The relative nature of adaptations

The relative nature of adaptations

In most cases, the observed adaptations are not perfect enough. No adaptation provides 100% survival and does not guarantee 100% success in breeding. For example, a jagged sting of a honey bee, a superficial similarity of protected species during Bets mimicry. In addition, numerous rudiments are preserved - inappropriate structures inherited from ancestral forms (the fifth finger in dogs, the remains of the hind limbs in whales and boas, the third eyelid in monkeys, swimming membranes in mountain geese). Tentatively, it can be argued that up to 90% of species characteristics are not fully adaptive.

In most cases, the observed traits increase the fitness of individuals only under a number of conditions. For example, green coloring is protective only if there is a green background, false-warning coloring of unprotected species during Bets mimicry scares off predators only if there is a protected model, mimetic (imitative) coloring makes the body invisible only if a certain pose is observed. Some adaptations are extremely useful. For example, the structure of the food-grabbing organs of the mantis exactly matches the size of the prey. However, changing the size of the victim can lead to the complete death of the mantis population from starvation.

Adaptation (from the Latin in, the prefix meaning negation and adaptation), non-adaptive specialization, the direction of evolution, in which adaptation to certain conditions of life leads to internal contradictions in the body that impede the further improvement of adaptation. In adaptive evolution was first described by V. O. Kovalevsky (1873) as an example of phylogenetic transformations of limbs of artiodactyl mammals. In the evolution of ungulates in connection with adaptation to fast running on dense soil, a reduction in lateral fingers occurred. In some forms (Anthracotherium, Entelodon, etc.), the reduction of the fingers went faster than the corresponding restructuring of the wrists and tarsal, preserving the primitive structure. As a result, a mechanically fragile limb arose, which, perhaps, was one of the reasons for the extinction of these forms when they competed with those and artiodactyls, evolutionary transformations of the limbs, which were carried out more slowly, but more harmoniously. Adaptation may occur because natural selection favors any change that enhances the fitness of organisms at this stage, but such a change may be ineffective with further evolutionary transformations. The adaptation is traced in the historical development of different groups of animals and plants.

Over adaptation . This term is used in evolutionary biology and refers to the adaptation of an organism with a high voltage of the functions of any organs.

Confused logical chains 1. Adaptation - compliance only of the physiological functions of the body with the conditions of their habitation. 2. Adaptation - a combination of those behavioral features that provide for a given species the possibility of a specific lifestyle in certain environmental conditions. 3. Adaptation is a combination of those structural features, physiology and behavior that provide for this species the possibility of a specific lifestyle in certain environmental conditions.

How are fixtures formed? C. Linney: species created by God and are already adapted to the environment. JB Lamarck: the formation of fitness by the desire of organisms for self-improvement. C. Darwin: explained the origin of fitness in the organic world through natural selection. Try to explain the formation of a long neck in a giraffe from the point of view of C. Linnaeus, J.B.B. Lamarck, C. Darwin.

Adaptations to the environment are manifested in the external and internal structure, vital processes, behavior. The body shapes of various animals serve as a striking example of the adaptability of organisms to the environment. The protective color and body shape of some animals make them invisible against the background of the environment, mask them. Some animals have a bright color, which sharply distinguishes them from the environment. This color is called warning. Some defenseless and edible animals mimic species that are well protected from attack by predators. This phenomenon is called mimicry. Protection against eating is common to many animals and plants. They protect themselves. Behavioral adaptations are changes in the behavior of animals in various conditions: caring for offspring, the formation of separate couples during the mating season, and in winter combining in flocks, which facilitates feeding and protection, repelling behavior, fading, imitation of injury or death, hibernation, storing food . The adaptability of life processes to living conditions is called physiological adaptations: fat accumulation by desert animals, glands eliminating excess salts, heat locating, echolocation. Biochemical adaptations are associated with the formation of certain substances in the body that facilitate protection against enemies or attack other animals.

Adaptation formsExamplesDescription of adaptations Advantages Body shape Protective coloring (masking) Warning coloring Mimicry Protection against eating Behavioral adaptations Physiological adaptations Biochemical adaptations Adaptation classification

Protective coloring (masking) In openly nesting birds, the female sitting on the nest is almost indistinguishable from the surrounding background. Corresponds to the background and pigmented eggshell. It is interesting that in birds nesting in a hollow, on trees, females often have a bright color, and the shell is light. Quail and its eggs Redstart, cuckoo egg in the redstart nest

Patronizing coloring (masking) A surprising resemblance to twigs is observed among stick insects. Caterpillars of some butterflies resemble knots, and the body of some butterflies resembles a leaf. The effect of protective color increases when it is combined with appropriate behavior: at the time of danger, many animals freeze, assuming a resting position.

Warning coloration A very bright coloration (usually white, yellow, red, black) is characteristic of well-protected poisonous, stinging forms. Having tried several times to try the “soldier” bug, the ladybug, the wasp, the birds finally refuse to attack the victim with a bright color. Sand Efa Bedbug - Soldier

Behavioral adaptations A characteristic feature of the behavior of the possum is the ability to pretend to be dead in danger, in this "game" the possum is simply inimitable. behavioral changes in certain conditions Frog lapatonog. The amphibian desert, living most of its life in burrows, goes hunting at night when the heat subsides.

Physiological adaptations are the totality of physiological reactions that underlie the body’s adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Fat accumulation by desert animals before the dry season. A camel can do without water, losing up to 40% of body weight. The glands secreting salt solutions are located at the very eyes of the crocodile, and it seems as if the predator is crying.

Physiological adaptations Bats use echolocation to orientate in space and locate objects around them using high-frequency sound signals. Anabiosis is a condition of a living organism in which life processes (metabolism, etc.) are so slow that there are no visible manifestations of life.

Biochemical adaptations are associated with the formation of certain substances in the body that make it easier to defend against enemies or attack other animals. Scorpions use their poison to kill or paralyze prey so that it can be eaten, or to protect themselves from enemies. When attacking, the skunk lifts its tail, arches its back and bangs its front paws. If the enemy does not lag behind, the animal turns its back and, lifting its tail, releases a stream of disgustingly smelling liquid.

The relative nature of the fitness of poisonous snakes, dangerous for many animals, is eaten by mongooses. The hedgehog is protected from the fox with needles and turns into a ball, but if there is a stream nearby, the fox rolls it into the water, where the hedgehog's muscles are unclenched and it becomes easy prey.

Purpose: to form the concept of adaptability of organisms to the environment; to consolidate the ability to identify features of the adaptability of organisms to the environment. Equipment: herbarium plant samples, indoor plants, insect collections, drawings of various organisms. Progress: 1.Determine the habitat of the plant or animal proposed to you for research. 2. Identify habitat attributes. 3. Identify the relative nature of fitness. 4.Based on knowledge of the driving forces of evolution, explain the mechanism by which adaptations arise. Laboratory work “Study of the adaptability of organisms to the environment”

The fitness of organisms is relative, because: 5. The fitness of organisms is relative, because: any adaptation is only appropriate in certain conditions, the struggle for existence can lead to a change in species when the conditions change abruptly, the group dies out 1 2 3

Reflection Which of what you learned in the lesson was familiar to you? What turned out to be new? Which of the things we worked with was the most memorable for you? Why? What did you like in the lesson, what didn’t you like? What would you like to change, to conduct in a different way? Filling 2 columns in the "logbook". 34 Materials used: A.A. Kamensky, E.A. Kriksunov, V.V. Pasechnik "General Biology Class", M., "Bustard",

The Relativity of Adaptation - Section Science of Science, Alekseeva T.I. Ed., Bogatenkov D.V., Drobyshevsky S.V. Anthropology: Educational-methodical complex [Electronic textbook]. - 2004 In Many Human Populations Inhabiting Subtropical And Tropical R ...

Finally, it is known that during postnatal ontogenesis mortality of recessive homozygotes is increased, and, on the contrary, the relative survival of heterozygotes is high (Table 9.1).

Thus, the preservation of the population under conditions of infection with malarial plasmodium is ensured by increased survival of heterozygous individuals. It sounds blasphemous, but maintaining the high frequency of this lethal (!) Mutation is a beneficial adaptive property of the population.

The fee for such an adaptation is very high, because from the marriage of two heterozygous parents (Hb S Hb A xHb S Hb A) every fourth child is doomed to death:

Hb S Hb S (SS) definitely die from sickle cell anemia - unfortunately, effective methods of treating the disease have not yet been found;
Hb A Hb A (AA) runs the risk of dying from malaria;
and only children HbAHbS (AS) not only survive, but also gain an advantage over the rest. Such children under the law of Mendelian splitting, most likely, will be half of the number of births. They should not be climbers, but in the event of an outbreak of malaria, it is they who have good chances to survive.

Anthropology, ecology, and population genetics are full of similar examples (see: Harrison J. et al. 1979; Spitsyn V.A., 1985; Weiss M., Mann A., 1981).
So, the degree of fitness is a very relative characteristic, always related to a specific situation. Ideal adaptation, as well as adaptively perfect organisms, does not exist.
The result of the process at every moment of time is the maximum approximation of biological characteristics to a certain balanced state with the environment. In fact, this is the process of achieving the optimum in fitness, and the process is continuous due to changes in the environmental situation. The ultimate “goal” of such a process at the population level is the stability of the entire population system, its maximum compliance with these environmental conditions, as well as the ability to further adapt when conditions change. But what is beneficial for the population may not be at all beneficial for its individual representative, and vice versa. An example we just looked at.

9.1.7. If adaptation is relative - how to evaluate it?

If adaptation is such a moving and relative characteristic - how, then, can one measure the degree of fitness, and is it even possible to do this?
Although the questions do not have a simple solution, it is both possible. As criteria for the stability of a human population and characteristics of the adaptation process are used demographic, medical, genetic, physiological, finally, morphological criteria. Of course, assessments of the social order are also applicable (for example, the efficiency of economic activity, cultural features, etc.), which are inextricably linked with human biology. But these phenomena lie outside the scope of our direct study.
So, the degree of fitness of the population can be judged by demographic or paleodemographic indicators. In this case, in fact, it is considered nothing more than a direct characterization of selection. The picture will be more complete if, in parallel with the statement of demographic patterns, it is possible to somehow describe the reasons for the distribution mortality rate.
Another general assessment method is based on approximately this assumption: "since such and such a group of people has been successfully existing in this environment for a long time, it means that it has managed to adapt and develop a set of adaptive traits." In this case, the study is directed, first of all, to the search for geographical patterns of the distribution of human biological properties. But a simple statement that a trait is propagated in accordance with one or another eco-factor is not yet an indicator of its adaptability. Most curious are those signs whose variability may be not just described but explainedenvironmental reasons. It is clear that populations are of particular interest in this regard. indigenous peopleliving in the most extreme ecological regions of the Earth (highlands, arctic, tundra, taiga, desert spaces, etc.).
Since the complexity of the ecological study of man lies in the interweaving of natural and social factors that determine the interaction of man with the environment, at different stages of the work, researchers are forced to artificially isolate its biological or social sides. All we can do is to collect anthropological materials on a larger number of populations, and then try to establish some kind of ecological regularity in their diversity. Only as a result of such painstaking work can we make an assumption about the nature of the adaptation process in each specific of these population groups.
Finally, it is extremely important to remember that although adaptation is always concrete, it is very difficult to describe with the words “good” or “bad”. An organism or an entire population can only be more or less adapted to a particular combination of factors compared with other organisms or groups. That feature that does not look adaptive at the moment can become one in other environmental conditions, and vice versa.

End of work -

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ANTHROPOLOGY
Group of authors Methodical recommendations Course program Section I. Introduction to anthropology

BOGATENKOV DMITRY VLADIMIROVICH
Bogatenkov Dmitry Vladimirovich - anthropologist, employee of the Institute of Archeology of the Republic of Armenia

DROBYSHEVSKY STANISLAV VLADIMIROVICH
Drobyshevsky Stanislav Vladimirovich - anthropologist, candidate of biological sciences,

ALEKSEEVA TATYANA IVANOVNA
Alekseeva Tatyana Ivanovna - authoritative domestic anthropologist, academician of the Republic of Armenia

THANKS
The authors are sincerely grateful to the reviewers who took upon themselves the work of critical reading of the work — the doctors of biological sciences V.E. Deryabinu (Department of Anthropology, Biological Faculty

Optional materials
The optional materials of the presented educational complex include: annotated textbook articles; Additional materials; brief biographical

Written work
Your research should look solid and strict. To do this, there are established rules for writing work (they may differ in different educational institutions, we are talking about

TOPIC 1. ANTHROPOLOGY - HUMAN SCIENCE
1.1. Lyrical introduction: What do we want? 1.2. Anthropology (history of the term) 1.3. The subject of science 1.4. The Formation of Anthropology in Russia 1.

Anthropology (history of the term)
We rejoice in understanding the truth. If there is no joy, this means that we are only familiar with the truth, but have not been able to comprehend it. R. Tagore To accept (agree) or reject

Subject of science
... with anthropology, natural science is not some kind of island, separated by the abyss from other purely human sciences, so to speak, that is, concerning the highest, the highest

The formation of anthropology in Russia
... the study of a collective person, in all the diversity of its types in space and time ... D.N. Anuchin on the task of anthropology (Anuchin, 1900. P. 33) 1.4

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But the desire to "learn and collect materials", as well as systematize them, arose among the figures of Russian science long before the work of prof. A.P. Bogdanova, and long before the joint ventures were developed

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At the beginning of the XIX century. anthropology has not yet taken shape as an independent branch of knowledge. In Russia, the first steps in this direction are connected with the activities of academician K.M. Berah (1792-1876). One of the cr

Self Test Questions

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Alekseeva T.I., Efimova S.G. Museum of Anthropology of Moscow State University at the beginning of the second century of its activity // Almanac - 1998. Museums of the Russian Academy of Sciences. M., 1998.S. 289-318. Anuchin D.N.

The contours of science
... just like a microbiologist and histologist are usually represented by a microscope, an entomologist with a butterfly net, a geologist with a Kyle, a symbol of the anthropologist’s work for many

Anthropologists study variability
We noted that the field of view of our science is the diversity of the biological properties of man in time (history) and space (geography). But, strictly speaking, the term "diversity" is not about

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Objects and levels of research in anthropology
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Human population and population structure
All of these biological definitions are equally true in relation to humans. But anthropology has its own special view. It is associated with a twofold orientation anthropologists

Anthropological sampling
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Our signs
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Anthropometric signs
Anthropometric characters are morphological features with a continuous pattern of variation. They include many sizes, one way or another related to the development of musculoskeletal

Soft tissue morphology
In psychological experiments it was established that it is on the person’s face that we pay special attention during identification, communication or remembering. When identifying and communicating, our focus is

Pigmentation
People vary greatly in color of skin, hair, eyes and mucous membranes of the body. In almost all subsequent topics, we will deal with the variability associated with these quality attributes. Differences in

Hairline
Normally, in the process of development in a person three types of hair cover appear sequentially: the primary hair coat (it is also called the germinal coat,

Dermatoglyphic signs
Look at the palm of your hand. You see countless furrows and lines forming intricate patterns. These patterns are unique (individual), and your hand is unique - exactly such a relay

Odontological signs
Odontological features include the entire spectrum of biological properties detected in the human dental system. In domestic anthropology, their research is inextricably linked with the name of A.A.

Discrete epigenetic symptoms
At first glance, very heterogeneous biological properties are combined in this group: some of them relate to the features of bone development (the so-called discretely varying signs of the skull and skeleton), others

Polymorphic Biochemical Systems
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Glossary of Terms
Anthropological form Anthropological characteristic Intra-group variation Sampling Dosto

Self Test Questions

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Alekseev V.P. Historical anthropology and ethnogenesis. M., 1989 Alekseev V.P. Osteometry Methodology of anthropological research. M., 1966. Alekseev V.P., Debets G.F. Cranes

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Alekseev V.P. Person. Evolution and taxonomy (some theoretical questions). M., 1985. Anthropology. An anthology. M., 1997. Rem K.M. The universal law of nature, manifesting

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Ancestral home
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Hominid triad
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5.1.1. Human race - what is it? 5.1.2. Racial diversity and the problem of perception 5.1.3. The first schemes (F. Bernier, K. Linney, I. Blumenbach, J. Buffon) 5.1.4

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Historically, racial studies arose almost earlier than all other areas of anthropology, presenting a peculiar basis for many further successes (and failures) of this science. Differences in appearance

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Race, religion, language and type of household
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Given the lack of a direct link between biological and social features, it is worthwhile to clearly distinguish between different ways of classifying human groups. Association of people based on a common identity

History of races
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Autogenetic processes and sexual selection
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Typological concept
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Population concept
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Continued - Europe and Front Asia
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India, Australia and Oceania
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Continue on - Asia
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End of Way - America
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Recommended and quoted
Alekseev I.P. The geography of human races. M., 1974. Alekseev V.P. Historical anthropology. M., 1979. Bunak V.V. Race as a historical concept // Science of Races and Racism.

Ethnic Anthropology
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6.2.1. Anthropological material: when to use it 6.2.2. General principle of operation 6.2.3. The study of ancient migrations 6.2.4. Indigenous development 6.2.

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Indigenous development
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Population structure and endless study perspective
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The origins of research
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Hypotheses, expeditions and new materials
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Generalized anthropological portrait of Russians
The Russian population looks quite homogeneous in anthropological terms. Moreover, in just three measuring attributes - by the width of the head, by the width of the nose and the thickness of the lips - Russian groups

Regional anthropological types of Russians
Nevertheless, the nature of the geographical variability of a number of features and their combination made it possible to distinguish among the Russian population several local anthropological options that significantly clarify

Slavs
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The origins of the East Slavic peoples
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Ancestral home of the Slavs
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Colonization of East Slavic tribes (Middle Ages)
Judging by the archaeological inventory of Slavic burials, the finds of material culture on the settlements and settlements, "Slavic colonization was of the nature of introducing an advantage

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Self Test Questions

Recommended and quoted
Alekseev V.P. The origin of the peoples of Eastern Europe (craniological study). M., 1969. Alekseev V.P. The origin of the peoples of the Caucasus. Craniological study. M., 1974.

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7.3.1. Relativity of age. Biological and chronological age 7.3.2. On the criteria of biological age 7.3.3. Tooth age 7.3.4. Dental development

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Tooth age
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General understanding of skeletal development mechanisms
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Determination of skeletal age
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Sexual dimorphism and skeletal development
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A few words about gender genetics
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Peripubertal period and the formation of the reproductive system
The period of puberty, or the period of puberty (from lat. Pubertas - maturation) from the point of view of the scale of biological rearrangements, is one of the most significant stages

Maturity Criteria
The criteria for puberty, developed in auxology and pediatrics, are based on the time of appearance, sequence and degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics, as well as, what is most significant

Mythic Acceleration and Retardation
Captain Nemo's motto perfectly reflects the phenomenon that we are completing with this description. Have you ever thought about why you are so cramped in an old car or airplane, why with so

Some facts
As soon as anthropometry came into practice in examining children in the middle of the 19th century, data on a gradual increase in body length and weight began to accumulate in different countries of the world,

Attempts to Explain
“No one can say for sure what caused this epochal shift” (Harrison J. et al., 1979. S. 427). Having said that, perhaps, further we could have not continued. But all

Self Test Questions

Themes of term papers and essays

Recommended and quoted
Alberts B., Bray D., Lewis J., Raff M., Roberts K., Watson J. Molecular cell biology. In 3 volumes. M., 1994. Alekseev V.P. The formation of mankind. M., 1984. Alec

TOPIC 8. CONSTITUTIONAL DIVERSITY
8.1. The concept of human constitution 8.2. Body Components 8.3. Constitutional schemes 8.4. Functional (physiological) aspects 8.5. Psychologically

The concept of human constitution
The word "constitution" is familiar to everyone. However, in human biology, this term is by no means an inviolable state law. In the previous sections we examined the most

The concept of body components
From the point of view of morphology, any organism can be represented as a “set” of a number of body components that have different values \u200b\u200bfor life activity in different

Methods for determining body components
Determination of body composition can be made by different methods. The simplest and most accurate thing is the classic anatomical definition - working with a corpse. Research of this kind is undoubtedly important for

Age-related variation in body components
In children, the relative development of bone and muscle components is inferior to fat. Fat themselves

Gender differences and variability of body components
Gender differences apply to all three components. In total, they are described by types of andromorphy and gynecomorphy. In men, bone is relatively more developed and we

Constitutional schemes
8.3.1. Construction of the constitution 8.3.2. The basis of everything is the physique coordinates 8.3.3. Schemes of G. Viola and L. Manouvrier (constitution according to body proportions) 8.3.4. Schemes

Constitution construction
There are many (very many!) Constitutions that are good and ... different. The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them G. Viola, L. Manouvri

The basis of everything is the physique coordinates
As always in anthropology, separate constitutional schemes are more often developed for men and women. Separate schemes are also offered for children and adolescents. However, this convention is necessary

Schemes of G. Viola and L. Manouvrier (constitution according to the proportions of the body)
Some of these schemes are still used by individual anthropological schools. For example, modifications to the system of the Italian doctor G. Viola are applied by modern Italian and Romanian constitutions

Constitutional schemes V.V. Bunaka (method accuracy)
A similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V.V. Bunak (Bunak V.V., 1941). Its fundamental difference

Women's Constitution by I.B. Galant
Schemes specifically designed to describe the constitution of women have been developed more than once. The most used of them, perhaps, is the scheme of IB Galant. The author identified three groups of type

Somatotypes of children and adolescents according to VB Shtefko and A.D. Ostrovsky
A separate scientific and practical problem is the definition of constitutional types in children and adolescents. As a rule, the application to children of constitutional schemes designed for adults,

The system of B. Heath and L. Carter (constitution as an open system)
The development of the tradition of W. Sheldon is proposed in the constitutional system of B. Heath and L. Carter. To assess the coordinates of the physique, they proposed using an open scale starting from zero and do not have

Constitution by V.P. Chtetsov, M.I. Utkina and N.Yu. Lutovinova
The most frequently used in the research of domestic anthropologists are the schemes of V.V. Bunaka and I.B. Galant. They differ from most other ease of use and more or less adequate

System B.E. Deryabin (a posteriori approach to describing variability)
So far, we have talked about constitutions, sometimes consisting of a large, but still finite number of discrete types (only Scheldon's scheme and its modifications can be considered exceptions

Biochemical personality
As you can see, there is no shortage of constitutional schemes describing physique. But the concept of the constitution includes not only physique. Her most important

Functional constitution
The presented concept was developed relatively recently. But even without such a powerful theoretical support, many constitutional scientists built their schemes on the basis of not only the external signs of a person, but

A few words about the cyclical nature of biochemical processes
A special property of biochemical characters, in contrast to morphological ones, is significant temporal variability. Morphological characters change over time relatively slowly. Physiologically

Psychological aspects
8.5.1. Is such a connection possible? 8.5.2. Views of E. Kretschmer 8.5.3. The works of W. Sheldon 8.5.4. We discuss a bit 8.5.1. Is possible

The views of E. Kretschmer
More famous, popular and deserve serious discussion of the work of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer. Its constitutional scheme has already been given by us earlier (see also: Kretschmer E., 1995

The works of W. Sheldon
Sufficiently rigid relationships of morphology and temperament were described in W. Sheldon. The work was done at a different methodological level and deserves more trust. When describing temperament, the author used

A little reason
So, there are dozens, if not hundreds of studies on the relationship of various mental processes with body types. It was proved, for example, that ectomorphs (they are asthenics, they

Genetic Basics
Since the “norm of reaction" itself is determined by the genotype, the constitution is certainly based on hereditary factors. One extreme point of view on exceptional p

The concept of physical development
The relationship of constitutional features and health is one of the most important aspects of constitutional science. The number of works on this subject is large, although the practical application of

Build and Disease - Talking About Trends Again
Assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are estimates of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body,

Glossary of Terms
Andromorphy Biochemical individuality Brachymorphy Vector of variability Gynecomorphy

Self Test Questions

Mandatory
Bunak V.V. Anthropometry. M., 1941. Vasiliev S.V. Fundamentals of age and constitutional anthropology. M., 1996. Human morphology / Ed. B.A. Nikityuk, V.P. Chtetsova

Ecological direction of human science
... the Scythian tribe is significantly different from other people and looks like only itself ... in this country, and animals are found only very few and small. This is because she lies under herself

Anthropoecology studies adaptive variability
The term "ecology" (then gr. Oikos - house or dwelling, logos - study) was introduced in the second half of the XIX century. E. Haeckel. Now, ecology is understood as the science of the relationship of living organisms.

Adaptation
We roughly understood that the interaction in the "organism-environment" system, in fact, is built into a completely consistent scheme: a change in exogenous environmental factors -\u003e adapted

Acclimatization and physiological stress
Acclimatization (from lat. Ad - to, for; Greek. Klima - climate) refers to the process of actively adapting the body to unusual climatic conditions. This is a set of fast hair dryers.

Environmental Variability Trends
9.2.1. Works T.I. Alekseeva: what to read 9.2.2. Geography of some morphological features 9.2.3. Geography of some physiological and biochemical features

Geography of some morphological features
1. The length of the body. The range of geographical variability of body length in the territory of oikumena is significant. According to reports, the difference between the minimum and maximum

Geography of some physiological and biochemical features
1. The main exchange and thermoregulation. Basal metabolic rate (average daily heat production) is an indicator calculated taking into account body length and weight, as well as air temperature

Chemical elements in the environment and in the composition of the human body
Mineral elements are used to build the skeletal system, take part in regulating the osmotic pressure of tissue fluids, and regulate the activity of the cardiovascular and circulatory system

Food
In addition to the mineral component, of course, at least a few words must be said about the role of the general level of nutrition (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) in the geographical variability of human biological characteristics.

Human adaptation in various ecological niches of the Earth
Examples of environmental variability of individual biological characteristics and their complexes can be discussed indefinitely. We don’t need such details now - let’s somehow summarize all this

The main characteristics of adaptive types
So, the adaptive type is the norm of the reaction that independently (converges) arises in similar environmental conditions, in populations that may not be genetically related. According to this

The dynamics of adaptive types and their analogies in the animal world
Judging by the geographical location, adaptive types were formed throughout the history of mankind, and the diversity of populations, apparently, increased significantly with the expansion of

Historical Anthropoecology
On this one could finish the topic, section, and our entire course. But it would be unfair not to say at least a few words about another area of \u200b\u200banthropoecological research, especially

What information do we get
What kind of additional information can we get by examining the paleoanthropological materials, in addition to data on the origin of the population and some information regarding its social

Self Test Questions

Themes of term papers and essays

Recommended and quoted
Alekseev V.P. The formation of mankind. M., 1984. Alekseev V.P. Some aspects of paleoecological research // Materials of the conference "Archeology and Social Progress"

Glossary
A “wolf” tooth is an abnormal development of a tooth that goes away from the usual place of its eruption in the dentition. Associated with impaired teething rates

Questions for self-testing to the topic 1
What does the term “anthropology” mean in the literal translation, by whom it was first used and in what sense? What is a "double understanding of anthropology", on which this

Questions for self-testing to topic 2
What is biological variability? What types of variability can you name (or suggest)? What doctrine can be called the basis of biological anthropology?

Questions for self-testing to topic 3
Why does the question of the origin of man care so much about the minds of people? What is the content of the term "anthropogenesis"? How do religious, philosophical and

Questions for self-testing to topic 4
Give the differences and similarities of primates and humans (biological and non-biological). What "line" separates a person from a monkey? What is a hominid triad?

Questions for self-testing to topic 5
On what grounds can humanity be classified and which of them are racial? How is a race different from an ethnic group? How many races are there in the world? Is it possible to separate

Questions for self-testing to topic 6
What is the subject of study of ethnic anthropology? What is an ethnos? How do the two heterogeneous categories relate - population and ethnicity? What are the relationships between biolo

Questions for self-testing to topic 7
What is ontogenesis? What general patterns characterize the process of ontogenetic development of a person? What is a human growth curve? What is a passport

Questions for self-testing to topic 8
What is a constitution? What are the principles for highlighting constitutional types? What are the characteristics of constitutional types? What constitutional schemes do you

Questions for self-examination to topic 9
What do researchers working in the field of anthropoecology do? What is the difference between adaptation at the genotypic level and fast adaptive phenotypic

Themes of term papers and essays on topic 2
The concept of the variability of anthropological features. Classical and "new" areas of anthropological research. Objects and levels of research in anthropolo

Themes of term papers and essays on topic 4
The emergence of man is the missing link. Australopithecus - monkeys or man-apes? Criteria of culture and its beginning. Archanthropes - anthropology and cult

Themes of term papers and essays on topic 7
The concept of ontogenesis. The main laws of the process of human growth and development and their manifestation. The process of cell differentiation and morphogenesis. Periodization

Themes of term papers and essays on topic 9
Ecological direction of human science: basic theories and concepts. Methods of adaptation and trends of adaptive human variability. Ecosystem and Economic Cool

Read material for topic 5
Dubova N.A. Race: definition and origin of the term Bunak V.V. First racial classifications International “agreements” on the biological aspects of the racial problem

Textbook material for topic 8
Kliorin A.I. The concept of the constitution Kliorin A.I. School of Constitutionology Tanner J. Constitutional system of W. Sheldon Chtetsov VP Scheme V.P. Chtetsova, M.I. Ut

Along with general adaptability, depending on the genotype as a whole and measured by survival and reproduction success, in the process of evolution there are adaptations, or adaptations, for the body to solve the environmental problems presented by the habitat.

Adaptations arise in response to a specific environmental challenge. Because of this, they are always relative. The relativity of adaptation lies in the limitedness of their adaptive value to certain living conditions. Thus, the adaptive value of the pigmentation of butterflies of birch moths in comparison with light forms is evident only on sooty tree trunks. The above example also shows that the degree of adaptability of a trait can only be judged by comparing its two different states.

Adaptation is formed only if there is a type of hereditary information in the gene pool that allows you to change the structure and functions in the required direction.

Elementary adaptive phenomenon and its transition into adaptation

reaction rates of an individual genotype and the genetic structure of the species as a whole.

The general structure of adaptation is composed of three phases: in adaptive, pre-adaptive, post-adaptive. In each case, these phases can change places.

The adaptive phase. When the environment changes, only a part of the population survives, the rest is eliminated. The facts indicating the inevitability of the passage of an inaptive phase in the evolution of populations were considered above using examples of the development of resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics and insects to poisons. The evolution of large taxa is accompanied by the elimination of an even larger number of individuals. For example, the evolution of the equine family went through the mass extinction of populations.

Pre-adaptive phase. Organisms that survive when environmental conditions change have the necessary prerequisites for this in their organization. The willingness to create new adaptations is especially necessary in the case of rapid and sharp changes in environmental conditions, since adaptation based on the gradual selection of small beneficial mutations is excluded here.

The occurrence of the pre-adaptive phase is determined by genetic factors (mutational and correlative variability) or selection, but in a completely different direction with respect to the future use of the trait (an example with a mollusk shell). But in any case, the transition of the pre-adaptive phase to the usual adaptation is determined by a change in the direction of selection.

Postadaptive phase. The post-adaptive phase is a gradual improvement of an existing adaptation to particular environmental conditions. An excellent example of such an adaptive specialization of a whole complex of characters is shown by a woodpecker. The whole organization of the woodpecker is subordinate to obtaining food during hollowing of tree trunks: the direct beak is firmly connected with the skull, there is a long tongue for catching insects, developed tenacious legs and tail for support on the trunk.

There are several classifications of adaptation. According to the mechanism of action, passive protection devices (high fecundity;

Biological expediency the structure and functions of organisms develops in the process of development of life. She represents historical category. This is evidenced by a change in the types of organizations that occupy a dominant position in the organic world of the planet. Thus, the dominance of amphibians for almost 75 million years was replaced by the domination of reptiles, which lasted 150 million years. During periods of domination of any group, several waves of extinction usually happen. They change the relative species composition of the corresponding large taxon, for example, a class.

The manifestation of adaptation and biological expediency as a whole is explained by the action of natural selection in nature. Of the many random mutations, he saves and accumulates hereditary changes that have adaptive value. This explanation makes it possible to understand why biological expediency, if considered in space and time, is a relative property of living things. It also becomes clear why, in specific living conditions, individual adaptations reach only that degree of development that is sufficient for survival in comparison with the adaptations of competitors.

Finally, it is known that during postnatal ontogenesis mortality of recessive homozygotes is increased, and, on the contrary, the relative survival of heterozygotes is high (Table 9.1).

The fee for such an adaptation is very high, because from the marriage of two heterozygous parents (Hb S Hb A xHb S Hb A) every fourth child is doomed to death:

Hb S Hb S (SS) definitely die from sickle cell anemia - unfortunately, effective methods of treating the disease have not yet been found;
Hb A Hb A (AA) runs the risk of dying from malaria;
and only children HbAHbS (AS) not only survive, but also gain an advantage over the rest. Such children under the law of Mendelian splitting, most likely, will be half of the number of births. They should not be climbers, but in the event of an outbreak of malaria, it is they who have good chances to survive.

9.1.7. If adaptation is relative - how to evaluate it?