Observation– a method of studying objects and phenomena of objective reality in the form in which they exist in nature. Observable is any physical quantity whose value can be found experimentally (measured).
Hypothesis- a probable assumption about the cause of any phenomena, the reliability of which is current state science cannot be tested or proven.
Experiment– the study of a particular phenomenon under precisely taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the progress of changes in the phenomenon and actively influence it.
Theory- generalization of experience, practice, scientific activity, revealing the basic patterns of the process or phenomenon being studied.
Experience– a body of accumulated knowledge.
Mechanics– a science that studies mechanical movements, i.e. moving bodies relative to each other or changing body shapes.
Material point- a physical body, the size and shape of which can be neglected.
Forward movement- a movement in which any straight line, rigidly connected to the body, moves parallel to itself.
Instantaneous speed (velocity)– characterizes the speed of change of the radius vector of displacement r at time t.
Acceleration– characterizes the rate of change in speed at time t.
Tangential acceleration characterizes the change in speed modulo.
Normal acceleration- towards.
Angular velocity– vector quantity of the derivative of the elementary angular displacement with respect to time.
Angular acceleration– vector quantity equal to the first derivative of the angular velocity with respect to time.
Pulse– a vector measure of the amount of mechanical movement that can be transferred from one body to another, provided that the movement does not change its shape.
Mechanical system– a set of bodies selected for consideration.
Inner forces– forces with which the bodies included in the system under consideration interact with each other.
External forces– act from bodies that do not belong to the system.
System called closed or isolated, if there are no external forces
Direct problem of mechanics– knowing the forces, find the motion (functions r(t), V(t)).
Inverse problem of mechanics– knowing the movement of the body, find the forces acting on it.
Mass (additive value):
1. A measure of inertia during translational motion of a body (inertial mass)
2. Measure of the amount of substance in the volume of a body
3. A measure of the gravitational properties of bodies participating in gravitational interactions (gravitational mass)
4. Measure of energy
Inertia manifests itself:
1. The body’s ability to maintain a state of motion
2. The ability of a body, under the influence of other bodies, to change state not in jumps, but continuously.
3. Resist changing the state of your movement.
Reference systems, in relation to which the free m.t. is in a state of relative rest or uniform rectilinear movement, are called inertial(Newton's First Law is satisfied in them).
INewton's law: If a reference system moves relative to an inertial one with acceleration, then it is called non-inertial.
IINewton's law: In an inertial frame, the rate of change of momentum m.t. equal to the resultant force acting on it and coincides with it in direction.
IIINewton's law: The forces with which interacting bodies act on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Absolute speed– m.t. speed relative to a fixed frame of reference.
Relative speed– m.t. speed relative to the moving frame of reference.
Portable speed– speed of the moving frame of reference relative to
Slide 2
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a statement that is neither true until proven nor false until disproven, but is used as a working theory. Most often, hypotheses are used in natural sciences, such as physics, and describe the reasons natural phenomena. A hypothesis that has been confirmed becomes the basis for the following assumptions. Hypothesis is the word Greek origin, literally translated as “foundation”, “assumption”. In the modern sense, an unproven theory or assumption. A hypothesis is put forward based on observations or experiments. Subsequently, the hypothesis can be proven, which indicates the validity of this hypothesis, or refuted, which indicates its fallacy.
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Types of Hypotheses
Scientific hypothesis Metaphysical hypothesis
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Scientific Hypothesis is...
...a hypothesis that explains all known scientific facts based on the use of a mental abstract model of the objects and phenomena being studied real world, does not contain internal logical contradictions and, from the analysis of the properties of the model, derives consequences that were previously unknown and can be experimentally verified. After testing the predicted consequences, a scientific hypothesis can be either confirmed or refuted by the results of the experiment. With experimental confirmation of the predicted consequences, the hypothesis receives recognition as a SCIENTIFIC THEORY.
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Scientific hypothesis
The existence of the atomic nucleus Ernest Rutherford
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Scientific Hypothesis
Existence of electromagnetic waves Maxwell
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Scientists
Isaac Newton Einstein
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Metaphysical hypothesis is...
...untestable hypotheses. Impossibility scientific proof or refutation of a metaphysical hypothesis does not deprive it of its right to exist. Accepting or rejecting such a hypothesis is a matter of a person's belief in its truth or disbelief in it.
Basic physical hypotheses
Attraction different kinds, energy, complexity, speed and elasticity
The universe consists of points that mutually influence each other through the force of gravity. Its general law is unknown. It is only known that as the distance between them decreases, attraction increases very quickly. The particular laws of attraction are known. This attraction is sometimes called gravitation, sometimes partial, sometimes electric, sometimes magnetic attraction.
It is easier to assume that these material points, or centers of force, are different. They themselves are unchangeable and eternal. They move from mutual attraction. They can’t meet, being the same size geometric points. The reason for their appearance is unknown. The universe consists only of these points.
The combination of material points, similar to the repeated combination of suns or planetary systems, forms particles called atoms, molecules, crystals, cells, plants and animals.
Time is endless - behind and ahead. Therefore, the particles known to us have infinite complexity, a certain volume, and as a result they can meet, that is, knock and repel each other. The complication and decomposition of particles occurs simultaneously. In general, over the course of decillions of years, complication occurs (there is a special work of mine regarding this).
The totality of different atoms, particles, cells and their combinations, that is, plants and animals, constitutes matter, or substance. It changes shape, but is not destroyed and does not appear again, that is, it does not change in its quantity. It is unchanging.
Every particle of matter is determined by time, space and force; the feeling probably depends on the latter. (Indeed, nothing exists outside of time and space. Forces and feelings also always manifest themselves. There is nothing in space except atoms. What else can one feel if not them or matter.) The above three properties belong to matter. They are inseparable from her. But since time is always and everywhere, then matter is also always and everywhere. Time is infinite, which means space and the distribution of forces are infinite. After all, time is a property of matter. We meet this property everywhere; it is a sign of matter. Consequently, matter is always and everywhere. For example, one of the signs of a person is speech. If we hear the voice of a person, even if we have not seen him, then it means there is a person. Even the speech of the gramophone indicates the existence of man. Indeed, if there were no man, there would be no gramophone. Also, the image of a person in a picture or in a mirror speaks about him. Likewise, the certainty of infinite time speaks undoubtedly of the limitless distribution of space, forces and matter. However, in exceptional cases, human sounds and images can appear without a person.
The attraction of particles gives rise to their movement. The closer the particles are, the higher their speed, that is, the more energy is detected. If even two particles merged, an infinitely large amount of energy would be released. But there cannot be a complete merger. The Universe only strives for the merging of its parts, but can never achieve it. In fact, this merger is hindered by their finite volume, ever-increasing speed and the resulting repulsive force.
Movement is explicit energy, the energy of movement, or kinetic, and attraction is reserve, or potential (possible). When a planet moves away from the Sun, its speed decreases. This means that the apparent energy decreases, and the reserve energy increases. But the obvious one can again appear in motion if the planet approaches the Sun. Also, a falling stone exhibits obvious energy and reduces the reserve, that is, the possibility of falling.
The amount of both energy, that is, their total sum, is unchanged and infinite: not only due to the infinity of the universe, but also due to the possible continuous compaction of matter. From it comes force, from force comes movement, or obvious energy. Therefore, matter, force, attraction and energy are essentially the same thing. There is no matter without energy, and there cannot be energy without matter. Also, where there is feeling, there must be matter. And vice versa - where there is matter, there is also feeling, that is, life. It turns out that life is everywhere. Only it is very diverse in quantitative terms. As diverse as numbers are, life is just as varied in tension.
So the whole universe and all its parts are alive, although in different ways - in terms of strength or quantity.
Each particle of matter lives differently, depending on the particles surrounding and influencing it: one life in hydrogen, another in a particle of gold, a third in a particle of water, a fourth in a plant cell, a fifth in animal cells, a sixth in cells of higher beings, and so on ad infinitum.
When the movement is free and rectilinear, then the moving particles, due to favorable conditions of position, direction and speed, merge into one, as if “planetary” group. Then the speed of the center of gravity of the system decreases in accordance with the increase in the total mass. Thus, the speed of all known atoms in the vapor state is inverse square root from their masses. For example, masses: 100 64 49 25 6 1 speeds: 1/10 1/8 1/7 1/5 1/4 1. This refers, of course, to the linear, or translational, velocity of the center.
I showed earlier that from a mechanical point of view this is how it should be. The speed of atoms known to us varies from approximately several meters to several miles per second - depending on their massiveness and temperature. And since there are particles of all possible masses - from zero (limit) to a certain size, then the velocities of the centers are also varied. We mean forward or straight line speed. The rotational one, which more and more chains matter to a place, that is, the curvilinear speed of the true elements of matter, can be one and the same.
When matter is decomposed into the smallest masses, enormous masses are obtained. straight line speeds. Energy prevails here, not mass. The deeper the decomposition, the more striking this predominance. In the limit, such matter represents one energy. The more massive its particles, the more noticeable the materiality, that is, the mass, and the more invisible the energy of rectilinear motion, although the intra-atomic energy remains just as enormous. That is why, due to the imperfection of measuring instruments, the modern scientist divided the essence of the universe into mass and energy. In a mathematical sense this is not true. No matter how great the energy, it is unthinkable without mass. Energy is the same mass and can again give it, that is, the substance known to us, if a connection (synthesis) of elements occurs.
The more complex an atom is, that is, the more massive it is, the weaker its rectilinear motion is, and therefore the less elasticity, because it depends on the magnitude of the translational motion. And the lower the elasticity, the more dominant attraction is and, therefore, the greater the density of the substance, which consists of atoms or molecules.
The properties of matter described by us (attraction of various kinds, connection, decomposition and the dependence of the elasticity of matter on the translational speed and complexity of particles) explain the mechanical side of the universe, its periodicity, that is, the continuous extinction and rebirth of suns and planetary systems. Thanks to this, in general, the state of the universe never changes, it never dies, does not go out, but eternally blooms with suns, planets and life. She is forever young or courageous - in the full bloom of her powers. She is immortal not only in relation to the constancy of matter and forces, but also in relation to her always turbulent life - organic and inorganic.
Now we can explain the continuous arising and continuous extinction of suns, that is, the constancy of mechanical life or the eternal vigorous activity of the universe (see my works: “Monism”, “Education” solar systems", "Love for [oneself]" and others).
From the book Philosophical Dictionary of Mind, Matter, Morality [fragments] by Russell Bertrand58. Physical laws Laws embodied in differential equations, may probably be accurate, but we have no way of knowing. Everything we can know empirically is approximate and subject to exception; about the exact laws that are accepted in physics,
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by Lem Stanislavd) matter as the principle of reality, physical theories; d) Recently, materialists have simply resorted to forgery. They declared matter to be nothing more than 5) the principle of reality, and materialism simply the doctrine of the objectivity of things and the world. But all that remains is to separate
From the book Algorithms of the Mind author Amosov Nikolay Mikhailovich(h) Hypotheses A paradoxical situation has arisen. Trying to look into the future of civilization, we sought support and unexpectedly received help from astrophysics, which uses statistical methods to study the frequency of the appearance of intelligent life in Space... but then the conclusions of these
From the book Shadows of the Mind [In Search of the Science of Consciousness] by Penrose RogerAbout the implementation of the hypothesis Our hypothesis assumes the structure of the “receptor field” in the form of a network of elements with an unlimited number of connections. Approximately this structure occurs in the cerebral cortex. Play it technical means does not appear yet
From the book The Art of Thinking Correctly author Ivin Alexander Arkhipovich4.1. Mind and physical laws We all (both body and mind) belong to the Universe, which unquestioningly obeys - and with extremely high precision - incredibly ingenious and universally applicable mathematical laws. Within the framework of modern scientific
From the book Sum of Technology by Lem Stanislav From the book Philosophy in a systematic presentation (collection) author Team of authorsFROM HYPOTHESIS TO THEORY “The affirmation of a law is possible only through the derivation of consequences from it, which would be impossible and unexpected without it, and the justification of those consequences in experimental verification.” D. I. Mendeleev “No logical path leads from observations to basic principles
From the book The Hidden Meaning of Life. Volume 3 author Livraga Jorge AngelHypotheses A paradoxical situation has been created. Trying to look into the future of civilization, we were looking for support and unexpectedly received help from astrophysics, which uses statistical methods to study the frequency of the appearance of intelligent life in Space... but then the conclusions of these studies
From the book The Process Mind. A Guide to Connecting with the Mind of God author Mindell ArnoldIII. Physical Sciences In the hierarchy of sciences, mechanics appears next to kinematics; The question arises: what concept was decisive here? Exploring the composition of science in this direction, we find two main concepts: force and mass, around which mechanics historically developed.
From the book Logic: a textbook for law schools author Kirillov Vyacheslav Ivanovich From the author's bookFour physical forces In today's physics, there are four types of forces or force fields. Let's look at them in turn and try to guess what kinds of psychological experiences, analogies and metaphors might be associated with these physical fields. This will help
From the author's book§ 1. THE CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS Reliable knowledge in scientific or practical activity is preceded by rational comprehension and evaluation of the factual material provided by observation. This mental activity is accompanied by the construction of various kinds of guesses and
From the author's book§ 3. CONSTRUCTION OF HYPOTHESIS Construction of a hypothesis, like versions in judicial research, consists of three successive stages: 1) analysis of individual facts and the relationships between them; 2) synthesis of facts, their generalization; 3) making an assumption. Let's consider these stages using an example
From the author's book§ 4. CHECKING THE HYPOTHESIS The hypothesis, or version, is tested in two stages: 1) deductive derivation of the consequences arising from the hypothesis, 2) comparison of the consequences with the facts.1. Deductive inference. Knowing the features of hypothesis H, and also taking into account the specific conditions of its
This statement can be judged to be true or false. This is precisely what is a necessary link in the development of science.
In this publication we will define the concept of “hypothesis”, and also talk about some shocking hypotheses of the modern world.
Meaning
A hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis, which means “foundation”) is a preliminary assumption that explains a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; may be associated with the existence of an object or item, its properties, as well as the reasons for its occurrence.
A hypothesis itself is neither true nor false. Only after receiving confirmation does this statement become true and cease to exist.
In Ushakov’s dictionary there is another definition of what a hypothesis is. This is a scientific unproven assumption that has a certain probability and explains phenomena that are inexplicable without this assumption.
Vladimir Dal also explains in his dictionary what a hypothesis is. The definition says that this is a guess, a speculative (not based on experience, abstract) position. This interpretation is quite simple and brief.
The no less famous dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron also explains what a hypothesis is. The definition given in it is related only to the system of natural sciences. According to them, this is an assumption that we make to interpret phenomena. A person comes to such statements when he cannot establish the causes of a phenomenon.
Stages of development
In the process of cognition, which consists in making assumptions, there are 2 stages.
The first, which consists of several stages, is the development of the assumption itself. At the first stage of this stage, the position is advanced. Most often this is a guess, even partly unfounded. At the second stage, with the help of this conjecture, previously known facts and those that were discovered after the appearance of the conjecture are explained.
To be must meet certain requirements:
1. It should not contradict itself.
2. The extended position must be checkable.
3. It cannot contradict those facts that do not belong to the field of hypothesis.
4. It must comply with the principle of simplicity, that is, it should not contain facts that it does not explain.
5. It must contain new material and have additional content.
At the second stage, the development of knowledge occurs, which a person receives with the help of a hypothesis. Simply put, this is its proof or refutation.
New hypotheses
When talking about defining what a hypothesis is, we should pay attention to some of them. Modern world achieved enormous success in the field of knowledge of the world and scientific discoveries. Many previously put forward hypotheses were refuted and replaced by new ones. Below are some of the most shocking hypotheses:
1. The Universe is not an infinite space, but a material entity created according to a single law. Scientists believe that the Universe has a certain axis around which it rotates.
2. We are all clones! According to Canadian scientists, we are all descendants of cloned creatures, artificially created hybrids grown from a single cell in a test tube.
3. Health problems, reproductive problems, as well as decreased sexual activity are associated with the appearance of synthetic substances in food.
Thus, a hypothesis is not reliable knowledge. This is just a prerequisite for its appearance.