Forest ecosystem. Ecosystems: species of ecosystems. The diversity of species of natural ecosystems. Report of the Center for Ecology and Productivity of Wound Forests on the results of research and organizational work

LECTURE 1

ECOLOGICAL BASES OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT. FOREST AS AN ECOSYSTEM

REFERENCES: 1. Forest Code of the Russian Federation (2007) 2. P.M. Verkhunov N.A. Moiseev, E.S. Murakhtanov. Forest inventory: Uch. pos .. - J.-Ola: MarSTU, 2002 .-- 444 p. 3. Safonova A.A. Fundamentals of forest management: method. decree. to study the course. - Khabarovsk: Publishing house of Togu, 2009. - 32 p. 4. Forest inventory instruction (from 06.02.08)

5. Fundamentals of the Federal Forestry and Forest Management Organization: Uch. pos. / ed. V.T. Yaborova. - Blagoveshchensk: DalGAU, 2005 .-- 284 p.

6. M. L. Karpachevsky and others. Fundamentals of sustainable forest management: study. pos. for university students. - M .: World Wide Fund for Nature, 2009

Any forest is an ecosystem. There are many definitions of an ecosystem. Ecosystem called many populations of species of different trophic groups that are in the process of interaction between themselves and the transformation of abiotic components of the environment in a particular habitat. The concept of "ecosystem" does not imply a certain scale, i.e. ecosystem is a dimensionless concept. Even the smallest part of the forest - down to one single plant, stump, etc. - can be considered an ecosystem: any green plant accumulates the energy of sunlight, produces organic matter, can become food for animals, etc. As an ecosystem, we can consider a large forest, a geographical region, a natural zone, and even the Earth in whole (its biosphere). The larger the ecosystem, the more components and interconnections between them. In forest ecology and forestry most often under forest ecosystem   they imply a specific plant community along with the habitat in which it formed. Such a habitat, which is an area of \u200b\u200bland or water area with homogeneous conditions, is called biotope . Any ecosystem exists in certain climatic conditions. This is the main factor determining the type of ecosystems that can exist in a given place. It manifests itself in the formation of natural zones ( biomes ), naturally distributed around the planet in accordance with the main climate indicators (examples of biomes: savannahs, steppes, deserts, tropical and boreal forests, etc.). In any ecosystem, 2 components are necessarily present and constantly interacting between themselves - abiotic (nonliving: internal atmosphere, water, minerals) and biotic (living). Types of living organisms  according to their place and role in ecosystems, they are divided into 3 main groups - producers, consumers and reducers. Producers  (the first link in the energy conversion chain in an ecosystem) are organisms that produce organic matter from inorganic ones. These are all green plants. And among terrestrial ecosystems, it is forests that have the highest primary productivity and produce the bulk of the organic matter on Earth. Consumers  - living organisms that consume organic substances synthesized by producers, but cannot decompose them into simple mineral components that plants could use again. These are the majority of animals, some microorganisms and green plants. Reducers- carry out the decomposition of organic residues to min. components that can be reused by plants. These are bacteria, some animals, fungi and microorganisms. So closes the cycle in in the ecosystem. The normal functioning of any ecosystem is ensured by the presence of all these groups of organisms. Changes in any link, including caused by external disturbances, are inevitably transmitted along the food and energy chains and are reflected in the entire functioning of the system. Each block of the process of transforming in-in and energy in an ecosystem is represented by various organisms. In the vast majority of forest ecosystems, as a rule, there are: - herbivorous animals (worms, arachnids, insects, birds, mammals); - predators (insects, amphibians and reptiles, birds, mammals); - consumers of dead animals (worms, birds, insects); - saprophytes (fungi, chlorophyll-free plants, protozoa and microorganisms). In addition to food ties, the inhabitants of the ecosystem interact with each other in many other ways. Their relationship may have competitiveor   mutually beneficialharr . Mutually beneficial relationships in forest ecosystems are extremely diverse. The well-known role of animals in the distribution of fruits and seeds. So, pine nut carries pine nuts at a distance of 4-5 km from the tree, hides and can not always find. With the help of cedar, cedar renewal is much more effective, because with the formation of a dense undergrowth grown from seeds fallen on the ground, the chances of survival of many such specimens are minimal. Young trees grown from birds carried away by seeds are much more likely to survive, because, firstly, they will not have to compete with the bulk of seedlings, and secondly, they may be in a less obscured place. Another example. The life of most flowering plants is impossible without pollinating insects. Cross-pollination is necessary for plants to maintain the genetic diversity of their populations. Or: the seeds of some plants (RB, Tc, blueberries, lingonberries) can germinate only after passing through the stomach of animals or birds. Another example of the relationship is mycorrhiza. It can be formed by 98% of terrestrial higher plants. It is characteristic of many trees (D, C, E, birch, willow), shrubs, grassy district. Due to mycorrhiza, the absorbing root increases. Mycorrhizal fungi are able to produce the substances needed by plants, similar to vitamins and growth hormones, and also decompose org. soil compounds, making available to the plant the most scarce nutrients - phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen. The role of predators in the regulation of the number of animals is well known. In the absence of them or in insufficient numbers, an outbreak of the number of herbivorous living animals occurs. So, regular spring falls lead to the constant death of larvae of predatory insects (in particular ants), and therefore to an increase in the number of pests (aphids, caterpillars). In order for ants to live in the forest, old stumps and forest litter should be preserved during felling. T.O. For the long-term sustainable existence of the forest ecosystem, the presence of many different types of living organisms is necessary.  The ability of organisms to produce org. in the process of their life is called biological products . The bioproduction created by producers is considered primary, and created by consumers and reducers - secondary. The speed of production is called. productivity. Productivity is distinguished between primary and secondary, similarly to bio-products. The environment-forming role of forests Any ecosystem greatly changes the initial conditions of the habitat due to the vital activity of living organisms. In this sense, the forest ecosystem is the most significant example. Forest plants (primarily trees, but not only them) change the conditions in their places of growth in several ways at once. Forest affects the level of oxygen and carbon balance: the largest forest regions of the planet produce about 50% of all oxygen entering the atmosphere. In a year, all the Earth's regions absorb up to 3% of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The forest improves the climate, preserves water sources, reduces the strength of the wind, strengthens and enriches the soil, cleans the air of dust, harmful substances and germs, protects from noise. There are 300 times fewer bacteria in forest air than in urban air; 1 ha of forest supplies oxygen to 200 people. Forests reduce direct sunlight by 7 times. A dense spruce forest holds up to 99% of the radiation, pine - up to 96%. 1 ha of pine forest holds 36-60 tons of dust. The forest accumulates in the leaves, bark and roots a huge number of heavy metals from the atmosphere. Coniferous species are most active in this sense, so it is they who begin to die first from excessive air pollution. The noise on a street planted with trees is 5 times lower than on a non-landscaped street. Trees with a height of only 7-15 m reduce the noise level by 10-20 decibels. In summer, the forest is cooler and warmer in winter. Under the forest canopy, a special microclimate is always created - the forest environment. Many of the forest species can hardly exist without a forest, because adapted specifically to the conditions of the forest environment. Young coniferous plants can produce up to 30 kg / ha of essential oils per day, which makes the air almost sterile. In addition to volatile, the forest promotes the formation of ozone. In the forest, ionized oxygen is 2-3 times more than above the sea surface and 5-10 times more than in the atmosphere of cities. Especially a lot of it in the pine trees. There is no dust at all in the forest. 1 ha of ripe forest can hold dust during the growing season: poplar forest - 337 kg, linden - 770 kg, lilac hectare - 1100 kg, elm - 2235 kg. The total number of leaves in the forest is 10-15 times the area occupied by them, which allows up to 50-60 tons of dust per hectare to be deposited on the ground during leaf fall. According to VNIILM, over 60% of oxygen supplies land vegetation to the biosphere. Forests are able to retain on the crowns from 6 to 78 kg / ha of solid precipitation, which is 40-80% of suspended impurities in the air. After deforestation, the content of chemical substances in water bodies increases by 50 times or more. The larger the ecosystem, the more diverse components it has. Together, they form a complex mosaic. This mosaic is also a condition for the life of a number of species. So, for many species of higher animals, it is necessary to have different types of ecosystems in a certain space: some are used by them as feeding places, others as lodging for the night, and others as hunting. Moreover, places feeding can vary in different seasons. Thus, elk in Karelia prefers coastal forests and the banks of water bodies, moss swamps and other semi-open territories in summer, and overgrown felling and burning in winter. The interrelation of various ecosystems is most clearly traced on the example of far-migrating animals, birds. So, the gray crane, breeding almost everywhere in Russia, winters in Southern Europe, Crimea, S. Africa, Southwest Asia, China, and S. India. Nesting sites and wintering places are shared by thousands of km, but are equally important for the conservation of this species. In each of these ecosystems, it plays a role, in particular, regulating the number of small animals. At the same time, the crane nests mainly in forest swamps, and feeds on agricultural lands. Forest Ecosystem Dynamics  All species of living organisms are represented in ecosystems by populations. The population  called a group of organisms of one species that lives in a certain territory. It is made up of individuals of different ages. The quantitative ratio between individuals of different ages is called. age structure  populations. Each species (including trees) has its own age structure of populations. Different species make a different contribution to the formation, dynamics and functioning of the ecosystem. The so-called edificator species and key species have the strongest influence. Edifiers- species that create the basis of the ecosystem, determine its structure and play a crucial role in creating its internal environment. Examples are dominant plant species. Edificators create the conditions for the existence of many other species and ultimately determine the "face" of the ecosystem. The destruction of the species-edificator means, in essence, the extinction of the whole ecosystem as a whole (for example, there can be no spruce forest if there is no spruce). Key Views - these are species that play a very important role in the ecosystem, despite the relatively small biomass (they may not occupy a dominant position in the ecosystem). An example of this type is cedar, which, with a relatively small number, plays a major role in the reproduction of cedar, the edificator of this ecosystem. The extinction of key species significantly affects the populations of other species and processes in the ecosystem. In forest communities, several functional groups of edificators and key species are distinguished: trees, leaf and pine-eating insects, large herbivorous and predatory animals, and wood-destroying mushrooms. Trees create the bulk of production in forest ecosystems and thus serve as the basis for most trophic chains. Most species in forest ecosystems exist precisely because of the presence of trees. The trees themselves are habitats for many species: lichens, mosses, mushrooms, insects, birds, animals. An important factor in the dynamics of forest ecosystems are various natural disturbances. They can have a different scale: micro, meso and macro. Micro- and meso-disturbances are associated with the death of individual large trees or their groups, the activity of large ungulate, herbivorous insects, etc. Macron disruptions are associated with the consequences of logging, fires, various disasters (hurricanes, floods, outbreaks of pest breeding). Not always certain violations are disastrous for the ecosystem. Forest fires are not a negative factor for all species. Seeds of many species germinate successfully only or almost exclusively on burns, without meeting any competitors. Another example - the cones of some species of pine open and scatter seeds only at high temperatures. There are forest ecosystems where periodic fires are a natural phenomenon, the spatial structure of such ecosystems on a large scale is a mosaic of burnt areas of different ages. For example, populations C and L after fires not only survive, but also develop new territories. After the fire, favorable conditions are created for seed germination, planting and the further development of seedlings as a result of improved illumination, provision with mineral elements, a sharp decrease in competition with adult plants. In open spaces, where a pre-existing ecosystem was completely destroyed by fire, certain types of districts, which are called. pyrogenic. These include reedweeds, some lichens, raspberries, fireweeds, etc. The greatest number of macro-violations is currently caused by anthropogenic influences. As a result of such violations, a mosaic of large broken sites located at different stages of recovery is created. Large-scale disturbances partially destroy the heterogeneity of the environment caused by local disturbances. The disappearance of individual micro-habitats associated with minor disturbances leads to the disappearance of individual species from the ecosystem. If these species are absent in neighboring sites, the restoration of biodiversity in such an ecosystem will be incomplete. Full recovery will require a very long time, and then subject to the availability of sources of renewal of the extinct species. Otherwise, it will not happen at all. The process of phased development of an ecosystem in a place devoid of living cover, or its restoration after destruction is called succession. In the course of and as a result of successions, the species composition, spatial structure, indicators of the cyclic cycle, soil, and other ecosystem parameters change. The process of ecosystem restoration under the influence of its internal mechanisms is called. restorative succession. It is believed that after a certain time and in the absence of repeated disturbances, the forest ecosystem can recover to an equilibrium state. The more significant external impact on the ecosystem is provided, the more time it will take to restore it. For example, a single winter selective felling in a spruce forest of different ages with the preservation of undergrowth, undergrowth and ground cover, parts of old trees and a certain amount of dead wood (it is also necessary for ecosystems) will lead to the fact that over several decades both the tree layer and the biodiversity of this forest will be completely restored. The opposite example is the complete restoration of the forest ecosystem after a catastrophic fire, usually requiring several centuries, especially if after a fire the ashes are overgrown with grassy vegetation that prevents overhead lines. Ecosystems that were formed without human exposure, in stable conditions do not need any support. The more people change forests, the more unstable their ecosystems become, the less they are able to independently maintain themselves in balance. Accordingly, the higher will be the cost of a person to maintain it. For example, in most regions of the center of European Russia, wolves, bears, lynxes and other large predators almost completely disappeared in the forests. As a result, the number of ungulates and hares needs to be regulated in order to reduce the risk of epidemics and reduce damage to young trees. T.O. the more people change forests, the more unstable their ecosystems become, the less they are able to independently maintain themselves in balance.  Comparison of the contours of the initial and modern forest cover indicates that with the advent of the “man with an ax” the forest area on the planet has significantly decreased. If you leave all deforested territories for this period without any households. impacts for an unlimited time, most of them as a result of restoration successions will again overgrow with forest. In many cases, such a forest will differ from the original one, if only because some species have already become extinct or have disappeared from this geographical territory. Therefore, the equilibrium state in the new ecosystem will be different. To preserve the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, it is not enough to conserve only large areas. In many regions, such territories no longer exist. Significantly reduce biodiversity loss during forest management key habitats (key habitats) - the so-called model forests (in the Khab. Territory - this is the Gassinsky model forest). The concept of “key biotopes” incl., In addition to habitats of rare species, sites of rare ecosystems, individual small landscape and biological elements that are important for the conservation of a large number of indigenous forest species. In Sweden, Norway and Finland, lists of key biotopes are compiled, which are protected either by law or by nat. forest certification systems. Forest owners are explained the need to preserve them. Their area averages 0.8-1% of the area of \u200b\u200bproductive forest land. Why maintain a diversity of species? Is it possible, for example, not to worry about the survival of species that are pests of the forest? Or about small inconspicuous species, for example, mosses or mollusks, about the life of which we do not know anything? There is a purely pragmatic answer to these questions. Genetically, each species of living organisms is unique, each of the species can be a carrier of some not yet discovered sv-useful for humanity, such as food or medicine. T.O. extinction of any kind can lead to an irreparable loss of an important resource. In addition, each species is of interest to science. Even more important, each species occupies its own inherent ecological niche and plays a unique role in the ecosystem. The disappearance of a species leads to the breakdown of its many links with other species, as a result of which the functioning of the ecosystem is disrupted. Think about what, for example, the extinction of bees, which scientists have long predicted, can lead to. Without bees, man himself will not survive. Of course, ecosystems usually have groups of species that occupy similar ecological niches. Therefore, the loss of one species, as a rule, does not lead to significant imbalance in the ecosystem. However, a higher diversity of species contributes to a better fulfillment by the ecosystem of its functions and greater sustainability of this ecosystem. According to the forecast of the largest scientists, while maintaining the current rate of extinction of animals and plants, by the end of the 21st century, ⅔ of all known species of birds, mammals, butterflies and plants will cease to exist on the planet. The complexity of organizing natural ecosystems does not give us any reason to hope for the construction of artificial ecosystems that provide environmental stabilization with the same degree of accuracy. ________________________ About 3.5 thousand vascular districts were registered in the forests of Russia. The highest level of biodiversity was noted in the North Caucasus and the south of D. East. The largest number of tree and shrub species (36) grows in Sochi nat. park, at least - in some districts of Kalmykia, Karelia, South. Taimyr, Yakutia (2-5). Among the lowland territories, the forests of the Kaliningrad Region, with 21 forest-forming species, are the most diverse. The share of intact forests in the European part of Russia (about 10%) is the highest in Europe, and in general they make up 20-25% of the country's forests. However, their area has been steadily declining in recent years. According to 2007 data, about 276 million hectares of intact forest areas have been preserved in Russia, which represent a significant part of European forest biodiversity. In 1995, Russia joined the global Convention on Biological Diversity. According to her, " biological diversity  means the variability of living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are a part; this concept incl. Intraspecific diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity. Sustainable use means using biodiversity components in such a way and in such tepas that do not in the long run lead to depletion of biodiversity, thereby preserving its ability to meet the needs of present and future generations and meet their aspirations. ” To summarize, it should be noted that, as the well-known arborist G.F. Morozov “Any invasion of the forest, even the most rational., Will always be a violation of the mobile equilibrium that characterizes nature in general and the nature of the forest in particular.”  This must be remembered. Forest vegetation is an integral part of the planet's biosphere. Biosphere  - the space around the Earth where life exists in the form of the world of animals and plants. The elementary particle of the biosphere is biogeocenosis. Biogeocenosis  - a homogeneous land plot with a certain composition of living (biocenosis) and inert (surface layer of the atmosphere, solar energy, soil, etc.) components combined by the exchange of matter and energy into a single natural complex. Biogeocenosis  - an elementary particle of the biosphere, homogeneous in the complex of inorganic environment, species composition and the relationships between them. The totality of biogeocenoses forms the biogeocenotic cover of the Earth. Forest biogeocenosis  - This is a biogeocenosis, where the main educator is woody plants. It differs from just “phytocenosis”. Phytocenosis – vegetable  community, a set of plants on a relatively homogeneous plot of terrestrial land (for example, phytocenosis floodplain meadows, swamps). Phytocenosis is an open, dynamic system that represents a significant part of the biogeocenosis and varies throughout the year and over the years. A variety of phytocenosis is forest phytocenosis (planting). Forest phytocenosis(GOST 18486-73) - a section of forest, homogeneous in wood, shrubbery and living ground cover. The difference of phytocenosis from forest phytocenosis is that in the second generatrix element are trees. Forest phytocenosis is part of forest biogeocenosis (forest phytocenosis does not take into account wildlife). Life forms  Woody plants are: trees, shrubs, shrubs, creepers. Forest formation process -this is the totality of all the phenomena of occurrence, development, destruction and change of forest stands that accompany the evolution of the forest cover (according to B.P. Kolesnikov). For foresters, whose responsibilities include growing highly productive forests, at some point it became necessary not only to distinguish trees in the forest by size, but also to give them specific names. Systematized tree classification  for homogeneous homogeneous forest was given by the German arborist Kraft in the 80s. XIX century. The trees in it are divided into 5 classes according to the degree of domination and oppression.

1. Medium-term development plan of the Kologrivsky Forest State Nature Reserve

   Document

   At the time of writing the plan, the Kologrivsky Forest State Nature Reserve is the last (101) of Russia's created reserves. One of the conditions for the effective implementation of the tasks assigned to the reserves is planning

   To protect against drying, the leaves are covered with a tiny layer of wax, in which tiny holes, holes for gaps are located. On hot days, trees cover slotted holes, as too much water evaporates. Acid rain can damage the sheet's protective wax layer. Then the tree evaporates too much water. Air pollutants damage the slot mechanism directly, so that they cannot close properly, which speeds up evaporation.

   Why is the forest more productive

   Today, acid rain is no longer the main cause of forest damage, but the consumption of acid in ecosystems causes other problems: acidification of lakes and lakes can occur, resulting in susceptible creatures dying. First of all, acid rain destroys sandstone buildings and sculptures, for example, in large cathedrals. There are many reasons for the danger of the ecosystem forest.

2. Report of the Center for Ecology and Productivity of Wound Forests on the results of research and organizational work

   Public report

   A methodology for predicting the dynamics of the carbon budget of forests under various forest management scenarios has been developed. Carbon budget forecasting is based on mathematical modeling of natural and anthropogenic dynamics

   Thanks to environmental measures, which were stimulated and carried out mainly by environmental associations and environmentally oriented parties, pollutant emissions were reduced to air in the last quarter of the year. In addition, a lot of money has been invested in forest protection measures. Today, industry is making great efforts to prevent emissions. However, the phenomenon of painful trees and forests continues to be observed. Tree disease is a complex interaction of causes and effects.

   A significant role is played by human interventions in various ecosystems. There are many reasons. Apparently, the anthropogenic greenhouse effect is also responsible for the destruction of forests. To counter the trees hanging on the leaves, or they roll them. Global warming leads to an increase in forest fires. The risk of forest fires is mainly associated with dry winds at high temperatures. Forest can only grow if there is a sufficient amount of groundwater in the affected areas.

3. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), as part of the UNDP Environment Program for Sustainable Development program, the Kyrgyz Republic prepared the “Fourth National Report

   Public report

   In 2008, in accordance with the obligations of Kyrgyzstan arising from accession to the Convention on Biodiversity with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), as part of the UNDP Environment Program for Sustainable Development

   In the case of burned forests of virgin forests, important forest land is permanently destroyed. Limited fire on earth can also be beneficial for the forest, as some types of trees benefit from rejuvenating or destroying competitors. Red lights multiply in the collapse of the height of the crowns of the tree, they are very dangerous, since the seeds are destroyed here.

   An increase in ozone at ground level is another cause of wood damage. Ozone damages primarily the needles and leaves at the top of the tree. The problem is cutting adjacent forests, creating monocultures, lowering groundwater or straightening rivers with the subsequent loss of important floodplain forests. All of these factors lead to biodiversity loss. Mixed forests with many species of trees, even of different age levels, favor the biodiversity of the forest, so preference is given to the diversity of species of animals and plants.

4. The concept of sustainable development and the theory of noosphere development Formation and development trends in modern conditions

   Document

   In this book, the author considers the theory and practice of environmental modernization on the example of Russian industrial enterprises in the forest sector, as well as the impact of international environmental public organizations on this process.

   Dangerous events, such as fires, storms or snow cover, can better compensate for abundant forests like monocultures with tree species. Mixed forests with their undamaged soil structures contribute to clean drinking water and have better water storage capacity during heavy rainfall, which reduces the risk of river flooding. Sweepstakes lying on the ground are the habitat of many insects or fungi, which are of great importance for the functioning of the ecosystem forest.

   Rotating wood is of great importance to the ecosystem forest. it decomposes by destructors and turns into nutrients. Classification of damage levels in a tree. Damages in the tree are divided into four stages. Keep in mind that trees can also be restored. When a tree dies, young trees again grow on the same ground through targeted reforestation measures. The older the tree, the more vulnerable it is. The stages of damage are illustrated by the example of a spruce tree.

5. Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

   Document

   The standard period for the development of the main educational program for master's education in the direction of 560900 Forestry, with full-time education of 6 years. The main master's education program consists of a training program

LECTURE 1

ECOLOGICAL BASES OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT. FOREST AS AN ECOSYSTEM

LITERATURE:

1. Forest Code of the Russian Federation (2007)

2. P.M. Verkhunov N.A. Moiseev, E.S. Murakhtanov. Forest inventory: Uch. pos .. - J.-Ola: MarSTU, 2002 .-- 444 p.

3. Safonova A.A. Fundamentals of forest management: method. decree. to study the course. - Khabarovsk: Publishing house of Togu, 2009. - 32 p.

4. Forest inventory instruction (from 06.02.08)

5. Fundamentals of the Federal Forestry and Forest Management Organization: Uch. pos. / ed. V.T. Yaborova. - Blagoveshchensk: DalGAU, 2005 .-- 284 p.

6. M. L. Karpachevsky and others. Fundamentals of sustainable forest management: study. pos. for university students. - M .: World Wide Fund for Nature, 2009

Any forest is an ecosystem. There are many definitions of an ecosystem. Ecosystem   called many populations of species of different trophic groups that are in the process of interaction between themselves and the transformation of abiotic components of the environment in a particular habitat.

The concept of "ecosystem" does not imply a certain scale, i.e. ecosystem is a dimensionless concept. Even the smallest part of the forest - down to one single plant, stump, etc. - can be considered an ecosystem: any green plant accumulates the energy of sunlight, produces organic matter, can become food for animals, etc. As an ecosystem, we can consider a large forest, a geographical region, a natural zone, and even the Earth in whole (its biosphere).

The larger the ecosystem, the more components and interconnections between them.

In forest ecology and forestry most often under forest ecosystem   they imply a specific plant community along with the habitat in which it formed. Such a habitat, which is an area of \u200b\u200bland or water area with homogeneous conditions, is called biotope .

Any ecosystem exists in certain climatic conditions. This is the main factor determining the type of ecosystems that can exist in a given place. It manifests itself in the formation of natural zones ( biomes ), naturally distributed around the planet in accordance with the main climate indicators (examples of biomes: savannahs, steppes, deserts, tropical and boreal forests, etc.).

In any ecosystem, 2 components are necessarily present and constantly interacting between themselves - abiotic (nonliving: internal atmosphere, water, minerals) and biotic (living).

  Types of living organisms  according to their place and role in ecosystems, they are divided into 3 main groups - producers, consumers and reducers.

Producers  (the first link in the energy conversion chain in an ecosystem) are organisms that produce organic matter from inorganic ones. These are all green plants. And among terrestrial ecosystems, it is forests that have the highest primary productivity and produce the bulk of the organic matter on Earth.

Consumers  - living organisms that consume organic substances synthesized by producers, but cannot decompose them into simple mineral components that plants could use again. These are the majority of animals, some microorganisms and green plants.

Reducers- carry out the decomposition of organic residues to min. components that can be reused by plants. These are bacteria, some animals, fungi and microorganisms. So closes the cycle in in the ecosystem.

The normal functioning of any ecosystem is ensured by the presence of all these groups of organisms. Changes in any link, including caused by external disturbances, are inevitably transmitted along the food and energy chains and are reflected in the entire functioning of the system.

Each block of the process of transforming in-in and energy in an ecosystem is represented by various organisms. In the vast majority of forest ecosystems, as a rule, there are:

Herbivorous animals (worms, arachnids, insects, birds, mammals);

Predators (insects, amphibians and reptiles, birds, mammals);

Consumers of dead animals (worms, birds, insects);

Saprophytes (fungi, chlorophyll-free plants, protozoa and microorganisms).

In addition to food ties, the inhabitants of the ecosystem interact with each other in many other ways. Their relationship may have competitiveor   mutually beneficialharr . Mutually beneficial relationships in forest ecosystems are extremely diverse. The well-known role of animals in the distribution of fruits and seeds. So, pine nut carries pine nuts at a distance of 4-5 km from the tree, hides and can not always find. With the help of cedar, cedar renewal is much more effective, because with the formation of a dense undergrowth grown from seeds fallen on the ground, the chances of survival of many such specimens are minimal. Young trees grown from birds carried away by seeds are much more likely to survive, because, firstly, they will not have to compete with the bulk of seedlings, and secondly, they may be in a less obscured place.

Another example. The life of most flowering plants is impossible without pollinating insects. Cross-pollination is necessary for plants to maintain the genetic diversity of their populations. Or: the seeds of some plants (RB, Tc, blueberries, lingonberries) can germinate only after passing through the stomach of animals or birds.

Another example of the relationship is mycorrhiza. It can be formed by 98% of terrestrial higher plants. It is characteristic of many trees (D, C, E, birch, willow), shrubs, grassy district. Due to mycorrhiza, the absorbing root increases. Mycorrhizal fungi are able to produce the substances needed by plants, similar to vitamins and growth hormones, and also decompose org. soil compounds, making available to the plant the most scarce nutrients - phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen.

The role of predators in the regulation of the number of animals is well known. In the absence of them or in insufficient numbers, an outbreak of the number of herbivorous living animals occurs. So, regular spring falls lead to the constant death of larvae of predatory insects (in particular ants), and therefore to an increase in the number of pests (aphids, caterpillars). In order for ants to live in the forest, old stumps and forest litter should be preserved during felling.

T.O. For the long-term sustainable existence of the forest ecosystem, the presence of many different types of living organisms is necessary.

The ability of organisms to produce org. in the process of their life is called biological products . The bioproduction created by producers is considered primary, and created by consumers and reducers - secondary.

The speed of production is called. productivity. Productivity is distinguished between primary and secondary, similarly to bio-products.

  The environment-forming role of forests

Any ecosystem greatly changes the initial conditions of the habitat due to the vital activity of living organisms. In this sense, the forest ecosystem is the most significant example.

Forest plants (primarily trees, but not only them) change the conditions in their places of growth in several ways at once. Forest affects the level of oxygen and carbon balance: the largest forest regions of the planet produce about 50% of all oxygen entering the atmosphere. In a year, all the Earth's regions absorb up to 3% of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

The forest improves the climate, preserves water sources, reduces the strength of the wind, strengthens and enriches the soil, cleans the air of dust, harmful substances and germs, protects from noise. There are 300 times fewer bacteria in forest air than in urban air; 1 ha of forest supplies oxygen to 200 people.

Forests reduce direct sunlight by 7 times. A dense spruce forest holds up to 99% of the radiation, pine - up to 96%. 1 ha of pine forest holds 36-60 tons of dust. The forest accumulates in the leaves, bark and roots a huge number of heavy metals from the atmosphere. Coniferous species are most active in this sense, so it is they who begin to die first from excessive air pollution.

The noise on a street planted with trees is 5 times lower than on a non-landscaped street. Trees with a height of only 7-15 m reduce the noise level by 10-20 decibels.

In summer, the forest is cooler and warmer in winter. Under the forest canopy, a special microclimate is always created - the forest environment. Many of the forest species can hardly exist without a forest, because adapted specifically to the conditions of the forest environment.

Young coniferous plants can produce up to 30 kg / ha of essential oils per day, which makes the air almost sterile. In addition to volatile, the forest promotes the formation of ozone. In the forest, ionized oxygen is 2-3 times more than above the sea surface and 5-10 times more than in the atmosphere of cities. Especially a lot of it in the pine trees.

There is no dust at all in the forest. 1 ha of ripe forest can hold dust during the growing season: poplar forest - 337 kg, linden - 770 kg, lilac hectare - 1100 kg, elm - 2235 kg. The total number of leaves in the forest is 10-15 times the area occupied by them, which allows up to 50-60 tons of dust per hectare to be deposited on the ground during leaf fall.

According to VNIILM, over 60% of oxygen supplies land vegetation to the biosphere. Forests are able to retain on the crowns from 6 to 78 kg / ha of solid precipitation, which is 40-80% of suspended impurities in the air. After deforestation, the content of chemical substances in water bodies increases by 50 times or more.

The larger the ecosystem, the more diverse components it has. Together, they form a complex mosaic. This mosaic is also a condition for the life of a number of species. So, for many species of higher animals, it is necessary to have different types of ecosystems in a certain space: some are used by them as feeding places, others as lodging for the night, and others as hunting. Moreover, places feeding can vary in different seasons. Thus, elk in Karelia prefers coastal forests and the banks of water bodies, moss swamps and other semi-open territories in summer, and overgrown felling and burning in winter.

The interrelation of various ecosystems is most clearly traced on the example of far-migrating animals, birds. So, the gray crane, breeding almost everywhere in Russia, winters in Southern Europe, Crimea, S. Africa, Southwest Asia, China, and S. India. Nesting sites and wintering places are shared by thousands of km, but are equally important for the conservation of this species. In each of these ecosystems, it plays a role, in particular, regulating the number of small animals. At the same time, the crane nests mainly in forest swamps, and feeds on agricultural lands.

  The dynamics of forest ecosystems

All species of living organisms are represented in ecosystems by populations.

The population  called a group of organisms of one species that lives in a certain territory.

It is made up of individuals of different ages. The quantitative ratio between individuals of different ages is called. age structure  populations. Each species (including trees) has its own age structure of populations.

Different species make a different contribution to the formation, dynamics and functioning of the ecosystem. The so-called edificator species and key species have the strongest influence.

Edifiers- species that create the basis of the ecosystem, determine its structure and play a crucial role in creating its internal environment. Examples are dominant plant species. Edificators create the conditions for the existence of many other species and ultimately determine the "face" of the ecosystem. The destruction of the species-edificator means, in essence, the extinction of the whole ecosystem as a whole (for example, there can be no fir forest if there is no spruce).

  Key Views - these are species that play a very important role in the ecosystem, despite the relatively small biomass (they may not occupy a dominant position in the ecosystem). An example of this type is cedar, which, with a relatively small number, plays a major role in the reproduction of cedar, the edificator of this ecosystem. The extinction of key species significantly affects the populations of other species and processes in the ecosystem.

In forest communities, several functional groups of edificators and key species are distinguished: trees, leaf and pine-eating insects, large herbivorous and predatory animals, and wood-destroying mushrooms.

Trees create the bulk of production in forest ecosystems and thus serve as the basis for most trophic chains. Most species in forest ecosystems exist precisely because of the presence of trees. The trees themselves are habitats for many species: lichens, mosses, mushrooms, insects, birds, animals.

An important factor in the dynamics of forest ecosystems are various natural disturbances. They can have a different scale: micro, meso and macro. Micro- and meso-disturbances are associated with the death of individual large trees or their groups, the activity of large ungulate, herbivorous insects, etc. Macron disruptions are associated with the consequences of logging, fires, various disasters (hurricanes, floods, outbreaks of pest breeding).

Not always certain violations are disastrous for the ecosystem.

Forest fires are not a negative factor for all species. Seeds of many species germinate successfully only or almost exclusively on burns, without meeting any competitors. Another example - the cones of some species of pine open and scatter seeds only at high temperatures.

There are forest ecosystems where periodic fires are a natural phenomenon, the spatial structure of such ecosystems on a large scale is a mosaic of burnt areas of different ages. For example, populations C and L after fires not only survive, but also develop new territories. After the fire, favorable conditions are created for seed germination, planting and the further development of seedlings as a result of improved illumination, provision with mineral elements, a sharp decrease in competition with adult plants.

In open spaces, where a pre-existing ecosystem was completely destroyed by fire, certain types of districts, which are called. pyrogenic.  These include reedweeds, some lichens, raspberries, fireweeds, etc.

The largest number of macro-violations is currently caused by anthropogenic influences. As a result of such violations, a mosaic of large broken sites located at different stages of recovery is created.

Large-scale disturbances partially destroy the heterogeneity of the environment caused by local disturbances. The disappearance of individual micro-habitats associated with minor disturbances leads to the disappearance of individual species from the ecosystem. If these species are absent in the neighboring sites, the restoration of biodiversity in such an ecosystem will be incomplete. Full recovery will require a very long time, and then subject to the availability of sources of renewal of the extinct species. Otherwise, it will not happen at all.

The process of phased development of an ecosystem in a place devoid of living cover, or its restoration after destruction is called succession.

In the course of and as a result of successions, the species composition, spatial structure, indicators of the cyclic cycle, soil, and other ecosystem parameters change.

The process of ecosystem restoration under the influence of its internal mechanisms is called. restorative succession. It is believed that after a certain time and in the absence of repeated disturbances, the forest ecosystem can recover to an equilibrium state. The more significant external impact on the ecosystem is provided, the more time it will take to restore it. For example, a single winter selective felling in a spruce forest of different ages with the preservation of undergrowth, undergrowth and ground cover, parts of old trees and a certain amount of dead wood (it is also necessary for ecosystems) will lead to the fact that over several decades both the tree layer and the biodiversity of this forest sites will be fully restored.

The opposite example - the complete restoration of the forest ecosystem after a catastrophic fire usually requires several centuries, especially if after a fire the ashes are overgrown with grassy vegetation that prevents overhead lines.

Ecosystems that were formed without human exposure, in stable conditions do not need any support. The more people change forests, the more unstable their ecosystems become, the less they are able to independently maintain themselves in balance. Accordingly, the higher will be the cost of a person to maintain it. For example, in most regions of the center of European Russia, wolves, bears, lynxes and other large predators almost completely disappeared in the forests. As a result, the number of ungulates and hares needs to be regulated in order to reduce the risk of epidemics and reduce damage to young trees.

T.O. the more people change forests, the more unstable their ecosystems become, the less they are able to independently maintain themselves in balance.

Comparison of the contours of the initial and modern forest cover indicates that with the advent of the “man with an ax” the forest area on the planet has significantly decreased. If you leave all deforested territories for this period without any households. impacts for an unlimited time, most of them as a result of restoration successions will again overgrow with forest. In many cases, such a forest will differ from the original one, if only because some species have already become extinct or have disappeared from this geographical territory. Therefore, the equilibrium state in the new ecosystem will be different.

To preserve the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, it is not enough to conserve only large areas. In many regions, such territories no longer exist. Significantly reduce biodiversity loss during forest management key habitats  (key habitats) - the so-called model forests (in the Khab. Territory - this is the Gassinsky model forest). The concept of “key biotopes” incl., In addition to habitats of rare species, sites of rare ecosystems, individual small landscape and biological elements that are important for the conservation of a large number of indigenous forest species.

In Sweden, Norway and Finland, lists of key biotopes are compiled, which are protected either by law or by nat. forest certification systems. Forest owners are explained the need for their conservation. Their area averages 0.8-1% of the area of \u200b\u200bproductive forest land.

Why maintain a diversity of species? Is it possible, for example, not to worry about the survival of species that are pests of the forest? Or about small inconspicuous species, for example, mosses or mollusks, about the life of which we do not know anything?

There is a purely pragmatic answer to these questions. Genetically, each species of living organisms is unique, each of the species can be a carrier of some not yet discovered sv-useful for humanity, such as food or medicine. T.O. extinction of any kind can lead to an irreparable loss of an important resource. In addition, each species is of interest to science.

Even more important, each species occupies its own inherent ecological niche and plays a unique role in the ecosystem. The disappearance of a species leads to the breakdown of its many links with other species, as a result of which the functioning of the ecosystem is disrupted.

Think about what, for example, the extinction of bees, which scientists have long predicted, can lead to. Without bees, man himself will not survive.

Of course, ecosystems usually have groups of species that occupy similar ecological niches. Therefore, the loss of one species, as a rule, does not lead to significant imbalance in the ecosystem. However, a higher diversity of species contributes to a better fulfillment by the ecosystem of its functions and greater sustainability of this ecosystem.

According to the forecast of the largest scientists, while maintaining the current rate of extinction of animals and plants, by the end of the 21st century, ⅔ of all known species of birds, mammals, butterflies and plants will cease to exist on the planet.

The complexity of organizing natural ecosystems does not give us any reason to hope for the construction of artificial ecosystems that provide environmental stabilization with the same degree of accuracy.

________________________

In the forests of Russia, about 3.5 thousand vascular regions were registered. The highest level of biodiversity was noted in the North Caucasus and the south of D. East. The largest number of tree and shrub species (36) grows in Sochi nat. park, at least - in some districts of Kalmykia, Karelia, South. Taimyr, Yakutia (2-5). Among the lowland territories, the forests of the Kaliningrad Region, with 21 forest-forming species, are the most diverse. The share of intact forests in the European part of Russia (about 10%) is the highest in Europe, and in general they make up 20-25% of the country's forests. However, their area has been steadily declining in recent years. According to 2007 data, about 276 million hectares of intact forest areas have been preserved in Russia, which represent a significant part of European forest biodiversity.

In 1995, Russia joined the global Convention on Biological Diversity. According to her, " biological diversity means the variability of living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are a part; this concept incl. Intraspecific diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity. Sustainable use means using biodiversity components in such a way and in such tepas that do not in the long run lead to the depletion of biodiversity, thereby preserving its ability to meet the needs of present and future generations and meet their aspirations. ”

To summarize, it should be noted that, as the well-known arborist G.F. Morozov “Any invasion of the forest, even the most rational., Will always be a violation of the mobile equilibrium that characterizes nature in general and the nature of the forest in particular.”  This must be remembered.

Forest vegetation is an integral part of the planet's biosphere. Biosphere  - the space around the Earth where life exists in the form of the world of animals and plants. The elementary particle of the biosphere is biogeocenosis.

Biogeocenosis  - a homogeneous land plot with a certain composition of living (biocenosis) and inert (surface layer of the atmosphere, solar energy, soil, etc.) components combined by the exchange of matter and energy into a single natural complex.

Biogeocenosis  - an elementary particle of the biosphere, homogeneous in the complex of inorganic environment, species composition and the relationships between them.

The totality of biogeocenoses forms the biogeocenotic cover of the Earth.

  Forest biogeocenosis  - This is a biogeocenosis, where the main educator is woody plants. It differs from just “phytocenosis”.

Phytocenosis – vegetable  community, a set of plants on a relatively homogeneous plot of terrestrial land (for example, phytocenosis floodplain meadows, swamps).

Phytocenosis is an open, dynamic system that represents a significant part of the biogeocenosis and varies throughout the year and over the years. A variety of phytocenosis is forest phytocenosis (planting).

  Forest phytocenosis(GOST 18486-73) - a section of forest, homogeneous in wood, shrubbery and living ground cover.

The difference of phytocenosis from forest phytocenosis is that in the second generatrix element are trees. Forest phytocenosis is part of forest biogeocenosis (forest phytocenosis does not take into account wildlife).

  Life forms  Woody plants are: trees, shrubs, shrubs, creepers.

Forest formation process -this is the totality of all the phenomena of occurrence, development, destruction and change of forest stands that accompany the evolution of the forest cover (according to B.P. Kolesnikov).

For foresters, whose responsibilities include growing highly productive forests, at some point it became necessary not only to distinguish trees in the forest by size, but also to give them specific names. Systematized tree classification  for homogeneous homogeneous forest was given by the German arborist Kraft in the 80s. XIX century. The trees in it are divided into 5 classes according to the degree of domination and oppression.

Class I - exclusively dominant trees with a particularly strongly developed peak (for example, in pure pine forests there are about 12%);

Grade II - dominant trees with relatively well-developed peaks (25-40% in pine trees);

Grade III - dominant trees with sparse crowns of irregular shapes (25-35%);

IV class - subordinate, oppressed trees; only part of the crown are included in the general canopy, 2 subclasses:

A) trees with unshaded, mostly compressed peaks (10-15%);

B) trees with shaded peaks, the upper part of the crown is green, the lower dies off (2-10%);

V class - dying and dead:

A) trees with crowns having a green top (7-10%);

B) with dying and dead crowns (7-8%).

From this classification it can be seen that the trees in a uniform forest are very different from each other. Some have more powerful crowns and larger trunks, while others are more underdeveloped crowns and smaller trunks. However, it was not taken into account here that trees in the same class can be found different. Therefore, more advanced classifications of trees in M. M. Danilova, P.V. Voropanova, V.G. Nesterova et al. The latter developed a classification of trees by growth and development. According to her, all trees are divided into 3 growth classes, in each of which 2 subclasses for development are distinguished.

Grade I - trees of strong growth: a) slow development; b) rapid development;

Class II - trees of slow growth: a) slow development; b) rapid development;

Grade III - stunted: a) undeveloped; b) severely backward, dying and shrunken.

Plants as a whole are classified by departments, families, genera, species (breeds). For example, the Conifers department, the Angiosperms, Gymnosperms department. The department includes several families (for example, the Conifers department includes the families Pine, Cypress, Yew). The family also unites several genera. So, the family of Pine includes the genus Fir, the genus Spruce, the genus Larch, the genus Pine. The genus unites many species. For example, the Larch genus includes L Daurian, Siberian, Okhotsk, Komarov, Sukachev, Kuril, European, Lubarsky, Middendorff, Primorsky, Olgin, Kayander, etc.

Under forestry St. tree and shrub species is understood as their relation to environmental factors, as well as other qualities that are important for economic practice.

The main forestry sv-breeds include photophilia, drought tolerance, demanding soil fertility, thermophilia. By N.V. Usenko classification of DV tree species by forestry sv-you looks like so:

  1. In relation to heat

Very thermophilic (D toothed, Schmidt's birch, apricot manch., P whole-leafed, Lp manch., Etc.);

Heat-loving (Bh, K Korean, Ohr Manch., I, E Korean, etc.);

Medium-demanding heat (Lp Amur, Gr Ussur., D Mongol., L Komarova, P white and Sakhalin, Km, etc.);

Undemanding to heat (Tc, BB, Os, C ordinary, Ea, Siberian E, Daurian, cedar. Elfin, etc.)

  2. By photophilia

Photophilous (L daurskaya, Komarova and Amurskaya, BC, C com. Et al.);

Relatively photophilous (BB, L Lubarsky, T Maksimovich, Os, I and Ohr Manch., Kl Manch., Km and riverine, D Mongolian, etc.);

Relatively shade-tolerant (Bh, K Korean, Ol hairy, Chm Ae, P whole-leafed, maakia amurs., Lp amursk., Etc.);

Shade-tolerant (Eid, E Glen and Korean, Ea, P white, Tc, KKz, etc.)

  3. In relation to moisture

Xerophytes - are able to withstand a lack of moisture as a result of an increase in its absorption or accumulation in tissues.

Mesophytes are plants of moderately moist soil. In the Far East, a significant part of trees, shrubs, and vines belongs to them.

Hygrophytes are moisture lovers.

By G.V. Gukou's classification looks like this:

  1. Relation to moisture

Xerophytes (C com. And densely flowered, D dentate., Siberian apricot, etc.)

Xeromesophytes (apricot manch., Mongolian D, Bch, Siberian Yab, etc.);

Mesophytes (K Korean, RB Amursk., P whole leaf., Ts, Gr Ussur., Eid, BB, etc.);

Mesohygrophytes (I and Or manch., Os, Ea, Bh, T fragrant., P white. And others.);

Hygrophytes (Ol hairy., Yves baskets. And other species of willow, L. daursk. And Amursk, etc.).

  2. In relation to soils. fertility

Oligotrophs (undemanding) - C com. and densely flowered., cedars. stlan., L daursk., Os, Bb, D Mongol., RB Amursk., Ea, etc.);

Mesotrophs - maakia, Ol hairy., P white., Och. many larches, Lp Amursk., K Korean., Bch, Km and others;

Megatrophs (demanding) - L Primorskaya, Tc, Or and I Manch., Bh, P the whole leaf., Eid, KZ, etc.).

Of the species, some are soil-improving (I, Cl, Ol, L, birch, Lsch, elm, etc.), others are soil-degrading (Os, E, and some others).

  Land cover zoning

Stands out on the Far East 6 geographicalor natural zones- zone of polar deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, zone of coniferous (taiga) forests, coniferous-broadleaf forests and forest-steppe zone (POSTER).

1. Zone of polar (arctic) deserts

  Extremely harsh climatic conditions are extremely unfavorable for the development of plants that do not form a closed canopy here. Separate pillows of mosses and lichens, as well as a few flowering plants, are found in wind-protected hollows, and individual shrubs up to 10 cm high are found. A characteristic feature of the zone is the lack of closure of the vegetation cover.

1. Tundra zone

  Closed soil-vegetation cover with prevailing perennial flowering plants, mosses and lichens is characteristic. Shrubs and low shrubs are found in higher plants. Characteristically complete treelessness.

1. Forest Tundra Zone

  In addition to tundra vegetation, the distribution of groups of woody plants or thickets of shrubs along river valleys and on drained mountain slopes is characteristic. Various meadow and bog communities (including peat bogs) are also typical. Deciduous forests of the forest-tundra are poplar and chosenia communities. They grow in floodplains in the form of tall, multi-tiered forests with dense and diverse grass cover and undergrowth.

In the valleys of some rivers, sections of rare larch forests are found.

Large spaces are occupied by thickets of cedar dwarf. Lesotundra is a reindeer herding zone.

1. Zone of coniferous (taiga) forests

  The predominant type of vegetation is forest, and swamps and meadows are also typical. Mountain tundra vegetation is developed along the tops of the mountains. The main forest-forming species are L daurskaya and Eayanskaya. Also grow L Okhotsk, Kuril, Komarova. The wide distribution of L is explained by its environmental plasticity, ability to tolerate harsh climates and sudden changes in temperature.

In the southern part of the range, spruce trees are necessarily present as impurities of fir - white, Sakhalin, Mayra. In addition to P, L, white and stone birch, K Korean can participate in the composition of spruce forests.

5. The area of \u200b\u200bconiferous-deciduous forests

The predominant type of vegetation is forest. Along with conifers, various deciduous trees take a significant part in the plantings. The species composition of conifers on the mainland and island parts of the zone varies. On the mainland, Korean is characteristic of cedar forests and cedar-broad-leaved stands. On about. Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands do not have cedar; instead, spruce-broad-leaved forests grow, which include Ea, Sakhalin and Mayra.

Cedar-deciduous forests are most characteristic of the southern part of the Far East and are distinguished by the richness of their floristic composition. These forests occupy a very vast area and differ in the composition of related species and plant species. Therefore, they are divided into 3 subregions (subzones):

1. southern (or subregion P of whole leaf and hornbeam);
2. medium (with cedar-deciduous forests);
3. northern (cedar-broad-leaved forests with significant participation in E and P, spruce-broad-leaved forests also grow, a characteristic feature of the subzone is a rather significant admixture of L).

  Black fir broad-leaved forests are also very diverse in composition. There are many deciduous and broad-leaved species, as well as rare and relict plants - Schmidt birch (iron), Komarova maple, smooth action, actinidia argument, real ginseng, etc.

1. Steppe zone

  Due to the strong impact of humans, there are almost no natural vegetation in the plains, and most of the area is occupied by former farmland. Natural vegetation is characterized by a uniform combination of forest, meadow, and bog communities. Forest vegetation of the zone is represented by overgrown tree-shrub thickets formed by the Mongolian, Bch, shrubs - hazel variegated, forestedia. On the lowered sites, the remains of aspen and white birch stands have been preserved.

  Floristic areas of the Far East

Each vegetation zone of the Far East has its own vegetation, or flora.

Flora   - a historically established set of plant species that grows in a certain geographical space. 4 types of flora on the Far East:

1. Manchurian  (MAP)

  The richest and most diverse. It occupies the south of Primorye, with China, the basin of the middle Amur River and the river. Ussuri, the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan). The flora is mainly composed of coniferous-deciduous forests, which are characterized by a large number of thermophilic plants, the closest relatives of which are common in the subtropics and tropics of V. Asia and S. America.

1.   Okhotsk-Kamchatka flora

Located in the lower reaches of the Amur, on about. Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, most of Kamchatka. Flora is less diverse, but rich in local endemic species (Endemic species are found only in this area). Here, the main forest generators Ea, P Belokoraia, P Sakhalin, Bq.

1.   Chukchi (Bering) flora

  Flora of tundra appearance, rich in edema. Flora has much in common with the flora of Alaska.

1. East Siberian (Yakut)

  It is located on the middle Amur River, in the upper reaches of Zeya and Selemdzhi. Flora is poor and monotonous. Forest vegetation is formed by L Daurian, C Siberian.

In addition to these 4 floras, representatives of the steppe Mongol-Daurian flora, forest moderate pre-subtropical North Korean flora and representatives of forest subtropical North Japanese flora take part in the composition of vegetation in the southern parts of the Far East.

The flora of the Far East is more diverse and richer in species composition than the flora of the regions of Siberia and the European part of the Russian Federation corresponding to them according to the zonal conditions due to the fact that ancient relic plant species have been preserved here.

  Classification of breed changes

The first and fundamental classification of breed changes was proposed by G.F. Morozov. He divided all shifts into century old  (without human intervention) and temporary  (directly or indirectly related to human activities).

Centuries-old occur against the background of slow age-related and steady changes in the ecological regime (for example, a gradual decrease in the groundwater level leads to a change in spruce stands to more drought-resistant pine).

Temporary shifts occur relatively quickly, and they are reversible. For example, a spruce forest stand was destroyed as a result of a fire; the burnt birch populates, under the canopy of which the spruce settles again. Temporary shifts are comparable to the life of 1-2 generations of tree species.

Morozov divided all breeds into pioneer breeds and forest-forming breeds.

Kolesnikov for Far East proposed a classification of breed changes for cedar-deciduous forests. He allocated 4 types of shifts:

Age

Short recovery

Long recovery

Sustainable (naturally irreversible).

E.D. Solodukhin suggested dividing all shifts into 2 groups:

1) change of species in the process of development of natural forests (reversible and irreversible) - occur without human intervention;

short-recovery long-recovery.

stable unstable

2) change of species during the restoration of forests on clearings, burnt areas and other areas not covered by forest.

  Typological classification of forests

For a long time, foresters have tried to divide the diversity of existing forests into some homogeneous units, where all the features of the stands, their similarity and difference between them would be taken into account and reflected. So the concept of “type of forest” was introduced, which combines plantations with common features of composition and structure, productivity and other characteristics.

Forest type   - a forest site (or their combination), characterized by the general type of forest conditions, the same composition of tree species, the number of tiers, similar fauna, requiring the same forestry activities. Examples: spruce green grass, pine lingonberry, larch rosemary, etc.

Melekhov I.S .: Forest type  - This is a biogeocenosis in development. The type of forest forms sections of the forest, united by the general nature of the stand, the general characteristics of forest conditions, the common stages and development trends.

Forest types are combined into so-called business groups forest types  (HGTL) - larger in size.

Initially, the forest typology began to develop due to the need to identify the location and stocks of the most valuable wood, using the dependence of its quality on the soil.

In 1897, I.I. Gutorovich singled out   9 types of plantings: swamp, Rada (pine in the swamp), sub-mire (pine on moist soil), sogra (pine or spruce swamp forests), level (fir-tree on loamy moist soil), hill (fir-tree on elevated places), log, pine forest, bill ( pine or spruce on moist soil). For each type, he indicated: the composition of the plantation, topographic position, cover, soil and wood quality.

Later, classifications of Kitaev, Lyakhovich, Timofeev, Nazarov appeared. In order to standardize them A.S. Rozhkov compiled a summary table of forest types.

Later, Serebrennikov's classification was famous. He highlighted 15 types  for spruce, pine, deciduous and mixed coniferous-deciduous stands.

Kravchinsky singled out 3 categories  spruce forests: 1) with a predominance of sour and minnow in the cover; 2) with a predominance of berry; 3) horsetails and bog mosses. He divided the pine trees into 2 categories: 1) pine drill three classes of quality; 2) marsh pine; birch trees - also in 2 categories: 1) on dry land; 2) in the swamp.

  Founder of the doctrine of forest types  foresters consider G.F. Morozovawho created the Doctrine of the Forest. He first proved the need for widespread use of forest typology in forestry. He classified forests first into climatic zones, then into regions taking into account geological features. Within the region, he identified forest types confined to the relief, and then soil-dependent types.

After Morozov, the development of forest typology in Russia continued in two directions. At the head of the first was V.N. Sukachev, the second is associated with the names of Krudener, Alekseev and P.S. Pogrebnyak.

Sukachev understood the type of forest as a type of forest biogeocenosis, taking into account all the components of the forest. The name of the type consists of the name of the tree species and the indicator plant of soil and ground conditions (pine sorrel).

Creduder  tied forest types mainly to those soils where the forest grew. The types of soil conditions are divided by him into 3 types: dry, floodplain, and boggy. The description of each site includes: topography, soil, cover, undergrowth, change of species and natural regeneration, economic importance. The composition of the stand is of secondary importance.

Alekseev  in typology he gives priority to the composition of the stand and ground cover, and then to the mechanical composition and soil moisture.

At Pogrebnyak  There are no forest types of Morozov and Alekseev. We are talking about types of growing conditions and indigenous types (standards) instead of actual plantings. Some provisions of the ecological approach Pogrebnyak expanded DV Vorobyov, who identified three typological units: the type of forest site, forest, and forest stand.

Ivashkevich  considers the type of forest as “a series of forest combinations that naturally develop one from another”, it combines a large number of types of stands, which are links in a long chain of transformations within some growing conditions.

The classification of forests in dynamics after B.A. Ivashkevich was engaged in B.P. Kolesnikov.

  B.P. Kolesnikov  developed types of cedar forest in Primorye. He introduced the concept of forest formation. Developed a genetic classification of forest types.

A wider approach to the forest, taking into account anthropogenic influence, was the dynamic typology of I.S. Melekhova. Recognizing the importance of the stand as the main component of the forest, it did not detract from the role of the lower tiers, the evolution of the forest environment, the course of reforestation processes, etc.

The type of forest is an important component of forest science. The type of forest is associated with forest restoration, forest culture measures, methods of felling, forest care, forest protection from fires, increasing productivity, and other issues of the Forestry Complex. Forest types correspond to certain systems of forestry activities. Their timely application makes it possible to realize the maximum productivity of forests, to manage the forest formation process.

The basis of the type of forest is the type of forest conditions. The leading feature for determining the types of forest conditions is relief position  combined with features hydrological regime  and soil cover.