Triumphal procession in Rome story based on the painting. Triumph of Bacchus. Description of the painting by Velazquez. Triumphal processions in Rome

Arch of Constantine This is the largest surviving Roman triumphal arch. It has reached us in almost its original condition, with the exception of metal parts, in particular, a four-meter quadriga at the top. The history of the arch, as well as the deeds of Emperor Constantine in Rome and beyond, continue to cause controversy to this day.

In addition to arches, temples, sanctuaries, and civil buildings were built along or near the route of the triumphal procession in honor of the victory.

In order to understand the purpose for which the Romans built triumphal arches, you need to understand what a triumphal procession was.

Northern façade of the arch

Triumphal processions in Rome

Triumph was a ritual ceremonial procession with which the Senate awarded Roman military leaders. This was a tradition that formed in the 4th century BC. to demonstrate power and glorify the emperor.

Initially the triumph was a procession carrying the broken weapons of the defeated enemy. According to the Roman historian Lucius Annaeus Florus (c. 70 - 140), before the victory of Manius Curius Dentatus over the king of Epirus Pyrrhus in 275 BC. the triumphal processions were not so spectacular: “until that time, the only booty that could be seen were the cattle of the Volcinians, the herds of the Sabines, the carts of the Gauls and the broken weapons of the Samnites” (Florus, 1.13.26). After defeating Pyrrhus in the triumphal processions one could see “Molossians, Salonicians, Macedonians, Bruttians, Apulians and Lucanians ... statues of gold and charming Tarentine painted panels” (Florus, 1.13.27). The more lands Rome conquered, the more money, metals, jewelry, weapons, statues, paintings, rare trees, animals and prisoners its generals (“triumphants”) brought to the city.

According to the historian Titus Livy, there was no reward more honorable for a Roman than triumph. In order for a military leader to be awarded a triumph, he had to meet all criteria:

- hold a certain position (dictator, consul, proconsul, praetor or propraetor);
- defeat a foreign enemy of equal status, killing at least 5,000 people (rebellious slaves, for example, were not considered an “equal enemy”);
- to be proclaimed emperor by his soldiers;
— bring the army home (i.e. finish the war to the end);
- obtain approval from the Senate to hold a triumphal procession.

Due to the high demands, the triumph was very a rare and prestigious award. Before the Punic Wars (264 - 146 BC), there was rarely more than one triumph per year. During the expansion of the empire, triumphs were held more frequently, for example from 200 to 170 BC. 35 have passed triumphal processions.

Approximate route of the triumphal procession in Rome

The triumphant was allowed distribute captured loot between the state, the army, the generals and himself at his own discretion. From his share, each commander, first of all, donated part of what was captured to Jupiter Optima Maximus, since, when going to war, he usually promised this to him in exchange for support. Then, from his own share of the spoils, the victor could organize special games.

The ritual nature of the triumphal procession meant that the order of the procession was strictly defined (at least during the Republican period). At the head of each procession rode senators and other high-ranking Romans, followed by musicians, then they carried booty, and led animals intended for sacrifice on the altar of Jupiter Optima Maximus. The prisoners were led before the army, which headed by a triumphant. If someone from the family of the ruler of the conquered people was captured in the war, then he was led directly in front of the triumphant, riding on a quadriga. Behind him stood a slave who was supposed to hold a laurel wreath over his head and whisper throughout the procession “respice post te!” Hominem te memento!” (“look back! Remember that you are human!”).

Triumphal processions never didn't follow the same path, because, firstly, the city was constantly being rebuilt, and secondly, each military leader visited altars and temples associated with the history of his family.

South facade of the arch

Arch history and questions

After Constantine ended the civil war and went to Rome with his army, the Roman Senate ordered construction to begin in his honor. triumphal arch. As it is written on it, it was dedicated simultaneously to the tenth anniversary of the imperial reign of Constantine and his victory over the then reigning Emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, which occurred 28,312 years ago. The official opening of this triumphal arch took place on 25,315. In the same year, the Decennalia took place in Rome - sport games, which were held in honor of the gods once every ten years of the emperor's reign.

The arch is 25.7 meters wide, 21 meters high and 7.4 meters deep. It was built from used Pro-Connessian marble (modern Turkish island of Marmara).

Since the arch consists from details from different periods, the history of its construction causes a lot of controversy. Many scholars believe that this was Hadrian's triumphal arch, which was partially rebuilt under Constantine.

Others are of the opinion that the arch was built, or at least began to build under Maxentius(306 – 312). This emperor was distinguished by the fact that, unlike his predecessors, he concentrated his attention not on protecting the borders, but on restoring the city, for which he even earned the epithet “conservator urbis suae” (“guardian of his city”). Constantine, among other things, was perceived as the man who overthrew one of Rome's greatest benefactors, which is why he had to issue a decree on the “damnatio memoriae” of Maxentius, and erase his name from all monuments. Therefore, there is a possibility that initially this was not the triumphal arch of Constantine, but of Maxentius, whom he defeated.

In the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was turned into strengthening for one of the rich Roman families (the same fate befell, for example,). The first restoration work took place here in the 18th century, and the last archaeological excavations took place in the late 1990s. During the 1960 Summer Olympics, the Arch of Constantine served as the finishing line for the running competition.

View of the Arch of Constantine from the second level of the Colosseum

Choosing a location for the Arch of Constantine

Triumphal arches in Rome usually stood along the route of the triumphal procession. Before the architects of Constantine stood not an easy task: They needed to place an arch where the road (called in modern times the "Via Triumphala") entered the Piazza Flavius, and due to the asymmetry they had to choose between orienting the arch to the road or to the square. Adding to the complexity was the fact that at the intersection there was already a Meta Sudans fountain, which had nothing to do with military victories and with its appearance could destroy the symbolic content of the future arch. The architects found an unusual elegant solution all these topographical problems. They chose a place not on the road itself, but somewhat to the north, which is why the arch ended up in the square. Thanks to this, they got rid of the need to place the central span of the arch above the road and moved it two meters to the east. This was not very noticeable to contemporaries, but because of this shift, the architects were able to ensure that the high cone of the Meta Sudans fountain was almost completely hidden behind the second support of the arch. In addition, thanks to this shift, a giant bronze statue became visible across the central span. sun god statue(“Colossus”, from which the Flavius Theater received its second name), which was located 108 meters from it. The creation of an association between the sun god (“Invincible Sun” or Sol Invictus) and the emperor was necessary during the period of civil wars and the strengthening of the eastern provinces.

Arch of Constantine and the round base of the Meta Sudans fountain

Description of the arch

Northern facade (from the Colosseum side)

Northern façade of the arch dedicated to peaceful activities Emperor Constantine.

On the wide upper part of the arch above each column stands Daka sculpture, the creation of which dates back to the reign of Emperor Trajan (98 – 117). The Dacians stand on square pedestals made of gray Karysto marble from the Greek island of Euboea.

Above the central part is located inscription, identical from both facades. It reads:

IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO
P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R
QVOD INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS
MAGNITVDINE · CVM · EXERCITV · SVO
· TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS
FACTIONE VNO TEMPORE IVSTIS
REMPVBLICAM VLTVS EST ARMIS
ARCVM TRIVMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT

“To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine, the great, virtuous and blessed Augustus: because, inspired by a higher power and his great mind, his army and force of arms, he liberated the state from a tyrant and from all his followers, the Senate and people of Rome dedicated to him this triumphal arch."

Inscription on the south side of the arch

This inscription was originally made bronze letters, but to date only well-readable gaps have been preserved.

The expression “INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS” causes the greatest amount of controversy in this inscription, i.e. " inspired by a higher power/deity." It is considered to be a symbol of the beginning of a change in the religious preferences of Emperor Constantine. The early Christian writers Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea referred to the story that before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312, the Christian god sent Constantine a sign in the form of a large cross in the sky (the original cross that later became part of the labarum). From the same year, the emperor began to support Christians, although until 324 only the Sun god was listed in official documents (including on coins). With the vague wording “inspired by a higher power,” the author of the inscription on the arch probably wanted to please both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the defeated enemy is not named, but is simply called a “tyrant,” emphasizing the legality of his murder.

On the sides of the inscription, above the small arches, located in pairs relief panels of Carrara marble, which were taken from an unknown structure erected in honor of the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni and Sarmatians, thanks to which he was awarded a triumph in 176. The panels show (from left to right):
- an emperor returning to Rome after a military campaign;
- the emperor leaving the city, greeted by the personification of Flaminia Street;
- an emperor distributing money to the people (the figure of Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, who was punished with the “curse of memory” is erased here);
- Emperor interrogating a German prisoner.

Two panels on the left and two ducks

Two panels on the right

Couples circlelow reliefs of white Carrara marble with a diameter of about 2 meters, located above each of the two side arches, date back to the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138), since they are made in the style of the early - mid-second century and in one of the scenes a close friend of the emperor stands in the background Adriana Antinous. However, their identification poses a problem because some of them are incomplete.

The medallions depict scenes of hunting and sacrifice (from left to right):
- willing to hunt wild boar;
- sacrifice to Apollo;
— lion hunting;
- sacrifice to Hercules

The head of Emperor Hadrian was redone on all medallions: in scenes of the hunt for Constantine, and in scenes of sacrifice - for Licinius or Constantius I. The space around the circular reliefs was decorated with porphyry, however, this decoration is preserved only around the right pair of medallions on this side.

Medallions on the left, the inscription VOTIS X and a panel with Constantine's address to the Romans from the rostra

Two medallions with porphyry frame on the right, the inscription VOTIS XX and a panel on which Constantine distributes money to the Romans

Above the circular reliefs on this side of the arch is written " VOTISX" (left) and " VOTISXX" (on right). These inscriptions can be translated as "sacred oath for the 10th anniversary" and "sacred oath for the 20th anniversary." They refer to the 10th anniversary of Constantine's reign, which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315 (according to another version, he left Rome in early 313 and returned only in 326).

Below the circular reliefs on both the long and short sides are long narrow “historical” panels created under Constantine. They illustrate his military campaign against the Emperor Maxentius, in which he was victorious and for which he was granted a triumph. The western short panel depicts the departure of the army from Milan ("profectio"). The story continues on the south facade, which depicts the siege of Verona (obsidio) on the left and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (praelium, on the right), in which Constantine's army defeated the enemy and drove him into the Tiber. In the panel on the eastern narrow facade, Constantine's army enters Rome ("ingressus"), but not in the form of a triumphal procession, since Constantine probably did not want to show off his triumph. The northern facade, looking towards the city, depicts his actions after he became sole ruler: he addresses the Romans in the forum from the rostra, behind which the arches of Septimius Severus and Tiberius (orazio, left) are visible, and distributes money to them (“liberalitas”, right).

On each long side of the Arch of Constantine there is four Corinthian columns with flutes on high bases. Seven of the columns are carved from Numidian yellow marble, and the eighth is carved from white marble, since the original column was transported to the Lateran Basilica (later there it was replaced by a column of yellow-violet Phrygian marble). Bases of all columns decorated with reliefs similar to the reliefs of the Arch of Septimius Severus and the destroyed New Arch of Diocletian. The front depicts the goddess of victory Victoria, who either writes an inscription on a shield or holds palm branches, and on the sides there are reliefs in the form of captive barbarians or captive barbarians and Roman soldiers. Probably, such decorations were standard for triumphal arches of their time. The bases of the columns were made during the reign of Emperor Constantine.

Bases (plinths) of columns on the north side of the arch

The extreme plinth on the right on the north side

In the axils of the vaults The central arch on both sides has high reliefs in the form of Victorias holding trophies. In the axils of the vaults of the side arches there are high reliefs in the form of river gods. All of them, like the bases of the columns, date from the era of Constantine.

Victoria in the vaults of the central arch on the north side

River gods above the arch on the left

River gods above the right arch

South façade (forum side)

The southern façade of the arch is dedicated to the military activities of Emperor Constantine.

On the upper reliefs
- a captured enemy commander who was brought to the emperor;
- a prisoner who was brought to the emperor;
— the emperor makes a speech to the army;
- the emperor is going to sacrifice a pig, a sheep and an ox

Duckies and two panels on the left

Ducks and panels on the right

Below in round medallions above the side arches it is shown (from left to right):
- going hunting;
- making a sacrifice to Silvanus;
— bear hunting;
- sacrifice to Diana

On these medallions, Hadrian's head was remade into Licinius or Constantius I in hunting scenes and Constantine in sacrificial scenes.

Medallions on the left, inscription SIC X and panel depicting the Siege of Verona

Two medallions on the right, the inscription SIC XX and a relief panel depicting the Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Above the medallions on this side of the arch is written " SICX" (left) and " SICXX"(right), i.e. “for both the 10th and 20th anniversaries.” As on the opposite side, these inscriptions are made in honor of the tenth anniversary of the reign of Constantine.

Plinth in the center

Leftmost plinth on the south side (Victoria in the center, prisoners on the right)

Victoria in the vault of the central arch from the south side

River gods above the left arch on the south side

River gods in the vaults above the right arch on the south side

Short sides

On the top On the short sides, as well as inside the central arch, there are high (3 m) panels depicting scenes of Trajan's war with the Dacians. Initially, they formed a large frieze of Pentelic marble, which was located either in the Forum of Trajan or on the barracks of the imperial horse guard, which stood on the Caelian hill. These panels also date from 98 to 117 years.

Top panel on the west side

Top panel on east side

Below on the short sides of the arch is by medallion with reliefs depicting rising Sun(east side) and the moon(west side). Both in the form of women on chariots. These, unlike the medallions on the long sides, were made under Constantine. Their presence on the arch is a symbol of the eternity of the capital of Rome and links its reign with endless prosperity.

Moon medallion and panel depicting the departure of Constantine's army from Milan

Personification of the sun and panel depicting Constantine's army entering Rome (east side)

Interior of the Arch of Constantine

Inside central arch there are two panels depicting the war of Trajan (converted into Constantine) with the Dacians. On one, he is depicted on horseback slaying enemies, and on the other, standing awaiting his coronation by Victoria in the presence of personified Honor and Virtue.

Above each of the panels of the central arch there is a inscription, emphasizing that Constantine fought not to capture anything, but to liberate Rome from a tyrant:
"LIBERATORI VRBIS" ("liberator of the city")
"FUNDATORI QVIETIS" ("founder of the world")

Panel inside the central arch with Trajan (Constantine) on horseback and the inscription “liberator of the city”

Inside side arches two busts were carved on each side (8 in total), degraded to such an extent that they cannot be identified.

Busts in a side arch

Explanation of the description

The Arch of Constantine is an important example destruction of the classical Greek sculptural canon, which took place in Rome in the 4th century. The arch clearly shows the contrast between the panels made under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius and the panels made during the reign of Constantine. For example, on medallions from the era of Hadrian, hunting scenes are made in such a way that a feeling of free space is created in which people can go wherever they want, whereas on panels from the era of Constantine, people stand very close to each other, their gestures are not coordinated, and their poses are illogical. In addition, these figures have disproportionately large heads, short legs, identical cap hairstyles and angular capes. Their rank is shown not by composition, but very roughly - by changing the size of the entire body.

Why did the degradation occur? both style and execution?

This question gave rise to a lengthy discussion that did not end with a single conclusion. Possible reasons:
— destruction of the process of transfer of skill due to the political and economic crisis of the third century;
- increased influence of oriental and other pre-classical regional styles from the outskirts of the empire (unlikely);
- strengthening the influence of the simple “folk” or “Italic” style, which existed in parallel with the high Greek style for the needs of poor Romans;
— conscious rejection of the classical style.

Why were they used? details of other monuments?

- the placement of reliefs with the acts of Constantine next to the reliefs of the emperors of the “golden” second century symbolically equated him with them;
— the arch took only three years to build, and perhaps the craftsmen did not have time to create the required number of reliefs from scratch;
- the sculptors of the era of Constantine believed that they were not able to surpass their predecessors;
- the Romans of the 4th century lacked the skill to do a job worthy of an emperor.
Probably, to one degree or another, all these reasons together led to the use of old sculpted panels in the Arch of Constantine.

View of the northern façade of the arch from the Colosseum

Nearby attractions: Colosseum, Forum, Palatine Hill, Golden House of Nero, Ludus Magnus

Useful information about the triumphal arch of Constantine in Rome

Where is:
Between the Colosseum and the Forum

How to get there:
Colosseo metro station on line B (blue)

Colosseo Tourist Bus Stop

The work was added to the site website: 2016-03-13

Order writing a unique work

">Moscow State University

">culture and arts

">Theater and Directing Faculty

">Department of Directing Theatrical Performances

">Essay on the subject "Directing"

">Theme: Ancient Rome Triumphs

"> Completed by a student

"> Konoplev M. Yu.

"> 3 courses s/o TRF

"> group 10304

"> RTP and P

">Moscow, 2011

">Ancient Rome

">Triumphs

">The Triumphal Facts were published around 12 BC. They contained a list of triumphs from the founding of Rome to the reign of Augustus. As a historical phenomenon, it is a phenomenon that covers almost the entire Roman history of the 12th century.

">According to legend, the first triumphant was Romull, the legendary first king, founder of Rome (753 716 BC). The last Triumph took place in 403 BC, when the empire was bursting at the seams, it was the beginning of the end, times Emperor Ganori and commander Stili Hon. Romulus, brother of Remus, was the first to celebrate the triumph over the city of Cinir, which he did not enter on a chariot, but walked side by side. The two brothers were born from the Vestal priestess Rhea Silvia and the God of Mars, fed by a she-wolf, and the mother’s cares were replaced by the arrival of a woodpecker and lapwing. After Amulius imprisoned them in a basket and threw them into the Tiber (a river on the Apennine Peninsula, the third longest among the rivers of Italy), and the basket washed ashore. Subsequently, all these animals became sacred to Rome. Then the brothers were picked up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. His wife, Acca Larentia, not yet consoled after the death of her child, took the twins into her care. When Romulus and Remus grew up, they returned to Alba Longa where they learned the secret of their origin. They killed Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne.

"> Triumph originated in royal Rome, smoothly passed into the era of the republic, its heyday before the imperial era, and outlived Rome itself as an Empire. The Byzantine Emperors celebrated the triumphs. If you pay attention to our parades, these are like echoes of the triumphs. Like, for example, in 1944, prisoners were led as triumph of the civil war.

">There were also "">Hellenistic">" Triumphs this "> The royal triumphs."> Triumphs were generally described by Greek writers; they had better control of the pen.

">Aspects of triumph stand out primarily as a religious act, gratitude to the God of war for victory and, in general, to the pagan gods. There is a version that the Romans borrowed this procession as">Triumph at the Etruscans">, ancient tribes that inhabited the north-west in the first millennium BC Apennine Peninsula. The Etruscans were a very developed country, culture, painting, literacy, etc.

">The Romans throughout all centuries were a very warlike people. They fought almost constantly. Why did Emperor Augustus boast about the fact that before him the temple">Janus "> was closed only twice during the centuries,">this meant - there is no war">, and in his time three times. War is an imbalance, a serious shock for the people. When the Roman warriors returned home in blood, they had to be washed cleaned of the shed blood so that the Gods would forgive them. This ritual was done in order to so that the Gods would not be angry, otherwise the community could suffer. To restore this balance, the relationship of people with the Gods, the Triumph procedure was invented. It was necessary to bring cleansing sacrifices to the Gods, and the sacrifice itself took place at the end of the procession. In particular, passing under the Arc de Triomphe. Today there are about 280 arches, throughout the entire territory of the former Roman Empire. A real triumph could only take place in Rome, because at the culmination of the Triumph there was a sacrifice, in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and it was only in Rome, and victorious celebrations could take place in the provinces. Although Anthony and Cleopatra did this, this Triumph was not recognized in Rome, although it was a rich, magnificent action, as it were">quasi-triumph">.

">The very fact of passing under the arch or what symbolized it, like three spears standing in a field, symbolized the ritual cleansing of shed blood. There is a belief that the pomerium is a sacred feature on the territory of the city, where wars were not allowed to appear.

">At that time, the construction of cities was accompanied by various rituals. From the beginning, they dug a hole into which fruits and cereals that were beneficial to humans were placed. Then everyone threw a handful of earth into the hole, brought from the places where he came from. This symbolized the unity of the future citizens of the city. Then Romulus harnessed a bull and a cow to a plow and plowed a deep furrow where the city wall was to grow. In those places where he raised the plow, gaps formed in the furrow and, as it were, future gates were outlined. After the ritual was completed, the wall was considered sacred. One of first in the city an inviolable refuge for fugitives was built, dedicated to">God Aliza ">. In this refuge, fugitive slaves and debtors found shelter and protection. Rome accepted exiles and newcomers. No one was interested in their past.

">Triumphant "> is a person, a person who wins victories for the sake of the state. This Day (Triumph) was granted to this person to feel like Jupiter. Jupiter as we know in ancient mythology">god "> sky, daylight, thunderstorms, father of the gods, supreme deity of the Romans. Consort of the goddess">Juno ">. Corresponds to Greek">Zeus ">. God Jupiter was revered on the hills, mountain tops in the form of a stone. Full moon days are dedicated to him">ides ">.

">Temple ">Jupiter Capitalis stood on">Capitols "> where Jupiter is with Juno and">Minerva "> was one of the three most important Roman deities.

">It was very honorable to bestow this title of Triumphant on one person"">Primus-intersail">" - the first among equals, an outstanding commander who won the battle. Signed by the Senate and, as it were, by the people, the Romans, as it were, developed this practice of reconciling personal interests with public ones.

">And after that, lay down your power and never mention it after that. Perhaps the Triumphant dressed in the costume of Jupiter in imitation of him, a purple cloak with stars, a golden wreath, in general it is covered in the darkness of the unknown.

">Only the Triumphant Pompey was granted the privilege of appearing in a suit in public. But a special resolution was required.

">As is known, ">Pompey Roman general">, political and statesman. Almost at the end of his victories and life in civil war defeated Caesar, but then he himself was defeated by Caesar at Farsad and killed in Egypt, where he sought refuge:

"> Pompey celebrated the 1st Triumph in the year 81 over the African king Yarba;

">2nd Triumph over the Spanish tribes in the year 71;

">3rd in 61 over the Pirates and Metridators and celebrated the most luxurious Triumph in the history of the Roman Empire.

">The kings originally had the right to triumph, and their attire was like Jupiter,">red cloak is the color of blood red is the color of Jupiter">. The king's clothes are the clothes of Jupiter.">Purple Tunic"> (the so-called semi-matte tunic) decorated with golden palm leaves along the edges. Also">Toga Pict "> decorated with golden stars from the top and to">this one has a laurel wreath on his head"> But the Romans constantly modified this practice; it cannot be said that this was always the case.

">When the Triumphant rode in a chariot, he could also sit in a chair upholstered with ivory on wheels, and in addition to the laurel wreath on his head, his Arab servant held a golden wreath above his head. And only honored Triumphants like Pompey and Caesar had the right to wear a golden wreath on their heads in other solemn situations, or even permanently.Caesar, who became Dictator for life, he could afford almost everything.

">There were many different triumphs, both large and small, which were called “ovations.” There were postscripts, the Roman aristocrats had the right of masks. At funerals, the rule of masks showed ancestors, relatives, and for the triumphers it was a temptation, which showed the prestige of the family, actors, dressed in costumes, masks of triumphants, consuls, Caesars, they walked and this played on the prestige of the family.

">After the kings, the highest had the right to triumph">master's degrees">, ">half a master's degree">, ">consuls ">, ">proconsuls ">, "> praetors ">, ">propraetors "> who commanded the army and won. It was believed that at least 5000 thousand enemies should have been killed in a major battle. Then the Senate decided to give him this right of Triumph or not.

">The right to triumph belonged to the commander who had the highest military power, commanded himself, and not under someone else. The Senate allocated funds for this. The triumphants brought with them and plundered in victory, in good faith, had to hand over everything to the treasury, True, the commander gave something to his soldiers, although the soldiers themselves could loot themselves during the campaign. There is also a version that the soldiers were against the commander being given the title of Triumphant if they did not like him because he did not share with them .

">Example: Consul Emilius Paulus Lucius won a victory in 168 BC, with Macedonia, it was a great victory, Macedonia was defeated. Emilius Paulus was awarded the Triumph, and the soldiers were against it, because they did not like their commander, because didn’t want to share with them. The consul thought that to be honest, you need to hand it over to">RIRARIUM-KAZNU ">. He introduced a kind of complete regulation. He died in complete poverty, a completely poor man. Although he captured fantastic booty in the war with Macidonia.

">Emileus Paulus Lucius, Roman military leader in 172 BC. He was elected consul and received a triumph for the victory over the Ligogi tribe to end the 3rd Macedonian War. The Romans elected him consul for the second time and gave him the command and on June 22, 168 BC AD Aemilius won a brilliant victory over Macedonia, King Perseus, which decided the outcome of the war. Aemilius returned to Rome and celebrated his 2nd Triumph, one of the magnificent triumphs in the 2nd century BC. It was celebrated for three days For two days they carried only trophies and not all the treasures, works of art, hundreds of carts, jugs of silver and gold.After this victory, Roman citizens did not pay taxes for 200 years.

">And when the commander returned with victory, it was as if a test was being prepared for him on the Champ de Mars, where fate was being decided, as it were, the fate of the hero who won with his army to give him Triumph or not. And then he could become immediately after the decision of the Senate equal among equals if he does not receive a triumph. The Senate met there on the Campus Martius on a hill in the temple"> Bellona "> this ">temple to the Goddess of War">. And the question of whether to give him a triumph or not was discussed. The applicant made a report and at its best provided them with his achievements. Of course, they could have turned it around here. The army was also waiting with its commander. They had no right to enter the city armed without having cleansed themselves after shed blood. Of course, there were also cases when the enemies were taken by surprise, they immediately surrendered and, accordingly, there was no battle, no defeats, and there could be no talk of triumph here. The warriors seemed to have to help their commander if they liked him. They voted for him, as if campaigning was carried out in the national assembly so that he would be given a triumph. If it was decided to award him this triumph, a day was appointed, the day of entry into the city. The winner awaited this procession in a special room, a public city building, where the secretaries sat. Although there was a case when Siteke and his colleagues achieved a triumph over surrendered enemies, they were most likely helped by well-known influential people.

">Day of triumph.

">The triumphant should have received a reward and pleasure, essentially trying on the role of Jupiter when his face was supposedly painted, maybe it was the Greeks, i.e. the Greek writers lied, they mastered the feast well, but did not know everything about the Romans. Maybe they were influenced "">Hellenistic triumphs" it seems were in Greece.

">Next we had to go through the Champs de Mars, through the Arc de Triomphe (gate) and the whole city, always without weapons, having cleansed ourselves in our hands with palm branches in ceremonial clothes, singing songs. We moved around the city, where citizens stood in wreaths decorated with flowers, garlands of flowers, along these streets previously occupied places, in the windows too. The route was designed so as to pass the most crowded places. Be sure to go through the Circus of Flaminia, built by order"> Gaius Flaminius and was named after him. This"> ancient Roman politician and commander, consul, through">The Great Circus"> (lat. " xml:lang="la-Latn" lang="la-Latn">Circus Maximus">. Circus Maximus) the most extensive;vertical-align:super"> "> hippodrome in Ancient Rome. Located in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine. Twelve chariots could take part in competitions at the hippodrome at the same time. Pass the theaters and go to the forum and there is the most solemn part,">Via Sacra "> or like a sacred road. Behind the temples of Soturn, the ascent to the Capitol (sacred mountain), in front of it the prisoners were separated, not all the prisoners were executed, those who were the most noble were taken to the right, where there was a prison (punishment cell) and given death. Some of the prominent prisoners Jugurtha, with whom they fought for a long time, then the famous Verzen Gitorik. Then the Triumphant rode, standing on a round gilded chariot, ascended the Capitol in one hand was a rod, in the other a palm branch, there he made a sacrifice to Jupiter. For this purpose, at the beginning they drove bulls with gilded horns After that, he took off his luxurious clothes, as they called them.">Tunico Palmata"> (">Tunic "> clothing in the shape of a bag with an opening for the head and arms, usually covering the entire body from shoulders to hips, a toga-pict decorated with gold stars (">Toga "> outerwear of male citizens in Ancient Rome a piece of white woolen fabric, elliptical in shape, draped around the body. Persons who did not have the status of citizens were not allowed to wear a toga,">gilded shoes, laurel wreath"> ">, rod (scepter) with an eagle royal rod from Ivory "> and then after that he became a simple one of the people an ordinary citizen he arranged for his own people, senators, colleagues, people, comrades-in-arms, soldiers. Depending on how much the Triumphant could afford, thousands of tables in the city for the entire Roman people .Especially Pompey and Caesar could afford the huge and luxurious Triumphs of Pompey 4 and Caesar 5 Triumphs. And as it was known that the commander on the battlefield was already proclaimed Emperor - the bearer of the empire. This was already, as it were, an application for triumph and if the Senate confirmed the application, then he could celebrate the Triumph.

">I would like to remember about the Triumphal Arches. The Arch of Titus is a single-span 71 year, after Titus captured Jerusalem, the Jews walked who later built the Colosseum. But this arch was finally built 10 years later (the current one). What was it originally made of? made unknown. Maybe before that they were wooden like the Triumphal Arch of Ukhtomsky, the current arch “Red Gate” through which Elizaveta Petrovna was crowned in 1742. That is, the arches were built in honor of the Emperors, the arches were different, four, three, two , single-span and always stood at the top">statues "> or ">quadrigas ">.

">The Romans were superstitious and, in order to avoid the evil eye, the soldiers were allowed to mock the commander, sing offensive songs about him, compose ditties and remember all the troubles during the campaign.

">Order of the procession. The column was divided into three parts:

">a) "> at the beginning, there were always musicians - trumpeters, flute players, sacrificial animals up to a hundred bulls, and maybe more with gilded horns, most likely ceremonial marches and military songs sounded. Perhaps these were various noises because they were playing, the tops were singing songs, noise was great everyone was screaming">EVUE-TRIUMPHS ">, most likely the word triumph came from this, “hey triumph.” The emperor himself had to slaughter at least one bull.

">b) "> (in Hellenistic times there were more trophies), then they carried trophies captured in battle, sets of weapons, then paintings, bronze, works of art, images of cities in miniature. These could be true ribbons with inscriptions, banners, banners, models - everything that could give understand about the conquest of the city that was captured. Of course, the matter also could not be done without lies, as it probably happened with Julius Caesar, that he conquered 1 million, killed 1 million and captured 1 million.

">c) "> and after the trophies came the prisoners, the more honorable prisoners, the better, several dozen commanders. As, for example, in the Triumph of Emil Paul, the king of Macedonia Perseus himself walked, all in black clothes, three children walked next to him, two boys and one girl, and what’s interesting is that the audience was touched, shed tears of tenderness, was filled with compassion, the children didn’t even understand what was happening. By the way, it is not necessary that all the prisoners were executed, they were released, imprisoned, although for the prisoners who were held in triumph this was a great shame, especially for Perseus, although Perseus was offered to resolve this issue by killing himself, but he never decided, or like the famous Palmera queen">Zenobia Septimia -"> second wife of King Odaenathus II of Palmyra, she then lived out her days in the villa that the emperor gave her.

">d) "> After the prisoners, the Triumphant himself walked, standing on a chariot drawn by four white horses with a red face, i.e. complete likeness to Jupiter.

">As they wrote that Pompey would allegedly like to ride under the arch on elephants.

">If you take the uprising of Spartacus, Krasus defeated him and he was counting on triumph. But triumph was not given with an unworthy opponent, although Spartacus’ warriors were worthy, but from the political side they were ordinary slave gladiators and Krasus (">Marcus Licinius Crassus"> ancient Roman general and political figure, triumvir, one of richest people of its time) offered "Ovation". The triumphant man walked or rode on horseback, only Krasus was allowed to mount">horse "> and instead of ">myrtle "> wreath (">Myrtle "> a genus of southern evergreen woody plants with white fluffy flowers containing essential oil, also myrtle used to be called a wreath of flowers and leaves of such a tree or its branch a symbol of silence, peace and pleasure) dressed in laurel. In Ovation, they did not sacrifice a bull, but only one sheep and it was a modest procession. For the entire time there were only 23 ovations, and there were many more triumphs.

">There were three types of Triumphs:

">Great Triumph;

">Triumph on Alban Mountain"> its highest point, the peak of Monte Cavo, on it a temple to Jupiter was built. In this shrine, the Latins celebrated their celebrations, and the Roman consuls sometimes celebrated their triumphs;

">Ovation - "> was a reduced form of triumph in Ancient Rome. Ovations were awarded when defeating an enemy, but not in the case of war declared at the state level, but in the case of lesser enemies (slaves, pirates), or when the conflict was resolved with little blood or little danger to the army.

">The general celebrating the ovation did not enter the city in chariots drawn by two white horses, as in the case of a triumph, but usually walked in a magistrate's toga with purple stripes. At a triumph, the generals wore an entirely purple toga, decorated with gold embroidery.

">The decorated general also wore a wreath of myrtle (dedicated to Venus), while in triumph a laurel wreath was worn. Roman senators did not walk ahead of the general, and soldiers also did not participate in the procession.

">And there was also a very rare naval triumph this is a type of great Triumph. But it took place on land. The Romans did not fight very actively at sea. It consisted in the fact that after the procession, after the feast of the Triumphant, a flute player and a torch bearer accompanied this honor and granted the commander Hyde Willie.

">After the 19th year BC, the republican triumph gave way to a long life because everything already belonged to the monarch, i.e. the emperor who became the monarch, and after that there were fewer and fewer triumphants. Basically, these were the triumphs of one person and Monarch by special occasions expanded his commanders, granted them “Uronomento-Triumfale” i.e. Triumphal decorations. On special occasions they could appear in a purple tuga with a wreath.

">The concept of “Triumph” seems to consist of three parts: the People;

"> Emperor and Triumphant.

Order writing a unique work

Original taken from mayak_parnasa at the Festival "Times and Epochs. ROME" - Triumph.

Last weekend in Kolomenskoye Park there was a festival "Times and Epochs" dedicated to the reconstruction of ancient events. Today we want to tell you about the most memorable event in the entire history of Ancient Rome - the meeting of the Triumphant. All guests could attend and take part in the honoring of the triumphant and his legions last Sunday.
Next we will try to talk about this significant event.

Spectators gathered in the stands, where preparations began for a rare and solemn event - a triumph.

Vestals.

Triumph (lat. triumphus) in Rome is the ceremonial entry into the capital of a victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning at the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, Triumph began to be allowed only under a number of conditions. Triumph was considered the highest award for a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had an empire and led the war as commander-in-chief, without submitting to the authority of another commander.

The first to enter the sand of the arena were the saviors of Rome - the geese. In ancient times, it was these birds who managed to rouse the guards with their screams and prevent enemies from storming the Capitol.

The passage of geese through the arena, to the applause of the audience.

One of the beautiful birds managed to escape from the pen and when trying to drive it back, this proud bird managed to take off and leave the arena to the approving roar of the crowd.

Freedom-loving goose.

The flag bearers and dancers appeared next in the arena.

And then the fanfare began to sound.

Fanfara (Italian fanfara, French fanfare) - natural brass musical instrument, used primarily for signaling, is an elongated pipe with a narrow bore, usually without valves. Also, fanfare is a musical phrase of a solemn or warlike nature, presented with the help of this instrument.

To the sound of fanfare, lictors appeared carrying fasces representing power.

Lictor with fascia.

Lictor (lat. lictor) is a special type of civil servant; mentioned in history since the reign of the Etruscan kings in Rome (VII century BC). Initially, lictors were executors of the orders of magistrates cum imperio. Subsequently, they carried out only ceremonial and security functions with them, which consisted of accompanying the highest magistrates and ensuring that they were given proper honors. They were armed with fasces.

Fasces (lat. fasces) (otherwise chamfers, fasces, also lictorial bundles) are an attribute of the power of kings, and in the era of the Roman Republic - high magistrates. Bunches of elm or birch twigs tied with red cord or tied with belts. Initially they symbolized the magistrate's right to enforce his decisions by force. Outside the city limits, an ax (often an ax) was stuck into the fasces, symbolizing the magistrate’s right to execute and pardon his subjects (within cities, the people were the highest authority for death sentences). The right to wear fasces was assigned to lictors. Subsequently, in heraldry, lictor's fasces began to symbolize state and national unity, and are also perceived as a symbol of the protection of statehood. In this interpretation, they are used in our time by many states and organizations.

The scent of disposable oil filled the air and rose petals covered the sand of the arena.

It's time to join the cheers" Io triumphe" of the hero of the occasion himself.

Triumphant.

Triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who was seeking triumph, was awaiting a decision on whether he would be granted triumph while outside the city limits, due to the fact that a magistrate who had not yet formed an imperium was not allowed to enter the city. Therefore, in this case, the Senate gathered outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, triumphants received imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those participating in it gathered early in the morning on the Campus Martius, where the triumphant was staying in a public building (lat. villa publica) at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious suit, similar to the robe of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga (lat. toga picta) decorated with gold stars, gilded shoes, took a laurel branch in one hand, and in the other held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.

Empire (Latin imperium, from the Latin verb imperare - to command) in Ancient Rome is a public legal concept that characterizes the highest executive power in the Roman community. Imperium was used in the military (militiae) and civil (domi) spheres. The one to whom the empire was given could act on behalf of the state in all areas of public life.

The triumphant rode standing on a round gilded chariot drawn by four horses. When Camill first harnessed white horses during his triumph, it was met with a murmur from the public, but subsequently white horses during his triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and wealth of captured military booty.

Triumphant and state slave.

The triumphant was followed by carts with trophies and booty. IN ancient times, while Rome waged wars with its poor neighbors, the spoils were simple: the main part of it was weapons, livestock and captives. But when Rome began to wage war in the rich, cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought so much booty that they had to stretch out the triumph for two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried many weapons, enemy banners, and subsequently also images of captured cities and fortresses and various kinds symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the objects carried. Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. They often carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.

War booty.

Signs with captured cities and countries.

A strange animal, a leopard.

The enemy of Rome is the leader of the barbarians.

Noble prisoners.

The victorious legions of Rome entered the arena behind the trophies and slaves, bearing the power of the Senate and the People throughout the entire Oecumene.
Once again the audience's attention was captured by the beautiful dancers. Meanwhile, the priestesses of Vesta were preparing a triumphal arch of flowers, passing under which the troops were cleared. Before passing through the arch of war, they disarmed and entered the city as civilians. But during the time of a professional army, legionnaires again took up arms to protect the interests of the Empire.

Starting on the Campus Martius, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two crowded circuses (Flaminiev and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum up to the Capitol. There the triumphant dedicated laurels of fasces to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the refreshment of magistrates and senators, often soldiers, and even the entire public; For the latter, games were also organized in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave gifts to the public. There were gifts for the soldiers general rule and sometimes reached significant sums (for example, Caesar’s soldiers received five thousand denarii).

The triumphant makes a sacrifice to Jupiter.

Persons who received a triumph had the right to subsequently wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s reluctance to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having reserved the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders, in return for the triumph, only the right to wear triumphal attire (lat. ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on special occasions and placed statues of the winners among the statues of the triumphants.

So this triumph passed. Like everything bright and solemn, it is as short-lived as everything in this world. The triumph is over, but the celebration will still last.

This is how our weekend went, we were able to immerse ourselves in Roman history, look at the triumphant, and see the battles of the legions. IN Once again The Ratobortsy club gave Moscow a wonderful holiday, we hope that this tradition will not be interrupted.

triumphus) in Rome- the ceremonial entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning at the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, Triumph began to be allowed only under a number of conditions. Triumph was considered the highest award for a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had an empire and led the war as commander-in-chief, without submitting to the authority of another commander. Triumph could be received by both ordinary magistrates (consuls, praetors, proconsuls and propraetors), as well as dictators and persons who received high command by virtue of a special popular decree (lat. imperium extraordinarium). The triumph was determined by the Senate, but sometimes, if the Senate refused the triumph, the military leader was able to obtain it by virtue of a decree people's assembly, as was the case, for example, with the dictator Marcius Rutilus (the first of the plebeians).

Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century.

Triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who was seeking triumph, was awaiting a decision on whether he would be granted triumph while outside the city limits, due to the fact that a magistrate who had not yet formed an imperium was not allowed to enter the city. Therefore, in this case, the Senate gathered outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, triumphants received imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those participating in it gathered early in the morning on the Campus Martius, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was a triumphant man at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious suit, similar to the robe of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.

In ancient times, while Rome waged wars with its poor neighbors, the spoils were simple: the main part of it consisted of weapons, livestock and captives. But when Rome began to wage war in the rich, cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought so much booty that they had to stretch out the triumph for two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, subsequently also images of captured cities and fortresses and various kinds of symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the objects carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. They often carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.

Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, gave for the triumph many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. There were also golden wreaths presented to the winner different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paulus there were about 400, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa there were about 3,000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. In the eyes of Roman commanders, noble captives were a particularly valuable decoration of triumph: defeated kings, their families and assistants, and enemy commanders. Some of the prisoners during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison lying on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such beatings of prisoners were common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be cited from a later era: this is how Jugurtha and Caesar’s opponent in Gaul, Vercingetorix, died. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fasces entwined with laurel; buffoons entertained the crowd.

The triumphant man was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was just a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens freed from captivity by the triumphant, and soldiers in full finery, with all the awards they had, made a procession. They exclaimed “Jo triumphe” and sang impromptu songs in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Campus Martius, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two crowded circuses (Flaminiev and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum up to the Capitol. There the triumphant dedicated laurels of fasces to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the refreshment of magistrates and senators, often soldiers, and even the entire public; For the latter, games were also organized in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave gifts to the public. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar’s soldiers received five thousand denarii).

Persons who received a triumph had the right to subsequently wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s reluctance to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having reserved triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other generals, in return for triumph, only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on special occasions and placed statues of the victors among the statues of the triumphants. The last triumph was, it seems, celebrated by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called “ovation.”

Links

Fasti Triumphales - Triumphal fasts (English)

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what “Triumph (Ancient Rome)” is in other dictionaries:

ANCIENT ROME- Roman Forum Roman Forum ancient civilization in Italy and the Mediterranean, centered in Rome. It was based on the urban community (lat. civitas) of Rome, which gradually extended its power, and then its right, to the entire Mediterranean. Being... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia

This term has other meanings, see Emperor (meanings). Emperor (lat. imperator lord, master, commander) is an ancient Roman honorary military title, most common during the Late Republic. Honorary title... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Ovation (meanings). Ovation (lat. ovatio) was a reduced form of triumph in Ancient Rome. Ovations were awarded for victory over the enemy, but not in case of war declared at the level... ... Wikipedia

Capital of Italy. The city is located on the river. Tiber, ancient name which Rumo or Rumon served as the basis for the formation of the name Rome (Italian: Roma). It is assumed that the name of the river is associated with the name of one of the ancient Etruscan tribes... ... Geographical Encyclopedia - Founding of Rome ... Wikipedia

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Statue of Emperor Augustus in the Vatican Museum Octavian Augustus became the first emperor (in the modern sense) of Rome: after defeating Mark Antony and returning from ... Wikipedia

LESSON 2. ROMAN CONQUESTS IN THE 2nd CENTURY B.C.

Under consideration further development Roman aggression and the establishment of Roman dominance throughout the Mediterranean. The aggressive nature of the wars of the 2nd century is emphasized on the part of the Romans. BC e., as a result of which the once independent flourishing regions were turned into powerless provinces, plundered by the conquerors.

Options for starting a lesson: I. B 1, 3-5; A 1, 3; B 6-7. II. B 1, 3-4; A 2; B 6-7. III. B 1, 3-5, 7; A 3. IV. B 1-7. Questions and tasks:

A. 1. What began first: the second Punic War or the campaign of Alexander’s troops in Asia? How much earlier? Draw a “time line” on the board and mark the required dates on it. 2. One student should draw on the board a plan of the location of the Roman troops at Cannae, the direction of military attacks, and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of its legionnaire participant. Another student should draw the formation of the Carthaginian troops, the direction of their attacks and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of a warrior in Hannibal’s army. The teacher guides the answers, giving the floor to either the “Roman” or the “Carthaginian.” 3. What do you see as Hannibal's outstanding leadership abilities? Students are able to give a detailed justification using the following facts: a) Hannibal’s sudden invasion of Italy (crossing the Alps); b) encirclement and defeat of the numerically superior Roman army at Cannae; c) a plan to win over the peoples of Italy conquered by Rome (Gauls, Greeks, etc.).

B. 1. What were the names of the wars between Rome and Carthage? Why were they called that? What were their reasons? 2. How did the Romans create a navy and defeat the Carthaginians at sea?

(Based on the filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage.”) 3. How did the first Punic War end? 4. Tell us about Hannibal’s invasion of Italy. Show on the map the path of his troops. 5. Show on the map the locations of Hannibal's two main battles. (Cannes, Zamy.) What are the results of each battle? 6. Why couldn't Hannibal conquer Italy? 7. How did the second Punic War end?

Study plan ( This plan follows the chronology of events. The textbook covers the Third Punic War before the Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean (an advantage of the textbook outline is that the destruction of Carthage is thematically linked to the previous lesson). The teacher can choose any plan for studying the material): 1. Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. 3. Robbery of conquered countries by the Romans.

1. Rome, having crushed Carthage, began to reign supreme in the Western Mediterranean. It is useful to show students on a wall map the approximate boundaries of both of these regions (Western and Eastern Mediterranean). “What states arose in the Eastern Mediterranean after the campaigns of Alexander the Great?” asks the teacher. Complementing the answers, he recalls that the Syrian kingdom, Egypt, Macedonia and other smaller states were constantly at enmity with each other. The internecine wars of the eastern parishes were beneficial to the Romans; the rule of the Roman Senate was: “divide and conquer!” (“How do you understand this expression?” Students are able to point out that the Romans deliberately set neighboring peoples and states against each other and separately defeated their troops.)

A more detailed story about the fate of Hannibal than in the textbook will help to connect the material of the previous and this lessons.

Soon after the end of the second Punic War Hannibal was forced to flee to the east, where he became an adviser to the Syrian king Antiochus. Hannibal was old and sick, but remained true to his oath and was ready to fight the Romans. “Zay, king,” he said to his master, “the Romans are warlike and cruel; they strive to conquer the whole world. Remember how they humiliated my homeland. The Romans took almost all of Carthage's possessions for themselves. Forget, king, your old enmity with the kings of other states of the East. Unite! Only by working together will you be able to defeat the Romans. Otherwise, slavery awaits you all.” But the king of Syria did not heed the wise advice of the famous commander.

Students can learn about the defeat of the Syrian kingdom by reading the textbook aloud (§ 46, paragraph 2). After this, the teacher ends the story of Hannibal, who fled to Bithynia (Asia Minor). And here he became a military adviser to the king.

Having learned about this, the Romans demanded the extradition of Hannibal. One day the old commander saw that his house was surrounded by armed men. Not wanting to become a prisoner of the Romans, Hannibal took poison.

The teacher says that after Syria, the Romans subjugated Macedonia. He can offer compare the formation of Roman and Macedonian troops in battle and draw a conclusion. (Which army was more perfect? What?) After listening to the answers, the teacher either again uses the technique of loud reading (§ 46, paragraph 3), or talks about the Battle of Pydna himself.

The blow of the Macedonian phalanx was so strong that the Roman advance detachments were crushed and began to retreat to the hills located near the Roman camp itself. The Roman consul, who had turned gray in battle, later often recalled what a terrible impression the attack of the phalanx made on him. But the very swiftness of the blow destroyed the Macedonians. The ranks of the phalanx broke in some places due to their rapid pursuit of the Romans and uneven ground. The consul took advantage of this and threw mobile detachments into the resulting intervals. The Romans began to attack the Macedonians from the flanks and rear, disrupting their ranks. The Macedonian king Perseus, confused, fled from the battlefield. The battle lasted less than an hour. 20 thousand Macedonians remained on the battlefield. 11 thousand were captured. Roman losses were ridiculously small ( See: Kovalev S.I. History of Rome. L., 1948, p. 284-285).

Students will learn about the conquest of Macedonia and Greece by Rome, and the death of the largest trading center in Greece - Corinth (146 BC). Roman merchants insisted on the destruction of the city. The place where Corinth stood was cursed, the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and works of art were taken to Rome.

2. Militarily, Carthage did not pose any threat to Rome, but Roman merchants were afraid of the rivalry of more experienced Carthaginian merchants. The Carthaginians were engaged in peaceful work, they grew grapes and olives and traded wine and oil in all Mediterranean countries.

One day, the old and influential senator Cato arrived in Carthage at the head of the Roman embassy. He looked at the Carthaginian port with displeasure: many ships stood at the piers and merchants sported bright clothes. “Fifty years ago,” thought Cato, “when I fought here under Scipio, the Poonas trembled with fear. And now they have forgotten everything - they enjoy life and get rich.” Returning to his homeland, Cato spoke in the Senate. “Carthage is thriving! - he said indignantly. - Maritime trade has enriched the Poons, and meanwhile our merchants are suffering losses. I believe that Carthage must be destroyed." From now on, speaking at every meeting of the Senate, no matter what was discussed, Cato always ended his speech with the same words: "Still I believe that Carthage must be destroyed". Cato was supported by Roman merchants, who knew that wine and olive oil from the African possessions of Carthage were more readily bought than Italian ones. The Senate openly demanded that Carthage be wiped off the face of the earth.

In the story about the siege and assault of Carthage, you can use either the color filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage” (frames 37-46) or the drawings on pp. 191-192. The last picture gives an idea of the heroism of the inhabitants who defended Carthage for six days, when there was no longer any hope of salvation. The brutal Roman legionnaires stormed house after house, slowly moving through the burning streets towards the city center, killing everyone in their path.

Carthage burned for seventeen days. Choking smoke lay low on the ground. Instead of a beautiful city full of life, a lifeless field with shapeless ruins stretched all the way to the bay. The place where Carthage stood, where artisans worked and merchants traded, was given over to eternal damnation, so that from now on neither houses nor arable land would appear on it. So the Senate commanded ( See: Nemirovsky A.I. Three wars. L., 1961, p. 131-132).

Summarizing, the teacher notes that as a result of victorious wars, Rome became in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the strongest state in the entire Mediterranean. Egypt and several smaller states still retained their independence, but none of them dared to fight Rome.

3. The question is revealed in the volume of the textbook (§ 46, paragraphs 4-5); concepts are introduced province and triumph.

It is advisable to use the painting by S. Ankundinov “The Triumph of the Roman Emperor”. Before showing it, the teacher says that in Rome after each major victory a holiday was organized, which was called a triumph: an army led by a commander solemnly entered the city.

Having hung the picture, the teacher explains that the front gate in the shape of an arch was erected especially for the festival: all participants in the triumph passed through it. He invites students to construct a story based on the picture and helps them do this: “We see three groups of people in the picture: 1) Roman soldiers; 2) prisoners; 3) citizens meeting the army. Include a description of each group in the story.” Typically, students complete the task successfully; the teacher corrects errors in answers and makes additions (see manual, table 19).

Table 19. Working with the educational picture "Triumph of the Roman Emperor"

-	When describing a picture, students are able to express the following thoughts:	Teacher's additions as students describe the picture
ROMAN ARMY	The commander rides on a gilded chariot. It is harnessed to white horses. He is wearing red clothes and has a wreath on his head. In one hand of the commander there is a staff, in the other there is a green branch. In front of the chariot are trumpeters and the consul's guard. The commander's chariot is followed by his army	The clothes are painted purple. The slave holds another wreath over the commander's head - a golden one. This commander received the honorary nickname - emperor (in Latin, “lord, commander-in-chief”). It was given to him by the Senate or directly by the army for his success in the war. A distinguished commander was called emperor not throughout his life, but for a certain period of time - usually during a holiday on the occasion of a victory. The teacher either invites students to remember what they know about lictors (see manual, p. 273), or talks about them himself
PRISONERS	Prisoners tied with one chain are driven ahead. They are wearing rags. It is clear from their looks that they hate the Romans. A woman holds a child in her arms	These are probably the most noble captives, they will be turned into slaves, and possibly executed. The child is dead, he didn't survive the long journey
CROWD	The townspeople greet the soldiers, wave branches, and hold out flowers. There are smiles on their faces	Priests stand in front of the fires of the altars (on the right), they thank the gods for the victory

At the end of working with the painting, a possible task: “Think about how triumph would make you feel if you were in Rome. What would be your personal attitude towards such celebrations? After listening to the answer, the teacher draws attention to the contrast between the jubilant Roman crowd and the sad figures of the prisoners. For some, triumph is joy, for others - humiliation and loss of freedom. The magnificent spectacle of triumph was nothing more than a display of plundered booty and enslaved people.

The teacher can write a description of the picture himself, without assigning it to the students. (If the school does not have the named picture, color Fig. 17 can be used.)

Homework: § 46. Answer the question for the document “Plutarch’s Description of Triumph” (p. 194). Questions and tasks 1-3 to § 46.