After a series of successful operations, the German troops were forced to retreat, having suffered significant losses. When the United States entered the war in the spring of 1918, this further affected the balance of power of the warring parties.
On January 8, 1918, the US president set out 14 points that determined the fundamental and practical tasks, on the basis of which it was proposed to conclude peace with Germany and its allies. In addition, they were addressed to all countries and were, as it were, an answer to the Leninist Decree on Peace, which Wilson himself admitted. Indeed, following the Peace Decree, he talked about open peace negotiations and discussions, about the rejection of secret international agreements, about the free, sincere and absolutely unhindered resolution of all colonial disputes.
In the summer of 1918, Germany launched a new major and last P33 offensive. Having crossed the Marne, German troops set their sights on Paris. But the French, with the support of tanks and artillery, launched a counterattack and seized the initiative. August 8, English and FRIU3 "
russian troops broke through the front in the Amiens region and inflicted a terrible defeat on the Germans, from which they could no longer recover. After that, the Fourth Union collapsed like a house of cards. In the fall of 1918, one country after another began to ask for peace. Bulgaria was the first to capitulate, and on October 3, 1918 the Bulgarian king Ferdinand abdicated. Turkey capitulated behind it, breaking the alliance with Germany, then it was the turn of Austria-Hungary. In October 1918 the Habsburg monarchy collapsed. On November 3, the command of the Austro-Hungarian forces signed a truce.
In Germany itself, major revolutionary events took place. In October 1918, the German sailors revolted, refusing to obey the order to enter the battle with the British naval forces, and captured Kiel. The uprising spread to Hamburg and soon swept all over Germany.
Entente troops went on the offensive, broke through the German front and quickly began to advance into the center of Germany. A new government was created in the country, headed by Prince M. Baden, who, on the night of October 4-5, addressed the American president Wilson through the Swiss government with a request for a ceasefire. In response, the United States demanded that Germany confirm its agreement with all the conditions expressed in Wilson’s 14 points, and even before the negotiations, stop the submarine war and destruction in the territories left by her troops.
The Allies insisted that until all those responsible for violating the peace were removed from power, peace negotiations could not begin. It was about eliminating William II. All attempts by the Germans to save the Kaiser did not lead to anything. Wilson warned that if William is not eliminated, we will talk about the complete surrender of Germany.
On October 25, 1918, the Allies gathered to discuss the terms of the armistice. Discrepancies between England and France were revealed. England advocated moderate demands: the liberation of the territories of France, Belgium and the return of Alsace and Lorraine. The French also proposed, in addition, to deprive the German army of heavy weapons, to occupy the left bank of the Rhine to a 50-kilometer depth, and to make a number of other demands. In the end, it was possible to agree on the requirements, which were as follows: the liberation of the occupied territories of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, the withdrawal of troops from Alsace-Lorraine and Romania, as well as the liberation of the left bank of the Rhine. By way of indemnity, the Allies were to receive 5 thousand steam locomotives, 5 thousand heavy and field guns, 150 thousand wagons, 1700 aircraft, etc. The truce was established for 36 days with a possible extension. On November 7, 1918, the German delegation was delivered to the staff car of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces, Marshal F. Fo
sha, who was in the Compiegne forest, at the Retont station, and transferred the conditions of the Entente to it. 72 hours were given for an answer, and at 5 o'clock in the morning on November 11, 1918, a truce was signed.
Two days later, the Soviet government announced the cancellation of the Brest Peace Treaty of March 3, 1918 and the supplementary agreement signed by Soviet Russia and Germany on August 27, 1918.
Intervention against Soviet Russia. After the victory of the October Revolution, England and France secretly agreed on the operations of their troops on the territory of Russia and allocated huge sums to the tsarist generals to fight against Soviet power. The first English detachment of 200 people landed on March 9, 1918 in Murmansk. A few days later, French units began to arrive there. By the summer of 1918, English and French troops captured Arkhangelsk and the Solovetsky Islands.
In the Far East, the Japanese began to invade the territory of Russia. Already in January 1918, 3 cruisers entered the Vladivostok port - two Japanese and one English. Prior to that, there was already an American cruiser. At an official protest of the Soviet government, a British representative in Moscow said that the landing of Japanese soldiers in Vladivostok had the sole purpose of protecting the life and property of Japanese citizens.
The intervention expanded both in the North and in the Far East, swept over Siberia. For this, in particular, the Czechoslovak corps was used, which, retreating under the pressure of German troops, ended up in Russia. By agreement with the Soviet government, he was supposed to leave for Vladivostok port in France. But after the Japanese landing in Vladivostok, the Czechs violated this agreement and raised a rebellion, cutting off the central regions of Russia from the Urals and Siberia. Western diplomatic missions were directly involved in preparing the uprising in a number of Volga cities and elsewhere. However, all the uprisings, organized with the help and support of foreign diplomats, were defeated.
The war had an extremely negative influence on the internal life of the states participating in it. The economy was subordinated exclusively to military purposes. For example, 70% of heavy industry, 50% of light industry worked for military needs. At the same time, the war plunged into a difficult situation and agriculture. Agricultural production fell sharply.
Almost all countries experienced food shortages. As a result, the state introduced a card regime, i.e., a strictly limited food norm.
Among the population, chauvinism was promoted. The war dealt a powerful blow to parliamentary democracy. Throughout the war, not a single parliament opposed a bloody war.
Now the states began to establish production. State control over banks, distribution of raw materials and military orders increased.
The population was tired and began to oppose the government with a demand for an early end to the war. Thus, the civil unity established in society in the first years of the war was violated. On some fronts, soldiers fraternized, the enemy parties refused to shoot at each other, because the soldiers were also tired of the war.
The situation in Russia
The war exacerbated the economic and political situation of Russia. As a result, a revolution took place in February 1917. The Emperor of Russia abdicated. Power passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, which created an interim government.
The interim government decided to continue the war and in the same year even organized the offensive of the Russian army, which ended in failure.
This failure further complicated the already difficult political situation in Russia. As a result, on November 7, 1917, a coup d'etat took place. The interim government was overthrown. The power was seized by the Bolshevik party under the leadership of V.I. Lenin, who created the Soviet government.
On November 8, 1917, the Soviet government adopted the Peace Decree. The Peace Decree sharply condemned the war of conquest and declared it the greatest crime against humanity.
The Soviet government, under any conditions, tried to conclude a separate peace, because to continue the war, when the army finally lost its fighting spirit, and the Eastern Front was practically paralyzed, was tantamount to disaster.
On December 15, 1917, a peace treaty was signed between Soviet Russia and the Austro-German government. The same agreement was signed on December 9 with Romania. Thus, there was no hostilities on the Eastern Front.
Position on other fronts
In April 1917, the Entente armed forces on the Western Front went on the offensive, in which more than 100 divisions participated. However, the German defense line could not be broken. On the contrary, as a result of these military operations, Entente troops suffered heavy losses. These actions were called the "Nivelles Massacre" by the name of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of France Nivelles.
In 1917, the Italian army failed. Italy was saved only by the fact that England and France urgently threw auxiliary forces to the Italian front. In November 1917, Germany, in repelling the advance of the British army, used another new weapon - a flamethrower.
On the Mesopotamian and Palestinian fronts, the actions of the English army intensified. In March 1917, the British occupied Baghdad. By autumn, Turkey had lost almost the entire Arabian Peninsula and part of Palestine.
On March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia signed the Brest Peace Treaty with the Union of Four on the basis of its requirements. The terms of the contract were very difficult for Russia. According to the agreement, Russia had to completely demobilize its army, return the navy to ports. Russia also abandoned the Baltic states, Poland, Finland and Ukraine. Ukraine and Finland were recognized as independent states. Caucasian Kars, Ardagan and Batumi were transferred to Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged to pay Germany a reparation of 6 billion marks.
Woodrow Wilson World Program
january 1918, US President W. Wilson unveiled the Peace Treaty for signature after the end of World War I and the newly formed political map of the world from the point of view of the US government. It went down in history as the "Wilson Peace Program."
This program later served as the basis for a peace treaty between the victorious Entente and the losing Union of the Four.
Last stage of the war
Germany, which concentrated 80 percent of all divisions and 90 percent of artillery on the Western Front, went on the offensive again in March 1918. This was her last offensive. However, it did not lead to any significant result. However, both sides lost 300 thousand people. In these conditions, England and France decided to create a single command. French General Foch was appointed commander of the combined armed forces. On July 18, French troops launched a counterattack. Now it has become impossible to stop the Entente.
September 15 was a crushing blow to Bulgaria. On September 28, Bulgaria suspended military operations and withdrew from the war. On October 29, Austria-Hungary requested the Entente to sign a peace agreement. On October 30, Turkey made a similar statement. On November 3, such an agreement was signed.
The war created a revolutionary situation in Germany. November 9, the German Empire fell. Emperor William II abdicated and fled the country. On November 10, a new government was created, led by Social Democrat Ebert. On November 11, an agreement was signed with the Entente on the surrender of Germany in the Compensen Forest in the headquarters of General Foch. Thus, the First World War ended in the complete victory of the Entente.
On June 28, 1919, the Peace Treaty was signed at Versailles. The states of the German bloc were plundered, lost a number of territories, pledged to pay 132 billion marks of reparation.
In World War I, 38 countries of the world participated. More than 1.5 billion people lived in them. About 74 million people were called up for war. In total, 20 million people were killed, 10 million were injured. In addition, many people died of disease and starvation.
The states that were the main participants in the First World War lost a third of their national wealth.
Humanity has not suffered such losses for all the wars that occurred during the 1000 years before the outbreak of World War I.
From a speech by US President W. Wilson in July 1916:
“We can play a big role in the world. Do you take into account the fact that within one or two years we have transformed from a debtor state to a creditor state? We have never had so much surplus of world gold in our hands before. Since that time, it has become our business to lend, help large international corporations and promote their work. We have to provide the whole world with large funds and manage them according to our skill and desire. ”
Decree (lat. Decretum) - the decision of the supreme authority on any issue, having the force of law.
Reparation (lat. Reparatio - restoration) - in international law - compensation paid by the defeated state to the winning state for full or partial compensation for losses.
Separatism (lat. Seperatus - separate) - the desire for separation. Also, in international law, an agreement with the warring party of one of the allied states without the permission of the allies.
Reconciliation is an agreement drawn up to end hostilities. Type of international treaties.