1. What do a teapot and a steamer have in common?
Steam.
2. What do a racing car and a tornado have in common?
The car and the tornado are moving in a circle.
3. What do a shoe and a pencil have in common?
Both leave a mark.
And now the most interesting part: who are you?
If you couldn't answer these questions, don't worry: your thinking is absolutely healthy. Well, if doing this turned out to be as easy as shelling pears, then you have a predisposition to mental illness and, perhaps, it is worth turning to a competent specialist with a quiet voice and a penetrating gaze.
This test is called the “method of oppositions” and is used to identify expanded consciousness. If to an ordinary person will be asked the question: “What does a raven and a desk have in common?”, he will answer: “Nothing.” And to some extent he will be right. In general terms, these are completely incomparable things. Schizophrenics immediately look for smaller and deeper options: they can immediately say that letters are being written on the table, and the raven has a pen with which to write.
But how to distinguish a schizophrenic from a real genius? The difference is that the first respond immediately, while brilliant individuals need to strain themselves, discard head-on, uninteresting options and produce a truly unique result.
Source www.adme.ru
The first series was conducted using object comparison tasks. The version of the methodology we developed required a comparison of 12 pairs of objects, selected so that among them there were both easily comparable, homogeneous objects, and very far from each other, heterogeneous ones.
Pairs of objects were presented to subjects with the instructions:
“Tell what these objects have in common and how they differ” in the following sequence:
- copper - gold;
- sparrow - nightingale;
- bus - tram;
- mouse - cat;
- sun - earth;
- pear - cucumber;
- violin - drum;
- plate - boat;
- shoe - pencil;
- globe - butterfly;
- cloak - night;
- clock - river.
The instructions provided complete freedom to choose the basis for comparison and did not limit the subjects in the number of properties used.
Using this method, 50 patients with schizophrenia and 50 healthy individuals were studied. When comparing the results of the study, it is noteworthy that patients find much more opportunities than healthy ones to compare (generalize and differentiate) objects. If healthy people quickly declare that they can no longer compare a given pair of objects (and in cases of dissimilar objects they often immediately refuse to generalize them), then patients make comparisons with greater ease. The generalizations they offer give the impression of being “strange” and “inadequate”. Let's give a few examples.
Bus - tram - “have different stops”, “have windows”.
Mouse - cat - “amenable to training”, “see in the dark”, “used for scientific purposes”.
Plate - boat - “do not allow liquids to pass through”, “may break”, “inedible”.
Shoe - pencil - “leave marks”, “make sounds”.
Globe - butterfly - “can spin in one place”, “symmetrical”.
Cloak - night - “appear in the absence of the sun”, “hide the outline of the figure.”
The clock - the river - is “modified by man”, “goes in a closed circle”, “connected with infinity”.
If all healthy subjects find 263 different ways for comparison (generalization and differentiation) of the proposed items, then in patients this number increases by more than 2 times (556).
Analysis shows that this number is not increasing due to an increase in the tendency towards specific situational connections. Patients make generalizations based on finding that compared objects have the same property that is objectively inherent in them.
“Schizophrenia, clinical picture and pathogenesis”,
edited by A.V. Snezhnevsky
As the available information about an identifiable object increases, the difference in the performance results of sick and healthy people decreases. The explanation for this dependence is that with a change in the degree of uncertainty of the situation (incompleteness of available information about the stimulus), the proportion of the disrupted link in the structure of the recognition process changes, which determines the degree of change this process in general, manifested by the degree of differences in performance results...
Patients with schizophrenia, whose activity is characterized by a deterioration in selectivity, an expansion of the range of information attracted from memory and a smoothing of the preference for its actualization, can in some cases receive a “gain”, experiencing less difficulties than healthy people; if necessary, use and attract from memory “latent”, insignificant ones. based on past knowledge experience. However, the “loss” is immeasurably greater, since in the vast majority of everyday situations...
Attempts to explain the results by the peculiarities of the patients’ focus would lead to the conclusion that the patients’ focus is such that it sometimes worsens the results of their activities, sometimes does not affect them, sometimes even improves them. From the point of view of the characteristics of emotions (the most common attempts to connect violations cognitive activity with “indifference”, absence or change in “attitude” of patients with schizophrenia) one would have to admit that...
The pattern of violations we have identified cognitive processes allows us to understand why, in a certain range of experiments, it could actually be possible to interpret the data obtained as a result of a “violation of interpersonal relationships” (Cameron, etc.) or as a consequence of a violation of “filtering of incoming information” (Chapman, Payne, etc.). New factual characteristics of the characteristics of cognitive processes identified by the study in schizophrenia and more general pattern their violations...
Experimental data indicate a violation of the influence of past experience on the current activity of patients with schizophrenia. However, the results obtained show that the matter is not in “disconnection”, not in the separation of the experience of the past from the present, but in a change in the specific role of past experience, in weakening the influence of past experience on the selectivity of updated knowledge used in the process of one or another activity. The unusual nature of schizophrenia...
Ah!.. You can’t even imagine how much I don’t want to tell this nasty story about small galoshes. It happened just the other day in the front of our large apartment, in which there are so many good people and things. And it’s so unpleasant for me that this all happened in our front room.
This story began with trifles. Aunt Lusha bought a bag full of potatoes, put them in the hall, next to the coat rack, and left.
When Aunt Lusha left and left her wallet next to her galoshes, everyone heard a joyful greeting:
- Hello, dear sisters!
Who do you think greeted whom in this way?
Don't rack your brains, you'll never guess. This was greeted by large pink potatoes and new rubber galoshes.
- How glad we are to meet you, dear sisters! - the round-faced Potatoes shouted, interrupting one another. - You are so Beautiful! How dazzlingly you shine!
The galoshes, looking disdainfully at Potatoes, then arrogantly flashing their varnish, answered rather rudely:
- First of all, we are not your sisters. We are rubber and varnish. Secondly, the only things we have in common are the first two letters of our names. And thirdly, we don't want to talk to you.
The Potatoes, shocked by Kalosh's arrogance, fell silent. But the Cane began to speak instead.
It was a highly respected Scholar's Cane. She, being with him everywhere, knew a lot. She had to go with the scientist to different places and see extremely interesting things. She had something to tell others. But by nature, the Cane was silent. This is precisely why the scientist loved her. She didn't stop him from thinking. But this time the Cane did not want to remain silent and, without addressing anyone, said:
“There are such arrogant people who, when they just get into the front hall of a metropolitan apartment, turn up their noses in front of their simple relatives!”
“That’s right,” confirmed the Drape Coat. “So I could have become proud of my fashionable cut and not recognized my own father, the Fine Fleece Ram.”
“Me too,” said the Brush. “And I could deny my kinship with the one on whose backbone I once grew stubble.”
At this, the frivolous Galoshis, instead of thinking and drawing the necessary conclusions for themselves, laughed loudly. And it became clear to everyone that they were not only petty and arrogant, but also stupid. Stupid!
The scientist’s cane, realizing that there was no need to stand on ceremony with such proud people, said:
- What a short memory Kalosh has, however! She was apparently eclipsed by their varnish shine.
-What are you talking about, you old gnarled stick? - The Galoshi began to defend themselves. “We remember everything very well.”
- Ah well! - exclaimed Cane. “Then tell me, ladies, where and how did you come to our apartment?”
“We came from the store,” answered the Galoshis. “A very nice girl bought us there.”
—Where were you before the store? - Cane asked again.
— Before the store, we baked in the oven of a galosh factory.
- What about the stove?
“And before the oven, we were rubber dough from which we were molded at the factory.”
—Who were you before the rubber test? - Cane interrogated in the general silence of everyone in the hallway.
“Before the rubber dough,” the Galoshi answered, stuttering slightly, “we were alcohol.”
—Who were you before alcohol? By whom? - Cane asked the last, decisive and murderous question to the arrogant Galoshes.
The galoshes pretended that they were straining their memory and could not remember. Although both of them knew very well who they were before becoming alcohol.
“Then I’ll remind you,” the Cane announced triumphantly. — Before you became an alcoholic, you were potatoes and grew up in the same field and, perhaps, even in the same nest with your sisters. Only you grew up not as large and beautiful as they are, but as small, inferior fruits, which are usually sent for processing into alcohol.
The cane fell silent. It became very quiet in the hall. Everyone was unpleasant that this story happened in an apartment where they lived very good people who treated others with respect.
It pains me to tell you about this, especially since the Kaloshis did not ask for an apology from their sisters.
How small galoshes there are in the world. Ugh!..
Humanity has achieved everything that it is at the moment, not only thanks to its physical abilities, the basis of all discoveries and inventions has become mental activity. Nowadays, there are many diseases and deviations from normal development that can be diagnosed and treated. And psychological testing helps identify many problems with mental activity.
Comparison method
The basis of psychological testing included the main ones such as analysis, comparison, synthesis, generalization, abstraction and specification. All of them are capable of showing different aspects of the basic activity of human thinking.
Through comparison, a person is able to compare objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. While searching for similarities, you may notice that many objects are similar in one way and different in another, and some have nothing in common. But similarity or difference is determined depending on what characteristics of the object are significant in a given period of time. Very often a person perceives the same things and actions differently, depending on the situation.
Comparison tests, or What do a pencil and a shoe have in common?
Throughout life, first at school, then at higher education educational institution and sometimes when applying for a job, a person is asked to take this test. In childhood, using the concepts of comparison, children are tested for the development of their creative potential and determined what kind of thinking prevails in the child. In later life this test can be offered to test how healthy a person's thinking is.
Categories of words in the test
One of the most common questions in this case is the comparison of disparate items. A. R. Lury suggests dividing these words into three different categories. The simplest of them is a comparison of two words belonging to the same category, for example, tram - bus or horse - cow.
In the second category, more complex comparisons predominate, they are more different than the same. An example of such a comparison is “crow - fish”. The third group is the most difficult. It presents different concepts, and comparing them should cause mental conflict. That is, their differences are stronger than their similarities. For example, what do a pencil and a shoe have in common?
The operational side of thinking and its violations
If a person experiences a decrease in the functions responsible for the level of generalization in judgments, then he begins to evaluate objects and phenomena quite extensively. In other words, instead of highlighting some general feature, they select a specific situation. That is, if you compare a book and a sofa, then healthy man will say that it can be read on it, without taking into account the factors that normal person will be more logical and reflect the specific similarities of these items. The main reason for the decrease in such thinking is epilepsy, lesions of the central nervous system and problems after head injury. Using psychological testing, one also checks whether the generalization process is distorted.
In this case, one can notice that a person is looking for overly generalized signs between objects, without seeing the most important similarity. Basically, the affected consciousness tries to avoid performing the assigned tasks, starting to search for formal, completely random associations. At the same time, they completely do not take into account real similarities and differences, not using them as control and verification of their own judgments. As an example of what a pencil and a shoe have in common, it is more often said that they leave marks. Such disturbances in the thought process characterize schizophrenia. But it is worth noting that this is not a necessary sign of a mental disorder. A similar answer can also be given by a person with a width slightly wider than that of ordinary people.
Examples of answers to the question about what a pencil and a shoe have in common (schizophrenia)
Some of the people's responses were recorded. When considering the various concepts of people with schizophrenia, one can see a detached perception and overly abstract concepts. When comparing two vehicles, a bus and a tram, patients note the presence of windows, wheels and various stops. When it comes to comparing animals such as mice and cats, unhealthy people point out that they are trainable, can see in the dark and are used for scientific purposes, completely missing the main signs of similarity. When asked the most common question about what is common between a pencil and a shoe, patients highlight similarities such as leaving marks, reproducing sounds and the presence of rubber in the structure.
When comparing a boat and a plate, a person with impaired thinking pays attention to such properties as the ability to not allow liquid to pass through and the likelihood that these two objects can break, or they talk about the inedibility of these objects. Having asked the patient to compare a globe and a butterfly, the scientists received the following answer: the ability to spin in one place or the symmetry of objects. But in fact, he will answer that these concepts have nothing in common. Comparing a cloak and the night, patients with schizophrenia note the appearance of these objects in the absence of light and their ability to hide the outlines of figures. When comparing a clock and a river, it is said that these two objects can be changed by man, can go in a vicious circle, and also note their connection with infinity.
Conclusion
Many similar answers can be given, but it is worth considering that a healthy person will answer such questions as “what is common between a rooster and a glass” that they are incomparable. But the patient will try to find signs that make these concepts similar. For example, he will highlight that it belongs to the kitchen or will pay attention to the presence of ribs (specifying that the glass is faceted).
In any case, such tests must be carried out comprehensively, and only then can the true ones be identified and a clear description of what exactly is damaged in a person’s consciousness possible. Answering only some questions makes it impossible to see the whole picture.
Luxurious ZIM cars and nimble Moskvich cars, shod in rubber shoes, quickly roll along the streets of our cities.
A soccer ball is rapidly rushing around the stadium, causing violent excitement among tens of thousands of spectators... In the front of your apartment, brand new galoshes, shining with black varnish, modestly stand... And in a dark corner of the backpack, a small gray elastic band has quietly and unnoticeably hidden itself. What do the ZIM car, a school rubber band and a soccer ball have in common? The common thing is that an elastic band, a football tube, and a car tire are made of the same material - rubber. And not only them. You can count a huge number of household items, a wide variety of items from the field of technology, industry, Agriculture, which are made of rubber or, more precisely, rubber. Rubber is extracted from the sap of the tropical Hevea plant.
At the beginning of our century, there were already more than ten thousand things for the manufacture of which rubber was needed. And now in our country more than thirty thousand of a wide variety of objects are made from it. Over the past hundred years, the extraction of natural rubber has increased five thousand times.
But Hevea is a plant of a tropical climate; it grows on the banks of the Orinoco and Amazon, in the forests of Indonesia, on the islands of the Malay archipelago.
What about in Europe? Is it really impossible to artificially create a substance similar to rubber? And in many countries, chemists got down to business. We can proudly say that this problem was solved for the first time in the world in our Soviet country. This was facilitated by the great successes of Russian chemical science, especially the work of the famous Russian chemist A. M. Butlerov. Chemists learned not only the composition chemical compounds, but also revealed the structure and architecture of matter.
Thanks to this, eighty years ago, scientists unraveled the structure of the smallest particles of rubber - its molecules. It turned out that they are real giants in the world of molecules. Each particle of rubber is made up of more than thirty thousand carbon and hydrogen atoms. This is the whole complexity of this wonderful structure of nature.
Having learned the structure of the rubber molecule, chemists tried to “build” the same substance in the laboratory. At the end of the last century, the Russian chemist P. L. Kondakov was the first to obtain an artificial substance that closely resembled rubber. But it was not rubber yet. The final victory in this amazing competition between man and nature came much later, and the winner was the Leningrad scientist Sergei Vasilyevich Lebedev.
Back in 1909, Lebedev received a new substance - butadiene (or, as it is also called, divinyl). Butadiene was similar to natural rubber in many properties, and Lebedev extracted it from... alcohol. Now you've probably guessed why we're all talking about rubber. After all, we get alcohol from potatoes! This means that the story about artificial rubber is a story about another miraculous transformation of potatoes. But everything was not so simple, and victory was not so easy for Lebedev.
From 100 grams of alcohol, Lebedev initially received only 1-2 grams of butadiene. How to increase output? This was the difficulty of the task that the scientist set himself.
Lebedev was tireless in his work, and failures did not bother him; he carried out more and more new experiments, continuing to work and search. As a result of many years of work, numerous experiments and scientific research, Lebedev eventually managed to obtain a substance that accelerated and increased the yield of butadiene from alcohol. You already know that such substances - accelerators - are called catalysts in chemistry.
And so, in 1926, such a catalyst was found by Lebedev. By that time, a lot had changed in our country. The Great October Socialist Revolution took place, the war with the interventionists ended, and the young Soviet Republic began peaceful construction. It was necessary to restore the national economy, and for this we needed metal, coal, and lots and lots of rubber. The Soviet government then announced international competition on the best way to obtain cheap rubber. Everyone could participate in this competition soviet people, as well as foreigners.
It was then that a real offensive began in our country on the rubber front. Botanists and chemists, workers and collective farmers, pioneers and schoolchildren - all of them were actively involved in the struggle for Soviet rubber, all tried to help their homeland overcome the rubber famine.
In Kazakhstan, a rubber-bearing plant, chondrilla, was found, and in the spurs of the Tien Shan, kok-sagyz was discovered, a special type of dandelion, the roots of which consist of one-tenth rubber.
Lebedev was also actively involved in this work. But he was neither a botanist nor a traveler. He did not wander in the Tien Shan mountains, nor did he visit the deserts of Kazakhstan. His specialty was chemistry. And Lebedev went his own way. This path passed through the great successes of domestic chemical science. It is not for nothing that Lebedev himself spent more than fifteen years of his life and work searching for a chemical method for producing artificial rubber. The goal was close, and it was necessary to achieve it at all costs.
Lebedev then worked as a professor Military Medical Academy in Leningrad, and in her laboratories he continued his experiments with butadiene. How difficult it was for a scientist to work then! After all, not so long ago the war had just ended and our country was still not rich. The laboratory in which Lebedev worked was poorly equipped; The devices were assembled by the scientists themselves from old instruments and unnecessary copper tubes. Laboratory glassware was scarce; I had to use old lemonade bottles. Even ice for experiments and... that was not enough; The scientists themselves prepared it on the Neva.
But Lebedev did not lose heart; he knew that the Motherland needed rubber and it was the duty of Soviet scientists to provide it. Lebedev continued his old experiments with butadiene. But butadiene is a gas, and rubber is a dense mass. Therefore, it was necessary to force the gas to become denser, to turn into solid. The process of compacting a substance is called polymerization in chemistry.
To successfully carry out polymerization, a new catalyst was needed, and Lebedev found it. It turned out to be sodium metal.
And so, at the beginning of 1928, within the deadline determined by the competition, Lebedev submitted to the Supreme Council National economy two kilograms of artificial rubber he made, or, as chemists say, synthetic rubber. This was the first rubber in the history of human culture that was made not by nature, but in a laboratory, by human hands. Academician Lebedev's method was accepted by the government, and the scientist himself was awarded the highest award - the Order of Lenin.
Two years later, by decision of the Soviet government, the first pilot plant for the production of artificial rubber using the Lebedev method was built in Leningrad.
At the end of 1930, the day came that Lebedev, his students and employees, and all the workers of the pilot plant had been eagerly awaiting for a long time.
On this day, the first block of artificial rubber weighing 60 kilograms was removed from the polymerization shop apparatus. This was a great victory for Soviet science.
Abroad they did not believe this for a long time. Even the famous American inventor Thomas Edison, when he was told about Soviet rubber, said the following with a grin: “I don’t believe that Soviet Union managed to obtain synthetic rubber. This. complete fiction." But Edison was wrong.
Not only was Soviet rubber not a fiction, but it was also inexpensive and successfully competed with natural rubber. To obtain 1,000 tons of natural rubber, a thousand tappers must work hard from morning until late at night for five and a half years!
And in Soviet factories, fifteen people receive 1000 tons of rubber in just a few days!
This is what Academician Lebedev’s discovery gave us.
Already in the thirties, a large industry for the production of artificial rubber was created in the Soviet Union. Abroad this was achieved later.
Many tens, hundredths of thousands of tons of “SK” (as synthetic rubber is called for short) are produced by our factories using the method of Academician Lebedev.
The process goes like this: first, alcohol decomposes at a temperature of 450° into butadiene, water and hydrogen gas. After purification, butadiene undergoes polymerization, that is, compaction. Polymerization is carried out in large steel apparatus under pressure. Sodium metal as a catalyst accelerates this process. After 15-20 hours, polymerization ends, and a white-gray or slightly yellowish dense mass of rubber is removed from the apparatus. Then it is cleaned in special closed boilers, from which the air is pumped out, then cut into large pieces and rolled into sheets. After this, the rubber is vulcanized, that is, it is treated with sulfur and turns into rubber. Well, then all those various objects that we talked about above are made from rubber.
So, let us remember once again the long and difficult path that the humble potato goes through until it turns into a pair of galoshes or a rubber ball.
We grew a rich potato harvest on the collective farm. In the fall they took him to the distillery. We got alcohol here. Well, you already know the further path of alcohol.
It must be said that chemists have now learned to obtain alcohol not only from potatoes, but also from sawdust and even from acetylene gas.
Yes, and rubber is also obtained from oil, coal, and lime. But the most most of rubber still falls to the share of alcohol obtained from potatoes. Therefore, galoshes, a car tire, and a school rubber band - all of them, one way or another, grew in the garden...
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