Structural biochemistry (E. A. Bessolitsyna). What is the GGT indicator in a biochemical blood test? GTF transcript biochemistry

Hormones have an effect on target cells.

Target cells- these are cells that specifically interact with hormones using special receptor proteins. These receptor proteins are located on the outer membrane of the cell, or in the cytoplasm, or on the nuclear membrane and other organelles of the cell.

Biochemical mechanisms of signal transmission from a hormone to a target cell.

Any receptor protein consists of at least two domains (regions) that provide two functions:

hormone recognition;

transformation and transmission of the received signal into the cell.

How does the receptor protein recognize the hormone molecule with which it can interact?

One of the domains of the receptor protein contains a region that is complementary to some part of the signal molecule. The process of receptor binding to a signaling molecule is similar to the process of formation of an enzyme-substrate complex and can be determined by the value of the affinity constant.

Most receptors have not been sufficiently studied because their isolation and purification are very difficult, and the content of each type of receptor in cells is very low. But it is known that hormones interact with their receptors through physical and chemical means. Electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions are formed between the hormone molecule and the receptor. When the receptor binds to a hormone, conformational changes occur in the receptor protein and the complex of the signaling molecule with the receptor protein is activated. In its active state, it can cause specific intracellular reactions in response to a received signal. If the synthesis or ability of receptor proteins to bind to signaling molecules is impaired, diseases—endocrine disorders—occur.

There are three types of such diseases.

Associated with insufficient synthesis of receptor proteins.

Genetic defects associated with changes in the structure of the receptor.

Associated with blocking receptor proteins by antibodies.

Mechanisms of action of hormones on target cells.

Depending on the structure of the hormone, there are two types of interaction. If the hormone molecule is lipophilic (for example, steroid hormones), then it can penetrate the lipid layer outer membrane target cells. If the molecule is large or polar, then its penetration into the cell is impossible. Therefore, for lipophilic hormones, the receptors are located inside the target cells, and for hydrophilic hormones, the receptors are located in the outer membrane.

To obtain a cellular response to a hormonal signal in the case of hydrophilic molecules, an intracellular signal transduction mechanism operates. This occurs with the participation of substances called second messengers. Hormone molecules are very diverse in shape, but “second messengers” are not.

The reliability of signal transmission is ensured by the very high affinity of the hormone for its receptor protein.

What are the intermediaries that are involved in the intracellular transmission of humoral signals?

These are cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP), inositol triphosphate, calcium-binding protein - calmodulin, calcium ions, enzymes involved in the synthesis of cyclic nucleotides, as well as protein kinases - protein phosphorylation enzymes. All these substances are involved in the regulation of the activity of individual enzyme systems in target cells.

Let us examine in more detail the mechanisms of action of hormones and intracellular mediators.

There are two main ways of transmitting a signal to target cells from signaling molecules with a membrane mechanism of action:

adenylate cyclase (or guanylate cyclase) systems;

phosphoinositide mechanism.

Adenylate cyclase system.

Main components: membrane receptor protein, G protein, adenylate cyclase enzyme, guanosine triphosphate, protein kinases.

In addition, for the normal functioning of the adenylate cyclase system, ATP is required.

The receptor protein, G-protein, next to which GTP and the enzyme (adenylate cyclase) are located, are built into the cell membrane.

Until the hormone acts, these components are in a dissociated state, and after the formation of a complex of the signal molecule with the receptor protein, changes in the conformation of the G protein occur. As a result, one of the G protein subunits acquires the ability to bind to GTP.

The G protein-GTP complex activates adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase begins to actively convert ATP molecules in c-AMP.

c-AMP has the ability to activate special enzymes - protein kinases, which catalyze the phosphorylation reactions of various proteins with the participation of ATP. In this case, phosphoric acid residues are included in the protein molecules. The main result of this phosphorylation process is a change in the activity of the phosphorylated protein. In different types of cells, proteins with different functional activities undergo phosphorylation as a result of activation of the adenylate cyclase system. For example, these could be enzymes, nuclear proteins, membrane proteins. As a result of the phosphorylation reaction, proteins can become functionally active or inactive.

Such processes will lead to changes in the rate of biochemical processes in the target cell.

Activation of the adenylate cyclase system lasts very long a short time, because the G protein, after binding to adenylate cyclase, begins to exhibit GTPase activity. After hydrolysis of GTP, the G protein restores its conformation and ceases to activate adenylate cyclase. As a result, the cAMP formation reaction stops.

In addition to participants in the adenylate cyclase system, some target cells contain G protein-coupled receptor proteins that lead to inhibition of adenylate cyclase. In this case, the GTP-G protein complex inhibits adenylate cyclase.

When the formation of cAMP stops, phosphorylation reactions in the cell do not stop immediately: as long as cAMP molecules continue to exist, the process of activation of protein kinases will continue. In order to stop the action of cAMP, there is a special enzyme in cells - phosphodiesterase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis reaction of 3′,5′-cyclo-AMP to AMP.

Some substances that have an inhibitory effect on phosphodiesterase (for example, alkaloids caffeine, theophylline) help maintain and increase the concentration of cyclo-AMP in the cell. Under the influence of these substances in the body, the duration of activation of the adenylate cyclase system becomes longer, i.e., the effect of the hormone increases.

In addition to the adenylate cyclase or guanylate cyclase systems, there is also a mechanism for transmitting information within the target cell with the participation of calcium ions and inositol triphosphate.

Inositol triphosphate is a substance that is a derivative of a complex lipid - inositol phosphatide. It is formed as a result of the action of a special enzyme - phospholipase "C", which is activated as a result of conformational changes in the intracellular domain of the membrane receptor protein.

This enzyme hydrolyzes the phosphoester bond in the phosphatidyl-inositol 4,5-bisphosphate molecule to form diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate.

It is known that the formation of diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate leads to an increase in the concentration of ionized calcium inside the cell. This leads to the activation of many calcium-dependent proteins inside the cell, including the activation of various protein kinases. And here, as with the activation of the adenylate cyclase system, one of the stages of signal transmission inside the cell is protein phosphorylation, which leads to a physiological response of the cell to the action of the hormone.

A special calcium-binding protein, calmodulin, takes part in the phosphoinositide signaling mechanism in the target cell. This is a low molecular weight protein (17 kDa), 30% consisting of negatively charged amino acids (Glu, Asp) and therefore capable of actively binding Ca+2. One calmodulin molecule has 4 calcium-binding sites. After interaction with Ca+2, conformational changes occur in the calmodulin molecule and the “Ca+2-calmodulin” complex becomes capable of regulating the activity (allosterically inhibiting or activating) many enzymes - adenylate cyclase, phosphodiesterase, Ca+2,Mg+2-ATPase and various protein kinases.

In different cells, when the Ca+2-calmodulin complex acts on isoenzymes of the same enzyme (for example, different types of adenylate cyclase), in some cases activation is observed, and in others inhibition of the cAMP formation reaction is observed. These different effects occur because the allosteric centers of the isoenzymes may include different amino acid radicals and their response to the action of the Ca+2-calmodulin complex will be different.

Thus, the role of “second messengers” for transmitting signals from hormones in target cells can be:

cyclic nucleotides (c-AMP and c-GMP);

complex "Ca-calmodulin";

diacylglycerol;

inositol triphosphate.

The mechanisms for transmitting information from hormones inside target cells using the listed intermediaries have common features:

one of the stages of signal transmission is protein phosphorylation;

cessation of activation occurs as a result of special mechanisms initiated by the participants in the processes themselves - there are negative feedback mechanisms.

Hormones are the main humoral regulators physiological functions organism, and their properties, biosynthesis processes and mechanisms of action are now well known.

The ways in which hormones differ from other signaling molecules are as follows.

Hormone synthesis occurs in special cells of the endocrine system. In this case, the synthesis of hormones is the main function of endocrine cells.

Hormones are secreted into the blood, often into the venous, sometimes into the lymph. Other signaling molecules can reach target cells without secretion into the circulating fluids.

Telecrine effect (or distant action)— hormones act on target cells at a great distance from the site of synthesis.

Hormones are highly specific substances in relation to target cells and have very high biological activity.

Biochemical blood test - a laboratory test that can help identify problems with functioning internal organs. So, if it is necessary to assess the health of the liver, kidneys or lifespan, a test is carried out to determine the level of the enzyme gamma glutamyltransferase. This specific substance is also found in other internal organs, but an increase in its level rarely occurs due to their dysfunction. Most often, deviations from the norm are caused by problems with the functioning of the liver and gallbladder.

What is gamma HT in a blood test, what are its functions, and when is a clinical study necessary to determine the level of its content in the human body? Everyone should know this.

What is GGT and what functions does it perform?

First of all, let's figure out what GGTP is in a biochemical blood test.

On a note. Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase and GGT - gamma glutamyl transferase are identical concepts to each other, therefore the use of the first or second term is equally correct.

Gamma glutamyltransferase is an enzyme that has a protein structure and takes an active part in amino acid metabolism. It accelerates the process of transfer and exchange of amino acid compounds in the body's cells, and after their destruction enters the blood. Since throughout the entire period of functioning of the body there is a regular renewal of its cells, a person’s blood always contains a certain amount of this protein.

However, when a malfunction of internal organs occurs, the process of cellular decay is disrupted, resulting in a sharp increase (sometimes decrease) in the level of gammaglutamine transferase in the blood plasma. Only a clinical blood test for liver enzymes, especially GGT, can reveal deviations from the norm.

Why are these proteins being studied? This is explained by the fact that they react more acutely to damage to liver cells, for example, with hepatitis. For this reason, testing for the GGT enzyme in a biochemical blood test is quite often prescribed by narcologists to patients suffering from alcohol addiction.

When alcohol enters the body, more intense destruction of liver cells occurs, therefore, much more GGTP protein is released into the blood. If at least 30 days have passed since the last use of alcohol, the level of this substance will decrease by 2 times.

GGT in blood biochemistry

Based on all of the above, it is not difficult to understand what GGT is in a biochemical blood test. This is an indicator of amino acid metabolism in the body. The level of this protein indicates the activity of the blood serum, which increases sharply with the destruction of healthy body cells.

In simple terms, what is GGTP, it is an enzyme in the blood plasma, the level of which indicates whether there is a malfunction of the liver or other internal organs, and how serious it is.

An analysis to measure the level of this protein is carried out only when indicated.

Indications for blood tests

A blood test for GGTP is mandatory for patients complaining of:

frequent attacks of nausea;
profuse vomiting;
decreased or complete loss of appetite;
feeling of pressure and pain in the right hypochondrium.

A gastroenterologist or nephrologist (for kidney problems) must send the patient for a blood test for gamma HT levels if there is a suspicion of the development of:

cholecystitis;
cholelithiasis (cholelithiasis);
cholestasis;
cholangitis;
hepatitis C.

In these cases, it is not enough to pay attention to the presence of alarming symptoms, since the clinical manifestations of the above pathologies are very similar to each other. Only a clinical study such as a blood test for glutamyl transpeptidase will help determine exactly what disease is tormenting the patient.

Carrying out this analysis is also important to determine the reasons why the patient has a process of bile stagnation. This helps to prescribe the correct treatment and prevent consequences dangerous to the patient’s health.

Testing for gamma glutamyl transpeptidase is mandatory for persons suffering from chronic alcoholism. Under these conditions, it is important to accurately determine the patient's degree of dependence on ethanol, as well as to understand how severely the liver is affected. Sometimes this helps not only to preserve a person’s health, but also to save his life.

A blood test for GGTP is also indicated for:

development of allergies to medications, which is accompanied by general intoxication of the body;
preventive or control assessment of liver health;
the need to assess liver or kidney function after surgery.

But this is not all the indications for referring a patient to this study. Biochemistry of GGT is performed in the following cases:

blockage of the bile ducts;
the presence of suspicious formations in the pancreas;
problems with kidney function.

On a note. Donating blood for analysis requires preliminary preparation, so the patient must be instructed by the attending physician what and how to do correctly to obtain reliable data from a biochemical study.

The reasons for an increase in GGT, or gamma glutamyltransferase, can be not only problems with the liver, kidneys, gallbladder or pancreas, but also with the heart. Heart failure or previous myocardial infarction are the main indications for this study.

Norms of gamma glutamyl transferase

The GGT rate varies depending on the age and gender of the patient. Thus, the indicators in men and women do not differ very much, which cannot be said about the normal level of GGTP in older children and newborn infants.

Normal level ggt in a biochemical blood test in adults are considered to be indicators ranging from 6-70 units per 1 liter of blood. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the fact that in women the norm of this enzyme is much lower than in men.

In children, the level of gamma glutamyl transferase in the blood is different. So in newborns it can correspond to indicators of 185 units per 1 liter of blood, in six-month-old infants - about 200 U/l. If such high numbers were recorded on the form with the results of blood tests for a newborn, do not worry - in infants, the liver cannot yet produce this enzyme on its own, so the placenta performs this function instead.

Interesting fact. In a blood test for gamma glutamyltransferase in dark-skinned people, the concentration of this enzyme is significantly higher than that in a white-skinned person. Therefore, we can say that the level of this protein also depends on the race of the patient.

Normal for women

The level of GGT in the blood of women is directly dependent on age. The table below will help you understand which indicators in the analysis results should not cause you alarm.

The GGTP rate in women may vary depending on:

equipment used;
units of measurement (U/l, U/ml, etc.);
the patient's race.

As for the level of gamma HT in expectant mothers, it depends on the duration of pregnancy:

In the first trimester, GGTP ranges from 0-17 units.
The second trimester is accompanied by an increase in the level of this substance to 33 units.
In the third trimester, the amount of gamma HT in the blood plasma decreases by 1 unit and amounts to 32 units per 1 liter.

Sometimes the level of this protein in the blood of pregnant women can increase sharply, but if this is a temporary phenomenon, you should not be afraid of it. Similar jumps in GGT can occur due to the use of expectant mother vitamin complexes and a large number of foods enriched with vitamins.

Normal for men

The norm of GGTP in the blood of men, as already noted, differs from that of women to a greater extent. Acceptable indicators are shown in this table.

The normal GGT level in men is higher than in women due to the high concentration of enzymes in the prostate gland. But if there is a significant jump in the level of this substance in the patient’s blood, he should be immediately examined for possible abnormalities in the functioning of internal organs.

Reasons for deviation of ggt from the norm

The ggt blood test requires the collection of a sample of material from a peripheral vein. The research process can take from several hours to several days. The results obtained are recorded on a special printed form, after which they are interpreted by the attending physician.

The correct decoding of the GGT analysis is of great importance, which depends on how accurately the rules for preparing the patient for the blood sampling process were followed. Deviations from the prescribed standards may result from:

long-term intake of vitamin complexes containing a large number of ascorbic acid;
use of paracetamol or aspirin;
abuse of oral hormonal contraceptives;
taking antidepressants, antibiotics, histamine blockers.

A deviation from the norm in the content of gamma glutamate transferase in the body to a greater extent may indicate:

hepatitis;
pancreatitis;
infectious mononucleosis, which caused complications on the liver;
autoimmune pathologies;
diabetes mellitus;
oncological process occurring in the prostate gland or mammary glands;
rheumatoid arthritis, etc.

If the level of GGTP in the blood is low, this may be a consequence of:

hypothyroidism;
treatment of chronic alcoholism with certain types of medications;
taking statins (medicines that lower blood cholesterol levels).

The interpretation of a blood test for GGT should be carried out exclusively by the attending physician. Even if the patient understands what the norm should be and what indicators are a deviation from it, he cannot independently prescribe treatment for himself. Often, after obtaining the data from a biochemical study, the patient is subjected to a number of additional instrumental and laboratory tests that help make an accurate diagnosis.

Most pathologies discovered or confirmed during a blood test for gamma HT require immediate hospitalization of the patient in a hospital and round-the-clock medical supervision, which the patient himself cannot provide for himself at home.

Are common
Guanosine triphosphate

Abbreviations	GTP, GTP
Traditional names	Guanosine triphosphate
Rat. formula	C 10 H 16 N 5 O 14 P 3
Physical properties
Molar mass	523.18 g/mol
Classification
Reg. CAS number	86-01-1
SMILES	3(((O3)CO(=O)(O)O(=O)(O)OP(=O)(O)O)O)O)c(nc2=O)N]
Data are based on standard conditions (25 °C, 100 kPa) unless otherwise stated.

Guanosine triphosphate(GTP, GTP) is a purine nucleotide.

Biological role

GTP is a substrate for RNA synthesis during transcription. The structure of GTP is similar to a guanyl nucleoside, but differs in the presence of three phosphate groups attached to the 5" carbon atom.

GTP takes part in signal transduction reactions, in particular binds to G-proteins, and is converted into GDP with the participation of GTPases.

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Notes



Nitrogenous bases

Nucleosides

Nucleotides

RNA

DNA

Analogs

Vector types

An excerpt characterizing Guanosine triphosphate

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“And the true truth,” he said. “I regret that I went to him and took her,” said the old count.
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“Yes, she doesn’t love me,” said Natasha.
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“Don’t answer like that, mother,” she said. – What I say is true. Write an answer.
Natasha did not answer and went to her room to read Princess Marya’s letter.
Princess Marya wrote that she was in despair over the misunderstanding that had occurred between them. Whatever her father’s feelings, Princess Marya wrote, she asked Natasha to believe that she could not help but love her as the one chosen by her brother, for whose happiness she was ready to sacrifice everything.

Purine base synthesis occurs in all cells of the body, mainly in the liver. The exceptions are erythrocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and lymphocytes.

Conventionally, all synthesis reactions can be divided into 4 stages:

1. Synthesis of 5"-phosphoribosylamine

First reaction purine synthesis consists in the activation of carbon at position C 1 of ribose-5-phosphate, this is achieved by the synthesis 5-phosphoribosyl-1-diphosphate(FRDF). Ribose-5-phosphate is the anchor on the basis of which the complex purine cycle is synthesized.

Second reaction is the transfer of the NH 2 group of glutamine to the activated C 1 atom of ribose-5-phosphate with the formation 5"-phosphoribosylamine. The indicated NH 2 group of phosphoribosylamine already belongs to the future purine ring and its nitrogen will be atom number 9.

Reactions for the synthesis of 5"-phosphoribosylamine

In parallel, phosphoribosyl diphosphate is used in the synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides. It reacts with orotic acid and ribose 5-phosphate binds to it to form orotidyl monophosphate.

2. Synthesis of inosine monophosphate

5-phosphoribosylamine is involved in nine reactions, resulting in the formation of the first purine nucleotide - inosine monophosphoric acid(IMF). In these reactions, the sources of purine ring atoms are glycine, aspartate, another molecule glutamine, carbon dioxide and derivatives tetrahydrofolic acid(TGFC). In total, the energy of 6 ATP molecules is spent on the synthesis of the purine ring.

3. Synthesis of adenosine monophosphate and guanosine monophosphate

Guanosine monophosphate(HMP) is formed in two reactions - first IMP is oxidized IMP dehydrogenase to xanthosyl monophosphate, the oxygen source is water, and the hydrogen acceptor is NAD. After this it works GMP synthetase, it uses the universal cellular donor of NH 2 groups - glutamine, the energy source for the reaction is ATP.
Adenosine monophosphate(AMP) is also formed in two reactions, but aspartic acid acts as a donor of the NH 2 group. In the first, adenylosuccinate synthetase, the reaction for the addition of aspartate uses the energy of GTP decomposition, in the second reaction adenylosuccinate lyase removes part of the aspartic acid in the form of fumarate.

Reactions of synthesis of AMP and HMP

4. Formation of nucleoside triphosphates ATP and GTP.

GTP synthesis occurs in 2 stages through the transfer of high-energy phosphate groups from ATP. ATP synthesis occurs somewhat differently. ADP from AMP is also formed due to high-energy bonds of ATP. To synthesize ATP from ADP, mitochondria have the enzyme ATP synthase, which produces ATP in reactions

– one of the most popular research methods for patients and doctors. If you clearly know what a biochemical analysis from a vein shows, you can identify a number of serious ailments in the early stages, including - viral hepatitis , . Early detection of such pathologies makes it possible to apply the correct treatment and cure them.

The nurse collects blood for testing within a few minutes. Every patient should understand that this procedure does not cause any discomfort. The answer to the question of where blood is taken for analysis is clear: from a vein.

Speaking about what a biochemical blood test is and what is included in it, it should be taken into account that the results obtained are actually a kind of reflection of the general condition of the body. However, when trying to independently understand whether the analysis is normal or whether there are certain deviations from the normal value, it is important to understand what LDL is, what CK is (CPK - creatine phosphokinase), to understand what urea (urea), etc.

General information about blood biochemistry analysis - what it is and what you can find out by doing it, you will receive from this article. How much it costs to conduct such an analysis, how many days it takes to get results, should be found out directly in the laboratory where the patient intends to conduct this study.

How do you prepare for biochemical analysis?

Before donating blood, you need to carefully prepare for this process. Those who are interested in how to pass the test correctly need to take into account several fairly simple requirements:

You need to donate blood only on an empty stomach;
in the evening, on the eve of the upcoming analysis, you should not drink strong coffee, tea, consume fatty foods, or alcoholic beverages (it is better not to drink the latter for 2-3 days);
do not smoke for at least an hour before the test;
the day before the test, you should not practice any thermal procedures - go to the sauna, bathhouse, and also the person should not expose yourself to serious physical activity;
laboratory tests must be taken in the morning, before any medical procedures;
a person who is preparing for tests, upon arriving at the laboratory, should calm down a little, sit for a few minutes and catch his breath;
the answer to the question of whether it is possible to brush your teeth before taking tests is negative: in order to accurately determine blood sugar, in the morning before the test you need to ignore this hygienic procedure, and also not drink tea and coffee;
You should not take hormonal medications, diuretics, etc. before taking blood;
two weeks before the study you need to stop taking medications that affect lipids in the blood, in particular statins ;
if you need to take a full analysis again, this must be done at the same time, the laboratory must also be the same.

If a clinical blood test has been performed, the readings are deciphered by a specialist. Also, the interpretation of biochemical blood test results can be carried out using a special table, which indicates normal test results in adults and children. If any indicator differs from the norm, it is important to pay attention to this and consult with a doctor who can correctly “read” all the results obtained and give his recommendations. If necessary, blood biochemistry is prescribed: extended profile.

Interpretation table for biochemical blood tests in adults

Indicator in the study	Norm
Total protein	63-87 g/l
Protein fractions: albumin globulins (α1, α2, γ, β)
Creatinine	44-97 µmol per l – in women, 62-124 – in men
Urea	2.5-8.3 mmol/l
Uric acid	0.12-0.43 mmol/l - in men, 0.24-0.54 mmol/l - in women.
Total cholesterol	3.3-5.8 mmol/l
LDL	less than 3 mmol per l
HDL	greater than or equal to 1.2 mmol per L - in women, 1 mmol per L - in men
Glucose	3.5-6.2 mmol per l
Total bilirubin	8.49-20.58 µmol/l
Direct bilirubin	2.2-5.1 µmol/l
Triglycerides	less than 1.7 mmol per l
Aspartate aminotransferase (abbreviated as AST)	alanine aminotransferase - normal in women and men - up to 42 U/l
Alanine aminotransferase (abbreviated as ALT)	up to 38 U/l
Gamma glutamyl transferase (abbreviated GGT)	normal GGT levels are up to 33.5 U/l in men, up to 48.6 U/l in women.
Creatine kinase (abbreviated as KK)	up to 180 U/l
Alkaline phosphatase (abbreviated as ALP)	up to 260 U/l
α-amylase	up to 110 E per liter
Potassium	3.35-5.35 mmol/l
Sodium	130-155 mmol/l

Thus, a biochemical blood test makes it possible to conduct a detailed analysis to assess the functioning of internal organs. Also, decoding the results allows you to adequately “read” which macro- and microelements, needed by the body. Blood biochemistry makes it possible to recognize the presence of pathologies.

If you correctly decipher the obtained indicators, it is much easier to make any diagnosis. Biochemistry is a more detailed study than CBC. After all, decoding the indicators of a general blood test does not allow one to obtain such detailed data.

It is very important to conduct such studies when. After all general analysis during pregnancy does not provide the opportunity to obtain complete information. Therefore, biochemistry in pregnant women is prescribed, as a rule, in the first months and in the third trimester. In the presence of certain pathologies and poor health, this analysis is performed more often.

IN modern laboratories are able to conduct research and decipher the obtained indicators within a few hours. The patient is provided with a table containing all the data. Accordingly, it is even possible to independently track how normal blood counts are in adults and children.

Both the table for deciphering a general blood test in adults and biochemical tests are deciphered taking into account the age and gender of the patient. After all, the norm of blood biochemistry, like the norm of a clinical blood test, can vary in women and men, in young and elderly patients.

Hemogram is a clinical blood test in adults and children, which allows you to find out the amount of all blood elements, as well as their morphological features, ratio, content, etc.

Since blood biochemistry is a complex study, it also includes liver tests. Decoding the analysis allows you to determine whether liver function is normal. Liver parameters are important for diagnosing pathologies of this organ. The following data make it possible to assess the structural and functional state of the liver: ALT, GGTP (the GGTP norm in women is slightly lower), alkaline phosphatase, level and total protein. Liver tests are performed when necessary to establish or confirm the diagnosis.

Cholinesterase determined for the purpose of diagnosing the severity and condition of the liver, as well as its functions.

Blood sugar determined to assess the functions of the endocrine system. You can find out what a blood sugar test is called directly in the laboratory. The sugar symbol can be found on the results sheet. What is sugar called? It is referred to as "glucose" or "GLU" in English.

The norm is important CRP , since a jump in these indicators indicates the development of inflammation. Index AST indicates pathological processes associated with tissue destruction.

Index M.I.D. in a blood test it is determined during a general analysis. The MID level allows you to determine the development of infectious diseases, anemia, etc. The MID indicator allows you to assess the state of the human immune system.

ICSU is an indicator of the average concentration in . If MSHC is elevated, the reasons for this are associated with a deficiency of or, as well as congenital spherocytosis.

MPV - average value of the volume measured.

Lipidogram provides for the determination of total, HDL, LDL, and triglycerides. The lipid spectrum is determined to identify lipid metabolism disorders in the body.

Norm blood electrolytes indicates the normal course of metabolic processes in the body.

Seromucoid – this is a fraction of proteins, which includes a group of glycoproteins. Speaking about what seromucoid is, it should be taken into account that if the connective tissue is destroyed, degraded or damaged, seromucoids enter the blood plasma. Therefore, seromucoids are determined to predict development.

LDH, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) - This is involved in the oxidation of glucose and the production of lactic acid.

Research on osteocalcin carried out for diagnostics.

Analysis on ferritin (protein complex, the main intracellular iron depot) is carried out if hemochromatosis, chronic inflammatory and infectious diseases, tumors.

Blood test for ASO important for diagnosing types of complications after a streptococcal infection.

In addition, other indicators are determined, and other investigations are carried out (protein electrophoresis, etc.). The norm of a biochemical blood test is displayed in special tables. It displays the norm of a biochemical blood test in women; the table also provides information about normal indicators in men. But still, about how to decipher a general blood test and how to read the data of a biochemical analysis, it is better to ask a specialist who will adequately evaluate the results in a comprehensive manner and prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Deciphering the biochemistry of blood in children is carried out by the specialist who ordered the studies. For this purpose, a table is also used, which indicates the norm for children of all indicators.

In veterinary medicine, there are also standards for biochemical blood parameters for dogs and cats - the corresponding tables indicate the biochemical composition of animal blood.

What some indicators mean in a blood test is discussed in more detail below.

Protein means a lot in the human body, as it takes part in the creation of new cells, in the transport of substances and the formation of humoral proteins.

The composition of proteins includes 20 main ones, they also contain inorganic substances, vitamins, lipid and carbohydrate residues.

The liquid part of the blood contains approximately 165 proteins, and their structure and role in the body are different. Proteins are divided into three different protein fractions:

globulins (α1, α2, β, γ);
fibrinogen .

Since protein production occurs mainly in the liver, their level indicates its synthetic function.

If a proteinogram indicates that there is a decrease in total protein levels in the body, this phenomenon is defined as hypoproteinemia. A similar phenomenon is observed in the following cases:

during protein fasting - if a person follows a certain diet, practices vegetarianism;
if there is increased excretion of protein in the urine - with kidney disease;
if a person loses a lot of blood - with bleeding, heavy periods;
in case of serious burns;
with exudative pleurisy, exudative, ascites;
with the development of malignant neoplasms;
if protein formation is impaired - with hepatitis;
when absorption of substances decreases – when , colitis, enteritis, etc.;
after prolonged use of glucocorticosteroids.

An increased level of protein in the body is hyperproteinemia . There is a distinction between absolute and relative hyperproteinemia.

A relative increase in proteins develops in the event of loss of the liquid part of the plasma. This happens if you are worried about constant vomiting, with cholera.

An absolute increase in protein is noted if inflammatory processes or myeloma occur.

The concentrations of this substance change by 10% with changes in body position, as well as during physical activity.

Why do the concentrations of protein fractions change?

Protein fractions – globulins, albumins, fibrinogen.

A standard blood biotest does not involve the determination of fibrinogen, which reflects the blood clotting process. Coagulogram - analysis in which this indicator is determined.

When are protein levels elevated?

Albumin level:

if fluid loss occurs during infectious diseases;
for burns.

A-globulins:

for systemic diseases connective tissue ( , );
with purulent inflammation in acute form;
for burns during the recovery period;
nephrotic syndrome in patients with glomerulonephritis.

B-globulins:

for hyperlipoproteinemia in people with diabetes;
with a bleeding ulcer in the stomach or intestines;
with nephrotic syndrome;
at .

Gamma globulins are elevated in the blood:

for viral and bacterial infections;
for systemic connective tissue diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma);
for allergies;
for burns;
with helminthic infestation.

When is the level of protein fractions reduced?

in newborns due to underdevelopment of liver cells;
for lungs;
during pregnancy;
for liver diseases;
with bleeding;
in case of plasma accumulation in body cavities;
for malignant tumors.

Not only cell construction occurs in the body. They also break down, and in the process, nitrogenous bases accumulate. They are formed in the human liver and are excreted through the kidneys. Therefore, if the indicators nitrogen metabolism elevated, then there is likely to be a dysfunction of the liver or kidneys, as well as excessive breakdown of proteins. Basic indicators of nitrogen metabolism – creatinine , urea . Less commonly detected are ammonia, creatine, residual nitrogen, and uric acid.

Urea (urea)

glomerulonephritis, acute and chronic;
nephrosclerosis;
poisoning with various substances - dichloroethane, ethylene glycol, mercury salts;
arterial hypertension;
crash syndrome;
polycystic disease or kidney;

Reasons causing the decrease:

increased urine output;
administration of glucose;
liver failure;
decrease in metabolic processes;
starvation;
hypothyroidism

Creatinine

Reasons for the increase:

renal failure in acute and chronic forms;
decompensated;
acromegaly;
muscle dystrophy;
burns.

Uric acid

Reasons for the increase:

leukemia;
vitamin B-12 deficiency;
acute infectious diseases;
Vaquez disease;
liver diseases;
severe diabetes mellitus;
skin pathologies;
carbon monoxide poisoning, barbiturates.

Glucose

Glucose is considered the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. It is the main energy product that enters the cell, since the vital activity of the cell depends specifically on oxygen and glucose. After a person has eaten, glucose enters the liver, and there it is utilized in the form glycogen . These pancreatic processes are controlled - and glucagon . Due to a lack of glucose in the blood, hypoglycemia develops; its excess indicates that hyperglycemia is occurring.

Violation of blood glucose concentration occurs in the following cases:

Hypoglycemia

with prolonged fasting;
in case of malabsorption of carbohydrates - with enteritis, etc.;
with hypothyroidism;
for chronic liver pathologies;
with chronic adrenal insufficiency;
with hypopituitarism;
in case of overdose of insulin or hypoglycemic drugs taken orally;
with, insulinoma, meningoencephalitis, .

Hyperglycemia

for diabetes mellitus of the first and second types;
with thyrotoxicosis;
in case of tumor development;
with the development of tumors of the adrenal cortex;
with pheochromocytoma;
in people who practice treatment with glucocorticoids;
at ;
for injuries and brain tumors;
with psycho-emotional agitation;
if carbon monoxide poisoning occurs.

Specific colored proteins are peptides that contain metal (copper, iron). These are myoglobin, hemoglobin, cytochrome, cerulloplasmin, etc. Bilirubin is the end product of the breakdown of such proteins. When the existence of a red blood cell in the spleen ends, biliverdin reductase produces bilirubin, which is called indirect or free. This bilirubin is toxic, so it is harmful to the body. However, since its rapid connection with blood albumin occurs, poisoning of the body does not occur.

At the same time, in people who suffer from cirrhosis or hepatitis, there is no connection with glucuronic acid in the body, so the analysis shows high level bilirubin. Next, indirect bilirubin binds to glucuronic acid in liver cells, and it is converted into conjugated or direct bilirubin (DBil), which is not toxic. Its high level is observed when Gilbert's syndrome , biliary dyskinesias . If liver tests are performed, they may show high levels of direct bilirubin if liver cells are damaged.

Rheumatic tests

Rheumatic tests – a comprehensive immunochemical blood test, which includes a study to determine rheumatoid factor, an analysis of circulating immune complexes, and the determination of antibodies to o-streptolysin. Rheumatic tests can be carried out independently, as well as as part of studies that involve immunochemistry. Rheumatic tests should be carried out if there are complaints of joint pain.

conclusions

Thus, a general therapeutic detailed biochemical blood test is a very important study in the diagnostic process. For those who want to conduct a full extended HD blood test or OBC in a clinic or laboratory, it is important to take into account that each laboratory uses a certain set of reagents, analyzers and other equipment. Consequently, the norms of indicators may vary, which must be taken into account when studying what a clinical blood test or biochemistry results show. Before reading the results, it is important to make sure that the form issued by the medical institution indicates the standards in order to interpret the test results correctly. The norm of OAC in children is also indicated on the forms, but a doctor must evaluate the results obtained.

Many people are interested in: blood test form 50 - what is it and why take it? This is a test to determine the antibodies that are in the body if it is infected. F50 analysis is done both when HIV is suspected and for the purpose of prevention in healthy person. It is also worth properly preparing for such a study.

Education: Graduated from Rivne State Basic Medical College with a degree in Pharmacy. Graduated from Vinnytsia State medical University them. M.I. Pirogov and internship at his base.

Experience: From 2003 to 2013, she worked as a pharmacist and manager of a pharmacy kiosk. She was awarded diplomas and decorations for many years of conscientious work. Articles on medical topics were published in local publications (newspapers) and on various Internet portals.