1. Psychology of safety of activity ………………………………………… ..3
2. Human behavior in extreme situations ……………………………… ... 4
3. Management of emotional state in extreme situations ………… 6
4. Assessment and diagnosis of threats based on physical data and signs of a person's mental state ………………………………………………… ... 16
5. Panic …………………………………………………………………………… 27
List of used literature ……………………………… ... ……………… ... 28
1. Psychology of safety of activity
While a person is in a familiar environment, he behaves normally, as always. But with the onset of a complex, personally significant, and even more dangerous, extreme situation, psychological stress increases many times, behavior changes, the criticality of thinking decreases, coordination of movements is impaired, perception and attention decrease, emotional reactions change, and much more.
In an extreme situation, in other words, in a real threat situation, one of three forms of response is possible:
- a sharp decrease in organization (affective disorganization) of behavior
- sharp inhibition of active actions;
- improving the efficiency of actions.
Disorganization of behavior can manifest itself in the unexpected loss of acquired skills, which seemed to be brought to automatism. The situation is fraught with the fact that the reliability of actions can sharply decrease: movements become impulsive, chaotic, and fussy. The consistency of thinking is violated, and the awareness of the erroneousness of one's actions only aggravates the matter.
A sharp inhibition of actions and movements leads to a state of stupor (numbness), which in no way contributes to the search for an effective solution and behavior corresponding to a given situation.
Increasing the effectiveness of actions in the event of an extreme situation is expressed in the mobilization of all resources of the human psyche to overcome it. This is increased self-control, clarity of perception and assessment of what is happening, the performance of actions and deeds adequate to the situation. This form of response is, of course, the most desirable, but is it always possible for everyone and always? This requires certain individual psychological qualities and special preparation for action in an extreme situation - there must be an awareness of the causes of what is happening and an adequate choice of real methods of action, forms of response.
2. Human behavior in extreme situations
To demonstrate the importance of this factor in the personality profile, we will give the following example: a timid, modest, insecure person with a sense of guilt and not always aware of his inferiority complex, internally disharmonious, taciturn and pessimistic, most often indecisive, hired mainly for the qualities of his diligence, obedience, analytical mindset, accuracy and thoroughness, pedantry, diligence. He does not get tired when performing monotonous, stereotyped work, and, as a rule, performs the functions of secondary roles. There is no doubt about its decency and reliability.
A person's condition can change up to the appearance of signs of an affectively narrowed consciousness - stress is so intolerable for him. The internal reserve for resisting any outside pressure on his psyche is fragile and short-term. And if we assume that this person is burdened with information of a confidential nature and threatening factors are applied to him (in his address, or in the address of his relatives ...), it is not difficult to foresee the fate of this person who attracted the attention of a competing company or, even worse, criminal elements well versed in human psychology.
In this case, one can say unequivocally about the safety of commercial secrets: if it is enough to provide some "information" to save their loved ones, such a person will certainly take advantage of this, it would never occur to him to maneuver, gain time, or bargain.
When a person is in a state of psychological decompensation and is fixed on the only thought that his vital interests are under threat, information loses its significance.
Evaluation of this act, as well as recognition, repentance, self-flagellation, will come later.
A person of a different plan, in whose character there is a high ability to predict the possible consequences of his behavior, a high ability to choose the optimal variant of behavior in an extreme situation, of course, will not be in a helpless state.
This example leads to the conclusion that, in addition to the reliability factor, personal qualities in the form of resistance to stress play an important role in the "initiation" of a person into the area of \u200b\u200bcommercial secrets.
You can also consider a variant of a personality subject to such a phenomenon as increased suggestibility, which, in a hypnotizing state, can perform certain actions dictated by interested parties, and without any benefit for itself. This is not a theoretical hypothesis, but a concrete negative fact, as well as an adventurous story with a director of a commercial company writing letters to his own address with blackmail and threatening content in order to justify an imaginary ransom from the blackmailer instead of confessing to the embezzlement he committed for entertainment in the society of "priestesses of love ".
Such situations can be avoided if the scientific tools of psychological services are used in time, while at the same time making the work of business security services more operational and efficient.
3. Management of emotional state in extreme situations
It is impossible to dwell on all aspects of the diagnosis of extreme situations. Much will depend on the ability to maintain self-control, since only under this condition is it possible to adequately assess what is happening and make an appropriate decision. There are many different techniques that make it possible to manage your condition.
Consider not indisputable, but nevertheless effective express relaxation techniques that do not require much effort, special equipment and a long time.
In the event of a sudden occurrence of an extreme situation associated with the threat of an attack or the attack itself, you can direct your gaze upward, while taking a full deep breath and lowering your eyes to the level of the horizon, gently exhale the air, freeing your lungs as much as possible and simultaneously relaxing all the muscles. Muscles can be relaxed only when breathing is in order. It is worth in an extreme situation to breathe evenly and calmly, as the muscles relax and calm down.
You can use another technique. When an extreme situation arises, you should look at something blue, and if there is no such possibility, imagine a blue background, very deep in saturation. In ancient India, this color was not without reason considered the color of peace, rest, relaxation.
If you feel that fear fetters and interferes with acting in accordance with the situation, you should say to yourself, but very firmly and confidently, any exclamation not related to the situation like: "Not two!" This will help to get back to normal. In the same situation, you can ask yourself loudly: "Vasya, are you here?" - and confidently answer: "Yes, I'm here!"
If, having assessed the threat as real, and your chances of confronting as hopeless, but there is still an opportunity to retire, maybe this should be done as soon as possible.
Most often, you have to communicate with persistent criminals, and it is advisable to keep this communication at the verbal level as long as possible. This will allow you to either gain time or smooth the severity of the situation, and it is not excluded, and completely avert the threat.
The main thing is the choice of tactics of behavior depending on the assessment of the situation. You can choose the tactics of a person who is not afraid of a physical attack; in this case, you must first of all show your partner your calmness. If, for example, the attacker is angry, then the calmness with which he is greeted can somewhat reduce his intensity. In doing so, the best form of responding to an attacker showing contempt is to maintain self-esteem. If the fear of the threatening person is noticeable, one should show not only calmness, self-confidence, but possibly aggressive intentions.
But in any case, you should talk to the attacker. First of all, you need to find out: the current situation is his initiative or he is fulfilling someone's order. If the threatening person pursues some of his personal interests, you need to find out which ones.
For example, an attack on the street. Here you can most likely face a robber, although it may be a drunk who thought that he was "not respected". If the attacker is alone, then aggressive behavior towards him can give a positive result in an extreme situation. The main thing is that he understands that they are not afraid of him and can be rebuffed. This has a sobering effect on many, with the exception of drunks or people with mental disorders. A positive result is also possible if, realizing the physical superiority of the attacker, the person begins to actively call for help. A shout can paralyze the attacker's activity for a moment and it is possible that it will lead to the refusal of the attack.
If the attack is not spontaneous, but is "ordered", then you should try to apply the same little tricks, but in this situation they can not always give a positive result. Still, you should try to talk to the one who is threatening in order to establish the reality of the threat. In any case, one must try to maintain composure in order to reduce the negative influence of fear on one's own actions. It may be possible to trick the attacker into convincing him that this is not the one he needs. This approach can work if the attacker is shown the person briefly and long before the attack. By the way, when an unknown person comes up on the street and clarifies the name, one should not rush to answer, it would be more useful to find out why he is asking this.
So, after making sure that the attacker was not mistaken in the "address", that he is acting on someone else's order, and that undesirable consequences are about to occur, one should start talking to find out if the attacker has a weapon and what it is. If he reached into his pocket, perhaps this is a chance, since for a moment one of his hands is already blocked. If a person does not possess self-defense techniques or did not have time to react in time, then perhaps it is not worth taking active actions for some time, but waiting for the development of the situation, keeping it under control.
It is necessary to try to persuade the attacker to refuse to inflict bodily harm. But this can hardly be achieved by tearfully begging, and even on your knees. This behavior will give a positive result if the attacker just needs to humiliate the person and no more. The conversation can be conducted according to the principle of persuasion: "What will personally benefit you if you hurt me?" For some, these kinds of questions can be confusing. Others claim they were paid for it. If so, you should find out who paid and most importantly how much; it is possible that by offering a slightly larger amount, it will be possible to get out of the situation.
When communicating with the attacker, you should look him in the eyes and not turn your back to him in order to leave yourself a path for retreat; if he directed the weapon, try to induce him to lower it at least for a while.
When there are several attackers, the opportunities for confrontation are sharply reduced: with several aggressive people it is extremely difficult, if not possible at all. That is why, as soon as possible, it is necessary to determine who is the leader in the group of attackers, and to concentrate all attention on him.
Everything that was said in relation to the attack of the "loner", in relation to the conversation with the leader, only one should not forget that he will be guided not so much by the object of the attack as by "his own". If one-on-one he could have behaved differently, then in a group it is more difficult for him, and sometimes impossible. But nevertheless, it is necessary to enter into a dialogue, at least in order to determine whether all members of the group are in the same mood. Any remark of any member of the group can play a big role, even a gesture, movement, nod. Having noticed sympathy from one of the group members, you should start a dialogue with him, or involve him in a dialogue with the leader, or use his remark in argumentation addressed to the leader. Particularly noteworthy is a member of the group who expressed a "particularly favorable disposition". Perhaps this is a method of lulling vigilance, and it is from him that danger should be expected.
The attacker should be spoken to in his language and tone. If he uses obscene language, then often understanding can be achieved only by switching to the language he loves so much. Some people, especially those with a low level of intelligence, are simply annoyed by their polite treatment in conflict situations, which means that we must avoid the words "comrade", "respected", "citizen", intelligent florid things like "won't you be so kind ..." etc.
Sometimes it is advisable to divert the attacker's attention to a foreign object. To do this, it is enough to peer somewhere behind the back of the threatening person or wave an inviting hand. Most often, an involuntary reaction immediately follows - a turn of the head. Here is a moment to use.
It is impossible to give a detailed description of all the options for "street scenes", and therefore emphasize: success will largely depend on the ability to self-control, flexibility and the ability to communicate effectively in an extreme situation.
Extreme situations can also occur indoors. Here the likelihood of a pre-planned action is much greater. The room, moreover, sharply limits a person's ability to move, and hardly anyone will respond to a call for help, especially if there is no one nearby.
If the attacker entered the house, then the situation can be sharply complicated by the presence of loved ones - they are also in danger. Measures should be provided in advance to prevent unauthorized access to the home by unauthorized persons. Children especially often rush to open the door, so it is recommended to explain to the child the need to find out who is behind the door before opening it.
If, despite all precautions, a stranger still entered the house, you should immediately enter into a conversation with him, if there is no direct attack. First of all, find out if he has a weapon, how ready he is for using it, try to persuade him to sit down and talk peacefully, listen to all his demands. As a rule, in such situations, it is important to determine what is really threatening, what specific actions the visitor can take, whether these actions will affect loved ones in the room, whether it is possible to give a signal for help and wait for it.
If several people entered the house, the situation is aggravated many times. But everything that was said above regarding negotiations with a group of attackers in the street can be used in this case as well.
If the attacker is in a state of alcoholic intoxication and demands more drink, you should not comply with his demand, since it is not known how the additional dose of alcohol will affect him. It is good if after alcohol the "guest" has a complacent mood, he will be drawn to a protracted conversation, at the end of which he will also fall asleep. But this is unlikely. More often, alcohol increases aggressiveness and can induce even those actions that the attacker did not intend to perform.
What if the attacker is a mentally ill person? Therefore, one must be extremely careful in his statements and actions if something in his behavior seemed suspicious. The best tactic is to agree with his statements as completely correct. There is no need to try to argue or convince such a person, all the more to assert that he is wrong, on the contrary, it should be emphasized that his feelings and experiences are understandable, but in no case "play along" with him - these people are sensitive to falsehood, being extremely suspicious ...
If it is necessary to interrupt him, then this should be done as gently as possible, it would be nice to translate the conversation to the topic of his personal interests, hobbies, something positive. As soon as it is possible to get a direct answer, one should develop this plot and through it come to a positive conclusion of the situation.
And a few more recommendations. If the attack is carried out in the house, you should protect from the threats present in the house by taking the blow on yourself. If this is not possible, you should reassure them as much as possible so that their statements or, even more so, their actions do not provoke the attacker to sharp aggression, try to keep the initiative and anticipate answers to questions addressed to relatives and friends. This can help them navigate how to respond and what not to say.
You can try to offer the attacker a snack. It is a winning pause and a means of reducing aggressiveness, especially if the attacker is hungry. Well, the very fact of taking food in the house can affect it, since the stereotypes of past generations inherent in the subconscious can work.
If you are confident that you can provide physical resistance to the attacker, you should not hesitate. However, under a plausible pretext, it is required to reduce the distance to the partner, to exclude harm to loved ones, to distract the attacker immediately before physical impact on him.
Well, as to whether it is worth waiting for the start of a real attack in order to successfully repel it, as an argument we will cite one of the rules of the times of Peter I: "You shouldn't wait for the first blow, since it may turn out to be such, that you will forget to resist."
In situations where the attacker immediately demands money, it is necessary to convince him of the principle readiness to satisfy this demand, but since at the moment there is no such amount available, the demand can only be met by granting an extension. In general, in situations where money is required, it is difficult to predict the course of events.
For example, a person demanding money, it turns out, knows very well how much and where. If conditions permit, it is necessary to find out the source of his awareness.
If the threatening person is perfectly informed and attempts to delay or gain time are not successful, perhaps the best option would be to satisfy his "request", no matter how sorry it may be, because life and health are the most precious thing.
It should be borne in mind that even if the extortionist agrees to grant a deferral in payment, he may take someone as a hostage while waiting.
It should be borne in mind that a person who threatens in one way or another may also feel uncomfortable, although he tries to seem like the master of the situation, not experiencing the slightest doubt about a favorable outcome for him. In fact, the extremeness of the situation affects everyone.
Having noted the emotion of fear in the attacker, threatening or extortionist, you should strengthen it. But the main thing is a sense of proportion. After all, you can intimidate him to such an extent that he will take an obviously unwanted action.
It may be important not only to increase the fear of the extortionist, but also to decrease it. If he calmed down, therefore, in his opinion, the circumstances that caused this state have disappeared, and he has nothing to fear. You can take actions or statements that may frighten him again, but it is possible that he made the final decision and just now became dangerous.
It is not easy to communicate with someone in a state of anger. It is especially important to remain calm and be able to demonstrate this to him. A person in a state of anger is extremely agitated, which is reflected in his thinking. Therefore, it is important from the very beginning to try to find out what made him so angry. The dialogue is being conducted carefully. Talking about it can have a calming effect, similar to the effect of "dumping steam". The state of the ransomware must be monitored in dynamics. If there is an increase in anger (the face becomes redder, the vessels on the face, neck, hands swell, the volume of the voice increases or he shouts, his fists clench more tightly, the body leans forward) - he has reached a state of readiness to attack physically. If the muscles relax, the redness disappears, the fists unclench, the voice becomes normal volume and the threat, hatred disappears in it, then the probability of an attack decreases.
When you have to deal with a person who expresses his contempt, you should be very careful - you can expect the worst from him, and he can do this completely calmly, feeling a sense of clear superiority over others. If such a person notices even a drop of fear or servility on the part of the "victim" - it is unlikely that the extreme situation will be resolved positively. It would be nice to try to "knock down arrogance" from him - a demonstration of self-confidence and self-esteem, and possibly superiority. True, it may happen that the emotion of anger is superimposed on the contempt and the attacker becomes even more dangerous. It is very difficult to start a dialogue with such a person, and it is even more difficult to conduct it. He speaks the words through his teeth, as if doing a favor by even entering into a conversation. If you find a topic that would allow you to "talk" him, you can appeal to him as a person, showing that his occupation undermines his human dignity. If you catch the eye of such a person, and even without contempt, you can assume that the conversation is being conducted correctly.
When the attacker, due to unknown circumstances, demonstrates disgust, it is necessary to determine what is the cause of this emotion, you can even ask a direct question: "Am I somehow disgusted with you?" It is possible that this emotion is not directly related to the "victim" or is caused by the fact that something was said to the threatening person about her, which caused disgust. Sometimes clarity itself drastically reduces the possibility of aggressive behavior towards you.
In cases where the threat is carried out in the form of blackmail (they threaten to compromise), then, as a rule, they do not proceed to active actions.
First of all, you need to understand the specific content of the information that served as material for blackmail. It is advisable to build a conversation with such an opponent in such a way as to show him that this information is not at all perceived as compromising. If you start to take a detailed interest in the content, form, source of receipt and other details of this information, he will not believe that it is neutral for you. On the contrary, treating this information as some kind of misunderstanding, which is unworthy of attention, you can induce him to touch on the details in more detail.
If the information is still compromising, then you need to familiarize yourself with its content. Often the blackmailer tries to convey something in words, without documenting it. In this case, the position should be as firm as possible: "Until I see the information in full, I do not intend to continue the conversation." In what form this information will be presented - it is essential, since there can be no question of originals, it is necessary to demand a copy, and not someone reviewed material. Not knowing how complete the information the extortionist has, even after fulfilling his conditions, you can meet with him again after a while and about the same.
It is also necessary to understand to whom the compromising material is addressed, to what authority. And here the question is also pertinent: "To whom do you intend to transfer these materials in case of my refusal?" Only a specific answer should be received to this question, that is, the name of this person (people). This will allow you to declare that he can transmit these materials and about this you should no longer worry. If such a technique turns out to be unsuccessful, you need to find out when the blackmailer intends to carry out his plan. This will allow you to evaluate your time resource and decide what can and cannot be done.
After receiving the initial information and evaluating it, you can ask the blackmailer for some time to think. If he agrees, it is necessary to use it productively: think over all possible options that could give a chance to avoid the onset of harmful consequences, if you have someone, consult. It is necessary to assess what losses can be if the blackmailer, in response to a refusal, realizes his threat and how significant it is today, since information about the past tends to be devalued.
You should carefully assess whether undesirable consequences for yourself will be prevented and whether an agreement with a blackmailer will not be even more compromising evidence. Perhaps it is really better to lose something today by abandoning the "deal" than to acquire an even more serious threat to one's own security in the future.
4. Assessment and diagnosis of threats based on physical data and signs of a person's mental state
To make the right decision in an extreme situation, it is necessary, as far as possible, to understand what situation you are in.
For example, in a situation of threat of the use of force, first of all, it is necessary to determine how real it is, whether it is possible to avoid the onset of undesirable consequences, taking into account what is happening. If this is a study or a living room, then it should be taken into account that the threatening person is much worse oriented in the situation - the owner knows where what lies, how convenient it is to take this or that thing. In the living room there may be loved ones, and the threat can, under certain circumstances, turn against them. If the action takes place in a room where the owner is threatening, then the initiative is on his side.
Another situation is the street. In the dark, any threat is perceived differently than during the day. Here the setting may be triggered that violence is committed mainly at night, and darkness itself can keep a person in increased tension. For the object at which the threat is directed, the presence of people on the street is important, since their absence increases the chances of the attackers and, accordingly, reduces (limits) the capabilities of the defender.
Of no less importance is the number of people "accompanying" the threatening person, their organization, and the nature of the relationship between them can guide who is the leader among them. This makes sense if:
- the intentions of the attackers are to "recruit", receive / transmit information (threats) through the victim;
- the outgoing threat is of an indirect nature, i.e. "hung" over the relatives or friends of the victim and their release depends on his further actions.
The nature of the clothes to a certain extent may indicate whether the threatening “meeting” was prepared for this, whether it (the clothes) corresponds to his intentions (for example, in loose-fitting clothes it is easier to hide the instruments of violence).
It is important to find out in a timely manner how real is the possibility of avoiding the onset of undesirable consequences, whether it is possible to retire without tangible moral, physical and material losses.
Apparently, with a direct attack, one should take into account one's own physical condition.
When analyzing the situation, you should pay special attention to the following points:
- whether the event used by the blackmailer actually took place. If the information that is used for the purpose of blackmail has no real basis, then you should not immediately notify the blackmailer about it. But sometimes a situation may arise when the event itself took place, but it looked completely different than it is stated in the threat. In this situation, it is necessary to quickly assess whether it will be possible to prove how this event actually looked;
- how real is compromise in case of refusal to comply with the demands of the blackmailer, what the consequences can be, how they will try to carry it out;
- is there time to neutralize possible harmful effects, is it possible to get a delay;
- whether the threat touches loved ones or concerns at the moment only a specific person (these are different situations when they are blackmailed by the onset of harmful consequences for a particular person and immediately, or when the threat is directed at relatives of the victim, but in the future);
- whether blackmail is carried out by telephone, in writing, or through personal contact with the blackmailer.
It is necessary to analyze not only the situation, but also the blackmailer, who is an essential element of the situation.
The diagnosis of the blackmailer from whom the threat comes can be very fragmentary, and it can be quite deep - it all depends on the situation. It is hardly advisable to find out the level of intelligence or the presence of a sense of humor in a person who has swung to strike.
Persons from whom the threat of attack or blackmail comes can be divided into three large groups:
1. Mentally normal people who are in a state where there is no deviation in behavior.
2. Mentally normal people who are in a state of alcoholic or drug intoxication.
3. People with mental pathology.
If there is a threat of a physical attack or it is already being carried out, then first of all it is necessary to focus on the physical data of the attacker: height, weight, physique, characteristic signs that may indicate that he has undergone special training.
How does this person stand?
- a boxer, as a rule, takes an open, but still boxing stance, involuntarily clenches his fists, often with the fist of his leading hand taps into the open palm of the other, as if playing with himself (this way you can get information about whether he is left-handed or right-handed). Often, boxers have characteristic changes in the structure of the nose - as a result of repeated injury to the bridge of the nose.
- the wrestler usually stands slightly lowering his shoulders, his arms are along the body or bent, the fingers seem to be ready to grab something, the legs are shoulder-width apart or slightly wider, the stance can be perceived as threatening, while the movements are smoother than that of the boxer.
- a person practicing karate can involuntarily take one of the stances of this type of martial arts, legs and arms take a characteristic position, fingers are not always clenched into a fist, but if clenched, then much more tightly than boxers do.
As a rule, all these people have a good physique, well-developed muscles, flexibility in movements, look at a partner, fixing the slightest changes in his behavior.
By the way, fixing the external signs of a threatening, attacking, blackmailing is extremely important, since any little thing noticed can be useful in case of further contacts. If time and conditions permit, it is advisable to pay attention to height, physique, hair color and hairstyle features, eye color, shape of the forehead, nose, lips, chin, ears, you should pay attention to what the blackmailer is wearing, but most importantly - special signs that distinguish this person. Special signs include not only moles, scars, tattoos, any physical flaws, but also demeanor, gestures, voice features, pronunciation, vocabulary and much more, characteristic only of this person. After the situation is over in one way or another, it is advisable to fix everything on paper, without waiting for the arrival of law enforcement officials, while many details are still fresh in the memory.
If the threatened person called on the phone, you should pay attention to the nature of the call - a local or nonresident, as the subscriber introduced himself, immediately spoke about the merits of the case, without asking who he was talking to, or at first specified who he was talking to. The characteristic of his speech is fast or slow, intelligibility, presence of stuttering, accent, clarity and other features of pronunciation. Voice - volume, timbre (hoarse, soft), drunk. The manner of speaking is calm, confident, coherent, unhurried, hasty, decent, or vice versa. The presence of noises accompanying the conversation - another voice that tells what to say to the subscriber, silence or loud noise, the sound of transport (train, subway, car, plane), the noise of machine tools, office machines, phone calls, music, street noise.
When entering into direct contact with a threatening person, you should also pay attention to the degree of aggressiveness and focus on a specific person, which may indicate personal motives, or this is aggressiveness of a "general" nature, and a specific person is the object over whom the violence is assigned. The reality of the threat should be distinguished from the situation of "taking on fright".
It is important to determine the emotional state of the blackmailer - the nature and speed of his actions, the degree of aggressiveness, the ability to conduct a dialogue with him depend on this. We will describe some of the emotional states characteristic of the situation under consideration, and show how, based on external signs, one can determine what (what) emotions the threatening person is experiencing.
Fear - Sometimes you can face a situation where the threatening or attacker is afraid himself.
With fear, as a rule, a sharp contraction of the muscles occurs, due to which a person develops stiffness, uncoordinated movements, tremors of fingers or hands can be recorded, the tapping of teeth can not only be seen, but sometimes heard. The eyebrows are almost straight, slightly raised, their inner corners are shifted towards each other, the forehead is covered with wrinkles. The eyes are wide enough, the pupils are often dilated, the lower eyelid is tense, and the upper one is slightly raised. The mouth is open, the lips are tense and slightly stretched. The look is perceived as running.
More active perspiration occurs in the following areas: forehead, above the upper and lower lip, neck, armpits, palms, back.
Anger is an indicator of the degree of aggressiveness of the blackmailer. His pose becomes threatening, the person looks as if he is preparing to throw. Muscles are tense, but there is no tremor characteristic of fear. The face is frowned, the gaze can be fixed on the source of anger and express a threat. The nostrils widen, the wings of the nostrils flinch, the lips are pulled back, sometimes so much that they expose clenched teeth. The face either turns pale or reddens. Occasionally, you can see convulsions running across the face of the angry person. The volume of the voice rises sharply (the threatening one breaks into a scream), fists are clenched, there are sharp vertical folds on the bridge of the nose, eyes are narrowed. With intense anger, the person looks like they are about to explode.
Speech with a hint of threat, "through clenched teeth", very rude words, turns of phrase and foul language can take place. It is characteristic that with anger a person feels a surge of strength, becomes much more energetic and impulsive. In this state, he feels the need for physical action, and the more anger, the more this need. Self-control is reduced. Therefore, the attackers seek to "wind themselves up" by any means, quickly bring their state to anger, since the trigger mechanism of aggressive actions is facilitated.
Contempt - unlike anger, this emotion rarely causes the impulsive behavior of the threatening one, but it is possible that this is why the person showing contempt is in some way more dangerous than the angry one.
Outwardly, it looks something like this: the head is raised, and even if the person showing contempt is shorter than you, then it seems that he is looking at you from above. One can observe a pose of "detachment" and a smug expression on his face. In posture, facial expressions, pantomime, speech - superiority. The special danger of this emotion lies in the fact that it is "cold" and a contemptuous person can perform an aggressive action calmly, in cold blood. But if something of the plan does not work out, then anger may appear. The pairing of these two emotions is even more dangerous.
Disgust is an emotion that can also stimulate aggression. The disgusted person looks like something disgusting has gotten into their mouth or smelled extremely unpleasant. The nose is wrinkled, the upper lip is pulled up, sometimes it seems that such a person's eyes are squinting. As in contempt - the pose of "detachment", but without a pronounced superiority.
When combined with anger, it can cause very aggressive behavior, since anger "motivates" the attack, and disgust - the need to get rid of the unpleasant.
Often, the threat of an attack, the attack itself or blackmail is carried out by a person who is in a state of alcohol or drug intoxication. Alcohol and drugs lead the psyche of the attacker or the threatening one into a state of increased excitability, and sharply reduce the level of self-control. That is why it is sometimes important to determine what "doping" and how much a partner has taken and what can be expected from him.
The most dangerous are the mild and medium stages of alcoholic intoxication, which often cause an increase in aggressiveness. Some take alcohol "for courage", thereby overcoming the feeling of fear. With alcoholic intoxication, the criticality of the perception of what is happening decreases, such a person hardly perceives or does not perceive any argumentation at all. Movements are activated and can quickly turn aggressive. As a rule, a physical attack in such situations is preceded by swearing, abuse, threats.
A person who is intoxicated outwardly looks like any normal person, and therefore this condition is difficult to recognize.
Narcotic intoxication is characterized, as a rule, by increased activity in movements; fast, overly lively speech, not quite adequate response to questions, a kind of "sparkle" in the eyes, sometimes unreasonable laughter, high spirits. Some people in this state have less sensitivity to pain and no feeling of empathy for others. Responsibility for their actions can be realized. All this is characteristic of light narcotic intoxication, which has a stimulating effect.
A chronic drug addict can have injection marks, bags under the eyes. By the way, it should be borne in mind that the reaction to a drug can be quite short-lived, and the end of its action in an extreme environment for a drug addict can cause him withdrawal symptoms, which will result in a sharp deterioration in his condition, he can become depressed, angry, even more agitated and aggressive. He may have an irresistible desire to remove the obstacle to the next dose of the drug as soon as possible. For some drug addicts, this period of "activation" lasts a short time, after which a period of severe depression may follow, up to epileptic seizures, when he becomes practically helpless.
Aggression can come from a person:
- suffering from mental disorders (paranoid schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, and other diseases);
- mentally healthy, but with a character anomaly (psychopathies, especially excitable, epileptoid forms);
- with an accentuation of character, when, under certain conditions, there is a maladjustment of the personality according to one of the forms or types of psychopathies;
- mentally healthy, but in a state of temporary mental disorder (psychogenic, reactive states, exogeny).
Any person can give an aggressive reaction under certain conditions, but the emphasis is placed on persons suffering from a mental illness (chronic or temporary), since aggression can be an expression of a mental state regardless of external factors or any special conditions. Moreover, when an aggressive state is not directly or indirectly dependent on external circumstances or on external motives (not provoked by anyone), this means that it is impossible to influence or modify the reaction of others in a non-drug way.
Patients suffering from auditory or visual hallucinations are especially dangerous when they lose all connection with reality and subordinate their actions only to their guided motives. Often their actions are completely incomprehensible to others: there is no sequence of actions, they are not subject to the laws of logic, cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena and facts, they cannot be predicted and most often the true causes of aggressive reactions are hidden by them even from the closest (parents, friends, if you can name friends, criminals, whom they are "respected" because of their aggressiveness and cruelty). But, as a rule, such patients prefer criminal behavior alone and aggression can be directed at a completely random person. Due to the lack of logic and apparent reason that prompted a person to commit a crime, it becomes extremely difficult to detect the criminal.
They are not aware of the state of fear that a person without mental disorders can experience, a feeling of compassion, pity.
Outwardly, they look tense, their gaze seems to be turned inward, they "listen" to something, facial expressions change regardless of external circumstances, most often malicious, just like the expression in their eyes, a smile is more like a grin. Such patients draw attention to themselves with slovenliness, the smell of an unwashed body and dirty clothes.
There are options when aggression is directed against oneself, the patients consider themselves unworthy to live, but are ready to take others with them, being sincerely confident that they will render a service, saving a person from the "horrors of earthly existence."
Patients with epilepsy, psychopaths of the epileptoid circle and accentuated individuals of the epileptoid type are no less aggressive. They are also united by cruelty. As a rule, they are distinguished by extreme resentment, rancor, vindictiveness, stubbornness, inability to yield in an argument, although they themselves are its initiators. Of course, there are differences in these options: if for an accentuated personality there are still limits that they will not cross in a dispute, in a conflict, then a patient with epilepsy, how slowly, so deeply, gets stuck in a conflict and cannot stop, loses control in his excitement, rage and aggression. If he crossed the line, then the reaction will necessarily be accompanied by destructive actions (multiple and of the same type). All variants are characterized by rancor, bearing revenge. And before revenge is carried out, their behavior is characterized by flattering and servility, it is not for nothing that they say about them: "with a Bible in their hands and a dagger in their bosom."
Since they are pedantic, thorough and scrupulous, they are in this vein and make plans for revenge. Fanaticism in religion, politics and ideology is more often a property of epileptoid psychopaths; the majority of terrorists, under the slogan "fight for justice", surround themselves with the same types and ruthlessly destroy the mass of innocent people. Negotiations with them are impossible, they cannot be persuaded, they are not suggestible, they do not love anyone, not even themselves - "I will die, but I will not yield."
The psychopathic faces of the hysterical circle are the most common among scammers, "swindlers" and various "flight" adventurers. Their distinguishing feature is their artistry, high ability to play social roles, the presence of their own rules of the "game" - complete disregard for generally accepted moral norms, lack of remorse, which creates the impression of originality and courage. There are very gifted "in their business" types, with good intelligence, memory and manners, but character! The character is aimed at achieving (and immediately!) His needs, whims, often base desires, without stopping at anything. Sometimes among them there are good orators who know how to own and inspire a whole audience, superbly manipulating people and their destinies. They are more likely than others to use stimulating substances to enhance their activity and acuteness of sensations (alcoholism, drug addiction).
5. Panic
Panic (from Greek panikon - unaccountable horror), a psychological state caused by the threatening influence of external conditions and expressed in a feeling of acute fear that grips a person or many people, an uncontrollable uncontrollable desire to avoid a dangerous situation.
The psychophysiological mechanism of panic lies in the induction inhibition of large areas of the cerebral cortex, which predetermines a decrease in conscious activity.
Panic is a "very atypical response" and that it is "statistically infrequent". For panic to arise, several conditions must be implemented, the main of which is the fear of not having time to leave the premises, the lack of social connection between the participants (cases of panic were not recorded in residential buildings), mistakes and failures in attempts to evacuate.
Older people (over 42) show a panic reaction more often than younger people. No differences were found between the responses of men and women. There is evidence suggesting cultural and nationalistic differences in people's responses to panic. About 35% of people show a desire to protect themselves at the expense of others.
Bibliography
1. Ardaseneva V.N. "Personal protective equipment" -M .: Profizdat, 1998.
2. Belov S.V. "Life Safety" - Textbook, M .: Higher School, NMC SPO, 2000.
3. Devisilov V.A. "Life Safety" - Textbook, M .: Higher School, 1999.
4. Litvak I. "Belarusian Railways". - Study guide, M., 2000.
5. Roik V.D. "Social protection of workers from occupational risks" - Publishing house of Research Institute of Labor of the Ministry of Labor, 1994.
Introduction
The history of the study of the psychological, medico-psychological and psychosocial consequences of human exposure to various emergencies goes back more than one decade. Well-known psychologists and psychiatrists W. James, P. Janet, Z. Freud, W. Frankl dealt with this topic, one way or another. Psychoemotional states that develop in a person who has been in an extreme situation are also studied in domestic science within the framework of extreme psychology and the branch of psychiatry dealing with the problems of psychogenias8. However, most of the publications on this issue are thematically scattered.
An emergency situation is a situation in a certain territory resulting from an accident, a dangerous natural phenomenon, a catastrophe, a natural or other disaster that may or did entail human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of the living conditions of people ...
An extreme situation can be understood as changed, unusual and unusual conditions of a person's existence, for which his psychophysiological organization is not ready. In social science, there is still no unified theory that would describe the features of mental activity and human behavior in unusual conditions of existence.
The extreme situation is:
condition of functioning: external determination;
property, the state of the social systems themselves: internal determination.
To understand the mechanism of action of extreme situations, it is important to have a clear understanding of their types and varieties. There are several approaches to defining the types of emergencies:
by the scope of the scope: local, municipal, intermunicipal, regional, interregional and federal;
by the dynamics of development and the time of elimination of consequences: strategic, leading quickly to catastrophic consequences, slowly developing, operational with a local nature of consequences;
by types of damage: human casualties, material damage;
by source of origin: natural, technogenic, biological and social and military.
space and aviation flights;
deep sea diving;
stay in hard-to-reach areas of the world;
stay deep underground (in mines);
natural disasters: floods, fires, hurricanes, snow drifts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, rock falls, mountain avalanches, landslides and mudflows;
testing of new highly sophisticated equipment;
transport, industrial, environmental disasters;
war activities;
epidemics;
domestic disasters such as fires;
criminal situations: committing terrorist acts, taking hostages;
reactionary political coups;
riots, etc.
The criteria for the classification of emergency situations by scale are: the number of the affected population, the amount of material damage, as well as the boundaries of the zones of distribution of damaging factors. However, social resonance very often depends not on the number of victims, but on the conditions under which the catastrophe occurred. An example is the nuclear submarine Kursk, which sank in August 2000 in an accident that killed 118 people. As a result of numerous terrorist acts committed on the territory of our country, man-made accidents and natural disasters, more people die, but these events do not receive such wide coverage in the media.
With the development of civilization, with the use of more and more new technologies, the progress of scientific research, the threat of man-made disasters is constantly increasing. There are a large number of warehouses in the world with stocks of combustible, explosive, highly toxic and radioactive substances. In addition, there is a huge number of chemical and bacteriological weapons. All these stocks are stored for a long time, often without proper revision and disposal, storage facilities are often in disrepair. Deterioration of equipment often exceeds permissible standards: for example, 40% of pipelines for pumping gas and oil have served their life. The high-risk zone is transport communications, power facilities. It is believed that 30% of the population lives in dangerous zones, 10% - in extremely dangerous zones. In conditions of low technological discipline, chronic lack of financial and material resources to maintain fixed assets in working order, the likelihood of mass accidents, man-made disasters and other emergencies increases.
The issues of human psychology in emergency situations must be considered in order to prepare the population, rescuers, leaders to act in extreme situations.
When considering the issues of human behavior in emergency situations, much attention is paid to the psychology of fear. In everyday life, in extreme conditions, a person constantly has to overcome the dangers that threaten his existence, which causes (generates) fear, i.e. short-term or long-term emotional process, generated by real or perceived danger. Fear is an alarm signal, but not just an alarm, but a signal that causes a person's likely protective actions.
Fear causes unpleasant sensations in a person - this is a negative effect of fear, but fear is also a signal, a command for individual or collective protection, since the main goal facing a person is to stay alive, to prolong his existence.
It should be borne in mind that the most frequent, significant and dynamic are rash, unconscious actions of a person as a result of his reaction to danger.
The greatest danger to a person is represented by factors that can cause his death as a result of various aggressive influences - these are various physical, chemical, biological factors, high and low temperatures, ionizing (radioactive) radiation. All these factors require different ways to protect a person and a group of people, i.e. individual and collective methods of protection to which can be attributed: the desire of a person to move away from the action of damaging factors (to escape from danger, to protect himself with a screen, etc.); vigorous attack by a person on a source of possible damaging factors to weaken their action or destroy a source of possible damaging factors.
The special conditions in which a person may find themselves, as a rule, cause him psychological and emotional tension. As a consequence, for some this is accompanied by the mobilization of internal vital resources; for others, a decrease or even a breakdown in working capacity, deterioration in health, physiological and psychological stressful events11. It depends on the individual characteristics of the organism, working conditions and upbringing, awareness of current events and understanding of the degree of danger.
In all difficult situations, the moral conditioning and mental state of a person plays a decisive role. They determine the readiness for deliberate, confident and prudent action in any critical moments.
1. The essence and content of the psychology of behavior in emergency situations
The psychology of states combines the vast experience of the world psychological science in the field of the study of mental states. The psychology of states also includes the consideration of certain types of conditions, including those arising in emergency situations. Tension states (stress states) were studied by T.A. Nemchin, L.P. Grimak V.I. Lebedev. Emotional states arising in emergency situations were studied by A.O. Prokhorov, A. Kempinski and others.
Among mental phenomena, mental states belong to one of the main places. At the same time, despite the intensive study of the problem of mental states, much of it remains unclear. According to T.A. Nemchina, “successful development of this problem is necessary because mental states significantly determine the nature of human activity”.
I.P. Pavlov believed that psychology is the science of our states, and that thanks to it, one can imagine the entire complexity of the subjective.
Against the background of disagreements and a wide variety of opinions about the definition, composition, structures, functions, mechanisms, classifications and other problems associated with the mental state, many authors remain unanimous in the opinion about the great, if not decisive, significance of research of this mental phenomenon for psychology. So, N. D. Levitov, who was the first to place the concept of "mental state" in the status of a psychological category, believed that the solution of this problem fills the existing gap in psychology - the gap between the doctrine of mental processes and mental properties of the individual. On this occasion, Yu.E. Sosnovikova writes: "It is impossible to understand the psyche as a whole without examining its specific integral manifestations in the form of mental states."
So, let's flip through the works of different authors. There is a term “tense situations” - M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich, V.A. Ponomarenko, “extreme conditions” - L.G. Wild, "difficult situations" - A.V. Libin, “stressful11 situations” - G. Selye, Kitaev-Smyk, “acute events - V.V. Avdeev, “emergency situations” - A.F. Maidykov, “abnormal conditions” - V.D. Tumanov, “special conditions” - S.А. Shapkin, L.G. Wild. The term “extreme situations” is used by the following authors: T.A. Nemchin, V.G. Androsyuk, V.I. Lebedev, G.V. Suvorov, M.P. Mingalieva, T.S. Nazarov, V.S. Shapovalenko and others.
Ukrainian scientists M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich, V.A. Ponomarenko also point to the importance of subjective perception of an emergency (in their interpretation of a complex) situation: “A tense situation is such a complication of the conditions of activity, which has acquired special significance for the individual. In other words, complex objective conditions of activity become a tense situation when they are perceived, understood, evaluated by people as difficult, dangerous, etc. Any situation presupposes the involvement of the subject in it. This applies all the more to a tense situation that combines a certain content of objective activity with the needs, motives, goals, and relationships of a person. Consequently, a tense situation, like any situation, embodies the unity of the objective and the subjective. Objective is the complicated conditions and process of activity; subjective - state, attitudes, methods of action in dramatically changed circumstances. The common thing that characterizes tense situations is the emergence of a rather difficult task for the subject, a "difficult" mental state. "
V.G. Androsyuk in his book "Pedagogy and Psychology" comes to the following conclusion: "an emergency is such a state of the vital activity system that is dangerous to life and health, unfavorable for the functioning of the human psyche and can cause tension."
Based on the foregoing, we list the main characteristics of an emergency:
This is an extreme situation, with a very strong impact that goes beyond the range of human capabilities.
These are complicated conditions of activity that are subjectively perceived, understood and assessed by a person as difficult, dangerous, etc.
The situation causes the emergence of a task that is quite difficult for the subject, a "difficult" mental state.
An emergency situation leads to the emergence of a state of dynamic mismatch and requires maximum mobilization of the body's resources.
This situation causes negative functional states, violations of the psychological regulation of activity, and thereby reduces the efficiency and reliability of activities.
A person is faced with the impossibility of realizing his motives, aspirations, values, interests.
An emergency situation is dangerous for life and health, unfavorable for the functioning of the human psyche. The factors that give rise to mental tension can, in some cases, have a positive mobilizing effect on a person, and in others - a negative, disorganizing effect. Consider the positive, mobilizing changes in the emotional, cognitive and behavioral spheres of the personality, caused by the impact of such situations.
According to V.G. Androsyuk, these changes include:
- decrease in the thresholds of sensations, acceleration of sensory and motor reactions. A person shows the ability to more accurately assess stimuli, quickly responds to all changes in environmental conditions; - decrease in fatigue, - the disappearance or dullness of the feeling of fatigue. A person's endurance and performance increase, unpretentiousness is manifested in uncomfortable situational conditions; - increased readiness for decisive and bold action. Strong-willed qualities are manifested, the decision-making stage is reduced, forecasting the development of the situation is optimally combined with a healthy risk; - activation of business motives, a sense of duty. A person develops a business excitement, the final and intermediate goals of the activity are defined clearly and unambiguously; - activation of cognitive activity. A person shows sharpness of perception, actively includes the reserves of operational and long-term memory. Creative abilities are actualized, thinking is characterized by dynamism, flexibility, active and successful search for non-standard solutions. Intuition is widely used. - show of interest, enthusiasm. In solving problems, a person mobilizes his psychological capabilities and special abilities. The ability to withstand an emergency has three dimensions: Physiological stability due to the state of the physical and physiological qualities of the body (constitutional features, type of nervous system, vegetative plasticity); Mental stability due to training and the general level of personality traits (special skills of action in an extreme situation, the presence of positive motivation, etc.); Psychological readiness (active-activity state, mobilization of all forces and capabilities for the forthcoming actions). " Different authors give different definitions of "mental state". Some of them, for example, James, identify the concepts of "state" and "process", others reduce the concept of "mental state" to the concept of "state of consciousness", and still others, in one way or another, connect the mental state with the characteristics of the emotional sphere. The most complete definition of the mental state of D.N. Levitova: "This is a holistic characteristic of mental activity for a certain period of time, showing the originality of the course of mental processes, depending on the reflected objects and phenomena of reality, previous states and mental properties of the individual." Analysis of the behavior and state of a person in an extreme situation shows that the most powerful irritant leading to erroneous actions is incomplete information. P.V. Simonov developed the information theory of emotions, according to which, with a shortage of available information, negative emotion appears, reaching a maximum in the absence of information. Positive emotion arises when the available information exceeds the information necessary to satisfy a given need. Thus, in a number of cases, knowledge and awareness of the individual remove emotions, change the emotional mood and mental state of the individual, and open access to the inner resources of a person. "Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles." Overcoming obstacles by a person requires volitional effort - a special state of nervous and mental tension that mobilizes his physical, intellectual and moral strength. The will is manifested as a person's confidence in his abilities, as a determination to perform the act that he considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation. Since a state is a multidimensional phenomenon, any state can be described by a wide range of parameters. This or that parameter can be leading. What parameters of condition come to the fore in an emergency? First of all, tension. Tension in the dictionary of psychology J. Drever is defined as "a feeling of tension, tension, a general feeling of imbalance and readiness to change behavior when faced with any threatening situational factor." Such factors can be increased workload, lack of time, lack of information, etc. According to L.V. Kulikov, it is these factors that are the real cause of tension, and not the experiences caused by them, which are a natural reaction to the situation. Therefore, with the interpretation of emotions as a cause of tension, according to L.V. Kulikov, it is difficult to completely agree. The role of emotion is quite precisely defined by A.V. Zaporozhets, who wrote that emotion is not the process of activation itself, but a special form of reflection of reality, through which mental control of activation is carried out, or, more correctly, mental regulation of the general direction and dynamics of behavior is carried out. 2. Mental states of people in extreme situations
The mental states of people in extreme situations are diverse. At the initial moment, the reactions of people are predominantly of a vital orientation, due to the instinct of self-preservation. The level of expediency of such reactions is different for different individuals - from panic and senseless to consciously purposeful. Hypermobilization in the initial period is inherent in almost all people, but if it is combined with a state of panic, it may not lead to the salvation of people. Extreme situations are characterized by a number of essential psychogenic8 signs that have a destructive, destructive effect on the human somatic and psyche. These include the following psychogenic8 factors: Panic is one of the mental states inherent in extreme situations. It is characterized by defects in thinking, loss of conscious control and comprehension of ongoing events, a transition to instinctive defensive movements, actions that may partially or completely do not correspond to the situation. A person rushes about, not realizing what he is doing, or he becomes numb, freezes, there is a loss of orientation, a violation of the ratio between the main and secondary actions, the breakdown of the structure of actions and operations, an exacerbation of the defensive reaction, refusal of activity, etc. ... Altered afferentation is a specific reaction of the organism in sharply changed, unusual conditions of existence. It is clearly manifested when exposed to weightlessness, high or low temperatures, high or low pressure. It may be accompanied (except for vegetative reactions) by pronounced disorders of self-awareness, orientation in space. Affection is a strong and relatively short-term neuropsychic agitation. It is characterized by an altered emotional state associated with a change in life circumstances important for the subject. Outwardly, it manifests itself in pronounced movements, violent emotions, accompanied by changes in the functions of internal organs, a loss of volitional control. It arises in response to an event that has already occurred and is shifted to its end. Affectation is based on the experienced state of internal conflict generated by the contradictions between the requirements presented to a person and the ability to fulfill them. Agiotation is an affective reaction that occurs in response to a threat to life, an emergency and other psychogenic factors. It manifests itself in the form of severe anxiety, anxiety, loss of purposefulness of actions. The person fusses and is able to perform only simple automated actions. There is a feeling of emptiness and lack of thoughts, the ability to reason is disrupted, to establish complex connections between phenomena. This is accompanied by vegetative disorders: pallor, increased breathing, palpitations, hand tremors, etc. Agiotation is regarded as a pre-pathological state within the boundaries of the psychological norm. In emergency situations among rescuers, firefighters, and representatives of other risk-related professions, it is often perceived as confusion. Monotony is a functional state that occurs during prolonged monotonous work. It is characterized by a decrease in the general level of activity, loss of conscious control over the performance of actions, deterioration of attention and short-term memory, decreased sensitivity to external stimuli, the predominance of stereotyped movements and actions, a feeling of boredom, drowsiness, lethargy, apathy, loss of interest in the environment. Desynchronosis is a mismatch of the rhythm of sleep and wakefulness, which leads to asthenization of the nervous system and the development of neuroses. A change in the perception of the spatial structure is a condition that occurs in situations when there are no objects at all in a person's field of vision. Restriction of information, especially personally significant, is a condition that contributes to the development of emotional instability. Solitary social isolation (for a long time) is a manifestation of loneliness, one of the forms of which is “creating an interlocutor”: a person “communicates” with photographs of loved ones, with inanimate objects. The allocation of a “partner” for communication in loneliness is a defensive reaction within the framework of the psychological norm, but this phenomenon is a kind of model of a split personality in conditions of the duration of an extreme situation. Group social isolation (for a long time) is a state of high emotional tension, which can also be caused by the fact that people are forced to constantly be in front of each other. Women are especially sensitive to this factor. Under normal conditions, a person is used to hiding from other people his thoughts and feelings that overwhelm him at one time or another. In conditions of group isolation, this is either difficult or impossible. The inability to be alone with oneself requires from a person increased concentration and control over his actions, and when such control weakens, many people can experience a kind of complex of physical and mental openness, nakedness, which causes emotional tension. Another specific psychogenic8 factor acting in conditions of group isolation is information depletion of communication partners. To avoid conflicts, people limit communication with each other and go into their inner world. Sensory isolation - lack of human exposure to visual, sound, tactile, gustatory and other signals. Under normal conditions, a person extremely rarely encounters such a phenomenon and therefore does not realize the significance of the effects of stimuli on receptors, does not realize how important its workload is for the normal functioning of the brain. If the brain is not loaded enough, then the so-called sensory hunger, sensory deprivation, 10 occurs, when a person experiences an urgent need for a variety of perceptions of the world around him. In conditions of sensory deficiency, the imagination begins to work hard, extracting bright, colorful images from the arsenals of memory. These vivid representations to some extent compensate for the sensory sensations characteristic of ordinary conditions, and allow a person to maintain mental balance for a long time. With an increase in the duration of sensory hunger, the influence of intellectual processes also decreases. Extreme situations are characterized by unstable activities of people, which affects their mental status. In particular, there is a decrease in mood (lethargy, apathy, lethargy), at times alternating with euphoria, irritability, sleep disturbance, inability to concentrate, i.e. weakening of attention, impairment of memory and mental performance in general. All this leads to depletion of the nervous system. Sensory hyperactivation is the impact on a person of visual, sound, tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other signals, in their strength or intensity, significantly exceeding the sensitivity thresholds for a given person. A threat to the health and life of a person by depriving him of food, water, sleep, causing grievous bodily harm, etc. It is of great importance to study the mental state of people who have a life-threatening factor. It can cause various mental reactions - from acute anxiety to neuroses and psychosis. One of the conditions for adapting a person to an environment associated with a threat to life is readiness for instant action, which helps to avoid accidents and disasters. The state of mental instability in these conditions arises as a result of asthenization2 of the nervous system by various shocks. This condition is often manifested in people whose previous activities were not distinguished by mental tension. In conditions of a threat to life, two forms of reaction are clearly distinguished: a state of agiotation and a short-term stupor (a short-term stupor is characterized by sudden numbness, freezing in place, while intellectual activity remains). In a number of cases, these factors act in combination, which greatly enhances their destructive effect. Usually extreme situations are characterized by massive manifestations of psycho-emotional stress. 3. External manifestations, characteristics and classification of psychoemotional states
If we consider psychoemotional states from a physiological point of view, then it should be noted that they have a reflex nature. Although the vast majority of them are conditioned reflex origin. For example, an operational duty officer, who is accustomed to working in a certain mode, develops a state of optimal readiness for work before taking over a shift; from the very first minute he enters the rhythm of work. The basis of mental and psychoemotional states is a certain ratio of nervous processes (from episodic to stable, typical for a given person) in the cerebral cortex. Under the influence of a combination of external and internal stimuli, a certain general tone of the cortex, its functional level, arises. Physiological states of the cortex are called phase states. After the cessation of the action of the stimuli that caused this or that state, it persists for some time or affects the formation of new or actualization of old conditioned reflex connections in the cerebral cortex. These states of the cortex, in turn, can be conditioned stimuli, signaling any changes that are important for the adaptation of the organism to the environment, and subsequently, in similar situations, accelerate the adaptation of the psyche to unusual conditions. Mental states are externally manifested in changes in breathing and blood circulation, in facial expressions, pantomime, movements, gestures, intonation features of speech, etc. Thus, in a state of pleasure, an increase in the frequency and amplitude of breathing is observed, dissatisfaction causes a decrease in both; breathing in an agitated state becomes frequent and deep; in tense - slow and weak; anxious - quick and weak; in a state of fear, it is sharply slowed down, and in case of unexpected surprise, breathing instantly becomes rapid, but retains a normal amplitude. In an excited state or a state of tense expectation (often caused by extreme situations), the frequency and strength of the pulse, the value of blood pressure in a very wide range (depending on the strength of the impact of the situation that has arisen) can increase. Changes in blood circulation are usually accompanied by blanching or redness of the human body. An indicator of a person's emotional state is often his movements and actions (by uncertain or sluggish movements, we judge about fatigue, by sharp and energetic ones - about cheerfulness). Mimicry is also capable of expressing very subtle shades of experience. The speaker's voice can also provide significant data about his psycho-emotional state. Psychoemotional states are complex, holistic, dynamic formations that largely determine the originality of all mental activity (the course of processes, manifestation of properties) of a person at a given time interval. Psychoemotional states have the following features: Integrity. Although the states relate mainly to a certain sphere of the psyche (cognitive, emotional, volitional), they characterize mental activity as a whole for a certain period of time. Mobility and relative stability. Psycho-emotional states are changeable: they have a beginning, an end, dynamics. They are, of course, less constant than personality traits, but more stable and measured in larger units of time than mental processes. Direct and immediate relationship with mental processes and personality traits. In the structure of the psyche, psycho-emotional states are located between processes and personality traits. They arise as a result of the reflective activity of the brain. But once they arise, psychoemotional states, on the one hand, affect mental processes (determine the tone and pace of reflective activity, selectivity of sensations, perceptions, the productivity of a person's thinking, etc.), on the other hand, they are "building blocks" for the formation of properties personality. Psychoemotional states serve as a background that contributes to the manifestation of personality traits or masking them. For example, the state of expectation of a battle, experienced in pre-combat conditions, is characterized in the field of sensations and perceptions, memory and thinking, by the disorder of volitional activity, which is not characteristic of them in normal conditions. At the same time, mental states are influenced by previous states and personality traits. Individual originality and typicality. The psycho-emotional states of each person are unique, since they are inextricably linked with the individual characteristics of the personality, its moral and other features. So a person with a sanguine temperament tends to exaggerate success and interpret everything in a bright light for the most part, because an elated state is typical for him. Personality traits and experienced psycho-emotional states do not always, but often correspond to each other. What is sometimes taken as a personality trait turns out to be atypical for a given person, a temporary condition. For example, depression can be not only a stable personality trait of melancholic temperament, but also manifest itself as a condition caused by a person's troubles at work or in the family. The variety of psycho-emotional states. There are an incredible variety of personality states of a psychoemotional nature. Even an incomplete list of them makes it possible to judge this: surprise and bewilderment, confusion and concentration, hope and hopelessness, despondency and cheerfulness, enthusiasm and excitement, indecision and decisiveness, tension and calmness, etc. Polarity. As can be understood from the description of the previous quality, each state corresponds to the opposite. So activity is opposed by passivity, confidence - uncertainty, decisiveness - indecision. The polarity of psychoemotional states, the rapid transition of a person from one state to the opposite is especially clearly manifested in unusual (extreme) situations. All states of a psycho-emotional nature are grouped on different grounds. According to the correspondence to the basic states of higher nervous activity, one can distinguish between optimal, excited and depressive states. For example, a "normal vigorous state" with a balance between the processes of arousal and inhibition can be used as the basis for an optimal psychoemotional state, in which a person's activity is active and most productive. Currently, it is customary to distinguish between states: Active and passive; Creative and reproductive; Partial (partial) and general condition; Conditions caused by selective excitement and inhibition in the cortex and subcortex of the brain (activity of the subcortex and inhibition of the cortex gives rise to a hysterical state6, and, conversely, inhibition of the subcortex upon excitation of the cortex is asthenic3, etc.). On a purely psychological basis, psychoemotional states are classified into intellectual, volitional and combined. Depending on the type of occupation of the individual, states are divided into states in combat, educational, labor, sports and other types of activity. According to their role in the structure of personality, states can be situational, personal and group. Situational states express the peculiarities of the situation that caused a person to react uncharacteristic for his mental activity. Personal and collective (group) states are typical conditions inherent in this particular person or collective. According to the depth of experiences, they are distinguished - deep and superficial. For example, passion is a deeper state than mood. By the nature of the influence on the personality, the collective of the state is divided into positive and negative. Conditions negatively affecting a person and a collective are often the cause of the appearance of a psychological barrier between people. Conditions that have a positive effect on mental activity increase the effectiveness of communication. According to the duration of the course, the states are long and short-term. The homesickness of people who go on long business trips can take up to several weeks until they get used to the new environment. According to the degree of awareness, states can be more or less conscious. 4. Post-traumatic stress disorder
Psychological aspects of experiencing traumatic stress11 and its consequences are studied, as a rule, in the context of general problems of human activity in extreme conditions, studies of a person's adaptive capabilities and stress tolerance12. The results of such studies seem to focus on the social, natural, technological, individual psychological, environmental and medical aspects of human existence in the modern world. The history of research in this area has several decades, but their intensity has especially increased in connection with the problems of adaptation of American veterans of the Vietnam War, soldiers of the Soviet Army who participated in hostilities in the territory of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, servicemen of the armed forces and specialized units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. who took part in countering illegal bandit formations on the territory of the Chechen Republic. The results of numerous studies have shown that the condition developing under the influence of psychological traumatic stress11 did not fall into any of the classifications available in clinical practice. The consequences of trauma could appear suddenly, after a long time, against the background of the general external well-being of a person, and over time the deterioration of the state became more and more pronounced. Many different symptoms of such a change in condition have been described, but for a long time no clear criteria for its diagnosis have been developed. Also, there was no single name for its designation. Only by 1980 was a sufficient amount of information obtained in the course of experimental research accumulated and analyzed for generalization. The complex of symptoms observed in those who experienced traumatic stress11 is called "posttraumatic stress disorder" - PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder). Criteria for the diagnosis of this disorder were included in the American National Diagnostic Psychiatric Standard (Diagnostical and Statistical Mannual of Mental Disorders) and remain in it to this day. Since 1994, these criteria have been included in the European diagnostic standard ICD-10. The main symptoms of PTSD are grouped into three criteria: Obsessive experiences of the traumatic event (illusions, delusions, nightmares); Striving to avoid any events and experiences associated with traumatic events, the development of detachment, alienation from real life; High and increasing level of emotional arousal, manifested in a complex of hypertrophied psychophysiological reactions. In addition, the presence of a severe traumatic event is imperative for a diagnosis. The duration of the manifestation of each of the above symptoms should be at least a month from the moment of their initial appearance. In psychology, the consequences of exposure to such traumatic events as various industrial and natural disasters (fires, floods, earthquakes) have been studied quite well. A wealth of material has also been accumulated on the study of victims of various forms of violence against a person. All these types of mental trauma have a similar etiology - they are all based on the impact of the so-called "acute" stress11, which has an event-driven nature; similar characteristics also have an effect on the human psyche and other extreme situations (for example, military operations). The source of mental traumatization of the personal are various events that take place in the process of serving, which can be attributed to critical. The definition of a critical incident, accepted by many authors, was given by the American researcher J. Mitchell (1991). "A critical incident is any situation that occurs in practice that causes unusually strong emotional reactions that can adversely affect the performance of duties either on the spot or later." Critical incidents include those and only those events that expose a person to physical (and, or psychological) danger and can cause negative psychological consequences, requiring special measures to assist their participants or eyewitnesses. Often this concept is identified with the concept of "psychological trauma", which has a somewhat broader content. But nevertheless, speaking of a critical incident experienced, they mean the fact that the person has undergone mental trauma. Psychological trauma is usually understood as a relatively short-term powerful stressful 11 \u200b\u200beffect of an external force on an individual, or his prolonged stay in extreme conditions. It is distinguished by the following characteristics: the cause is always outside the individual, in external circumstances; the impact is accompanied by the experience of intense fear, even horror; circumstances violate the habitual life stereotype, contain a real threat to life itself or health; the individual may feel his own helplessness in the face of external circumstances. The psychological reaction to trauma includes three relatively independent phases, which makes it possible to characterize it as a process unfolded in time. Phase - the phase of psychological shock contains two main components: Depression of activity, violation of orientation in the environment, disorganization of activity; Denial of what happened (a kind of protective reaction of the psyche). Normally, this phase is quite short-lived. Phase - the phase of exposure is characterized by pronounced emotional reactions to the event and its consequences. It can be intense fear, horror, anxiety, anger, crying, accusation - emotions that are distinguished by their immediacy of manifestation and extreme intensity. Gradually, these emotions are replaced by a reaction of criticism or self-doubt. It proceeds according to the type: "what would have happened if ..." and is accompanied by a painful state of inevitability of what happened, recognition of one's own powerlessness and self-flagellation. A typical example is the feeling of “guilt for survival”, widely described in the literature, often reaching the level of deep depression. A similar reaction was observed by members of the emergency psychiatric aid brigade of the Ministry of Internal Affairs among the police officers of Spitak and Leninakan during the period of liquidation of the consequences of the earthquake in Armenia. It is very typical in situations of hostilities or during special operations in cases where subunits have suffered heavy losses. The phase under consideration is critical in the sense that after it either the process of rehabilitation begins (reaction, acceptance of reality, adaptation to newly arisen circumstances), i.e. III phase - the phase of normal response, or there is a fixation on the trauma and subsequent chronicity of the post-stress state. The dynamics of the psychological state of the injured person is determined both by the totality of his individual psychological characteristics and by the impact of microsocial, socio-psychological factors, and specific life circumstances. According to the observations of specialists, in the event of a particular crisis situation, among the persons who were under its influence and did not undergo special training, reactions such as apathy, lethargy, poor understanding of what is happening and the speech addressed to them, helplessness, panic behavior, little predictable behavior, flight from danger, loss of orientation in the environment. After the events, in about 80% of cases, people are able to independently cope with the post-stress state, overcome it, while the rest need to be provided with special psychological or psychiatric assistance. The severity of psychological trauma and post-traumatic conditions is determined by a number of factors, primarily the very scale and severity of the events experienced, the number of victims, the presence of deceased friends or relatives, and the amount of material damage. In addition, it depends on: Features of the personal warehouse - resistance to stress; Previous experience of experiencing crisis situations, preparedness for their occurrence; Social support (from family, friends, colleagues, management, social workers, psychologists, psychotherapists, etc.) Foreign authors usually distinguish between two types of conditions resulting from the activities of rescuers with a high probability of causing psychological stress, other forms of psychoemotional maladjustment: situations of professional stress and "burnout phenomenon". The employees who have been in extreme situations, who participated in the liquidation of catastrophic events, it was noted that as a result of this emotionally intense and sometimes physically difficult activity, they often develop a special psychological state, described in the special literature as a "burnout phenomenon". It manifests itself in the form of a kind of emotional exhaustion, a temporary loss by the individual of a sense of his integrity and value, a decrease in the level of emotional and physical activity. The reason for the emergence of such a state is the impact of a number of situational, personal and professional stresses11 inherent in activities in emergency conditions. At the same time, many of them subsequently noted an increase in motivation for this kind of activity, including within the framework of their professions and services, that is, a part of people who experienced a state of stress11 in an extreme situation expressed their readiness to subsequently take part in actions associated with risk and high psycho-emotional stress. 5. Psychosomatic manifestations of the impact of an extreme situation
.1 Influence of emotions on physiological processes
For the first time the term "psychosomatics" was proposed by the German physician Johann Heinroth in 1818. He used this term to refer to the relationship between the patients' bodily ailments and their mental suffering. Heinroth's followers believed that all bodily illnesses have psychological causes. Psychosomatics was originally presented as "psychosomatic medicine". The history of psychosomatics, as a branch of science, begins with the psychoanalytic concept of Z. Freud. Such scientists as F. Alexander, A. Lowen, W. Reich, M. Feldenkrais, G. Selye, M.E. Sandomirsky, S.A. Kulakov, psychotherapist N. Pezeshkian and others. Psychosomatics (from the Greek Psyche - soul + soma- body) is a bodily manifestation of emotions (the imbalance of which results in psychosomatic diseases), as well as a reflection of other subconscious processes, a bodily channel of conscious-subconscious communication. In this context, the body is presented as a kind of screen onto which the symbolic messages of the subconscious are projected. The relationship between the body ("soma") and the psyche is always two-way. Healing from bodily ailments can be achieved by working through the psychological causes that gave rise to them, and the opposite is equally true. Psychosomatics, as a branch of science, examines the influence of emotions on physiological processes and behavioral responses associated with diseases, psychological mechanisms that affect physiological functions. Psychosomatic manifestation is an approach that takes into account the variety of causes leading to the disease. Hence the variety of methods and techniques that allow you to work with a person in a holistic manner. The psychosomatic9 approach begins when the patient ceases to be only the bearer of the diseased organ and is considered holistically. Psychosomatic disorder - means a somatic illness that is caused by psychological factors or whose manifestations have been aggravated as a result of their influence. The founder of the method of positive psychotherapy, Doctor of Medicine N. Pezeshkian, believes that psychological problems lie at the heart of somatic diseases. In his book Psychosomatics and Positive Psychotherapy, he describes 40 diseases that are directly related to psychological causes. Bronchial asthma; Skin diseases and allergies; Hypertension and hypotension; Headache and migraine; Schizophrenia and depression; Sleep disturbance; Swallowing disorders and coughing, etc. A number of people are afraid for their health condition (hypochondria), are afraid of cancer (carcinophobia), etc. With depressive disorders, patients often complain of heart and headaches, pain in the shoulder girdle and back, digestive problems, and sleep and appetite disturbances. As well as complaints about sexual disorders. Stress is a type of emotional state. According to EI Perova, the concept of stress originally arose in physiology to designate the body's nonspecific reactions ("general adaptation syndrome") in response to any adverse effect. Stress reactivity includes an increase in serum cholesterol levels, increased respiratory and heart rhythms, increased muscle tension, blood pressure, etc. Zolotova T.N. believes that the following manifestations of stress are characteristic at the physiological level: increased blood pressure; pain in the region of the heart; pain in the abdomen; palpitations; back pain; pain in the neck and head; cramps in the throat, swallowing disorder; numbness and tingling in the hands and feet; the occurrence of cramps in the calf muscles; short-term visual impairment, etc. R. Naydiffer describes the reaction of people with a high degree of anxiety at the physiological level. In some, the muscles of the neck and shoulders are reflexively tense, in others - the muscles of the back or legs. Very often, with a high degree of anxiety, unpleasant sensations in the stomach are observed. Some people feel an increase in heart rate, others, on the contrary, decrease it. In some cases, drowsiness appears. Franz Alexander, author of Psychosomatic Medicine, described seven psychosomatic diseases, explaining their occurrence by hereditary predisposition, lack of emotional warmth in the family and strong emotional experiences of adulthood. In his opinion, sympathetic nervous system responses lead to high blood pressure, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease and headaches. The parasympathetic response leads to ulcers, diarrhea, colon inflammation and constipation. He drew attention to the fact that diseases of the heart arteries most often occur in doctors, lawyers and employees of executive bodies. Currently, a number of psychosomatic disorders have been identified that are of psychogenic8 origin: obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, bronchial asthma, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, hypertension, cardiac neurosis, gastroenteritis, etc. Age-related psychosomatic manifestations and children's responses to various inappropriate relationships with their mothers are also highlighted. It can be stomach cramps, eating abnormalities, sudden strong crying that occurs in the presence of a face, which can show pity for the child and reacts to the child's behavior. The causes of painful symptoms in middle-aged people are very closely intertwined with conflict situations that people had for a long period of life before the onset of the disease. It can be both macrotrauma and microtrauma, which can be at the level of everyday problems, for example, a partner's accuracy or punctuality, a trip in crowded transport, financial difficulties, etc. 5.2 Classification of psychosomatic consequences of exposure to extreme situations
It is of interest to classify the psychosomatic consequences of exposure to extreme situations on a person from the point of view of the main dynamic stages. These steps are as follows. Non-pathological psychophysiological reaction. It usually lasts for several days. At the psychological level, it is characterized by emotional stress, decompensation (sharpening) of personal accentuations, and sleep disturbance. At the social level, it is characterized by a critical assessment of what is happening, purposeful activity. The reaction is transitory. Psychogenic8 adaptive response. Lasts up to six months. At the psychological level, it is characterized by a neurotic level of disorders, asthenic, depressive and hysterical syndromes. At the social level, it is characterized by a decrease in critical assessment of what is happening and the possibilities of purposeful activity, the emergence of interpersonal conflicts. Neurotic condition. Lasts three to five years. At the psychological level, it is characterized by neuroses, exhaustion, obsessions, hysteria6. At the social level, it is characterized by a loss of critical understanding and opportunities for purposeful activity, a high degree of inconsistency and inconsistency in the values \u200b\u200bof the personality structure, and interpersonal conflicts. The neurotic state is transformed into neurotic personality development. Pathological personality development. It manifests itself through three to five stable neurotic disorders. At the psychological level, it is characterized by acute affective-shock reactions, a twilight state of consciousness, motor excitement or, on the contrary, lethargy, mental disorders. At the social level, this leads to a general disintegration of the personality structure, to personal disaster. 6. Consequences of extreme situations for victims
.1 Behavior of victims of extreme situations behavior extreme situation affectation Behavior strategies are revealed in various forms of adaptation, which is closely related to the problem of health-disease. This continuum is integral to the individual's life path. The multifunctionality and multidirectionality of the life path determines the interconnection and interdependence of the processes of somatic, personal and social functioning. Thus, the adaptation process includes various levels of human activity. The variety of events in the modern world contributes to the complication of personality behavior in them and increases the likelihood of their pathogenic effects. Personally oriented forms of behavior of victims in extreme situations include the following: Suicide is a deliberate act of elimination from life under the influence of acute traumatic situations, when one's own life, as the highest value, loses meaning for a person. The meaning of life - as a basic motivational tendency, is aimed at understanding the essence of one's own personality and its place in life, its life purpose. The meaning of life is the most important engine of personality development; on its basis, a person chooses and forms his life path, plans, goals, aspirations in accordance with certain principles. Suicide is the act of suicide committed by a person in a state of severe mental disorder or under the influence of mental illness. The reasons for suicides are diverse and are rooted both in the personality deformations of the subject and the traumatic environment surrounding him, and in the socio-economic and moral organization of society. Apathy is a state characterized by emotional passivity, indifference, simplification of feelings, indifference to oneself and loved ones, to the events of the surrounding reality and a weakening of motives and interests, a sharp weakening of attention. Apathy occurs against a background of reduced physical and psychological activity and can be short-term or long-term. Forming mainly as a result of fatigue, exhaustion or a long-term mental disorder, this condition sometimes occurs with some organic brain lesions, with dementia, and also as a result of prolonged somatic illness. The outwardly similar state of depression in neuroses differs from apathy. Currently, the problem of social apathy arising as a result of a personal crisis in an era of crisis in society and covering the widest layers of the population is urgent. Autism is an extreme form of psychological alienation. It is expressed in the detachment, "withdrawal", "flight" of the individual from contacts with reality and immersion in the closed world of his own experiences. In an individual with autism: the ability to arbitrarily control your thinking is reduced, to disconnect from painful thoughts; attempts are made to avoid any contact; the need for joint activities disappears; the ability to intuitively understand others, to play the roles of others is lost; there is an inadequate emotional response to the behavior of others. Other forms of victim behavior in extreme situations are as follows: Unmotivated vigilance. The victim closely monitors everything that happens around him, as if he is constantly in danger. Explosive reaction. At the slightest surprise, the victim makes rapid movements: throws himself to the ground at the sound of a low-flying plane or helicopter, turns sharply and takes a defensive posture if someone approaches him from behind, etc. Dullness of emotional manifestations. In whole or in part, the victim loses the ability to emotional manifestations. He has difficulty establishing close or friendly bonds with others. Joy, love, creativity, spontaneity, entertainment and games are not available to him. General anxiety. The victim has constant anxiety and anxiety, paranoia, for example, fear of persecution. In emotional experiences - a constant feeling of fear, self-doubt. Attacks of rage. It is the attacks, even the outbursts of rage, that occur in the victim, not the tides of moderate anger. 6.2 Periods in the dynamics of development of post-traumatic mental disorders The first period is acute. Lasts from the beginning of the impact of the situation to the organization of rescue operations. The main traumatic factors: a sudden threat to one's own life; physical injuries of the victim himself; physical injury or death of close relatives; severe damage or destruction of property and other material values. non-pathological neurotic; it is based on fear, mental tension, anxiety; adequate behavior remains; acute reactive psychoses in the form of affective-shock states with motor excitement or retardation; loss of control over their actions by the victims; change of the state of "fossil", inactivity with aimless movements, flight, screams, a state of panic. The second period is the organization of rescue operations, establishing a relatively normal life in extreme conditions from the beginning to the end of rescue operations. The main traumatic factor is the expectation of repeated physical and mental impacts due to the loss of relatives and friends, family disunity, loss of property, the need to identify dead relatives, and the discrepancy between the expected and the results of rescue operations. The main mental reactions of the participants: maintaining adequate self-esteem and ability for purposeful activity; gradual weakening of affective-shock states and a decrease in the depth of their manifestations; inadequate behavior of the victims; inexpedient motor actions; a state of numbness; manifestation of phobic neuroses13, for example, fear of confined spaces (the victims refuse to enter the car or tent). The third period is the evacuation of victims to safe areas. The main traumatic factors: change in life stereotype; fear for the state of one's health and the health of loved ones; the experience of loss of loved ones, separation of families, material losses. The main mental reactions of the participants: psycho-emotional stress; sharpening of character traits; phobic neuroses; neurotic personality development; increased consumption of alcohol, tobacco, medicines, drugs; activation of interpersonal contacts; normalization of the emotional coloring of speech, restoration of dreams; an increase in conflict situations. People who survived an extreme situation for a long time experience certain pathological changes in the mental sphere (post-traumatic syndrome). Among the psychopathological changes after trauma in humans, the following are most common: Impaired memory and concentration of perception. Those affected have difficulty concentrating or remembering something. Unsolicited memories. In the memory of the victim, eerie scenes associated with a psycho-traumatic situation suddenly surface. In reality, these memories arise in those cases when the environment is somewhat reminiscent of what happened "at that time", i.e. during a traumatic event. These signals can be smells, sights, sounds that seem to have come "from there". Unsolicited traumatic memories are accompanied by intense feelings of anxiety and fear. Nightmares. Dreams of this kind are usually of two types: some with the accuracy of video recording convey the traumatic event as it was imprinted in the memory of the person who survived it; others only partly resemble the traumatic event. A person wakes up from such a dream completely overwhelmed, with tense muscles, in profuse sweat. Hallucinatory experiences. A special kind of uninvited memories of traumatic events, when what happened is so vivid that the events of the current moment seem to retreat to the periphery of consciousness and seem less real than memories. In this detached state, a person behaves as if he is re-experiencing a past traumatic event: he acts, thinks, feels like at the moment when he had to save his life. Insomnia. Difficulty falling asleep and interrupted sleep. It is believed that a person himself unwittingly resists falling asleep when he is visited by hallucinations. He is afraid to fall asleep so as not to see a terrible dream again. Insomnia can also be caused by a very high level of anxiety, a person's inability to relax, and an enduring feeling of physical or mental pain. Survivor's Guilt. The feeling of guilt arises due to the fact that the victim survived in an extreme situation that cost the lives of others, especially relatives or close relatives, friends who are extremely important to him. It is believed that this condition is characteristic of those who suffer more from "emotional deafness", i.e. an inability to experience joy, love, compassion after a traumatic event. Intense feelings of guilt provoke bouts of auto-aggressive behavior. In extreme situations, different social groups are involved - the victims of situations and their rescuers, each of these groups has somewhat similar, and in some ways different personality-oriented forms of behavior. 7. Forms of behavior of rescuers in extreme situations
The psyche of rescuers is also severely tested during and after rescue operations. People experience fear and horror from what they see (according to some estimates, up to 98% of participants): nightmares, sleeplessness at night, drowsiness during the day, depressed mood (50%); dizziness, fainting, headaches, nausea, vomiting (20%). Other, specific, forms of reaction were noticed among rescuers: Irritability. It arises when you feel your powerlessness, the inability to do anything. The effectiveness of efforts (often subjectively) falls. A person begins to be unreasonably angry with someone or something around him, swears, falls into a rage. Failure to act correctly. Suddenly, a person discovers that he cannot work normally, and he himself does not know why this is happening. He is unable to remember what his tasks are, he does not know where to start this or that business. He asks others for help and at the same time does not want to show that he is not able to work well. Anxiety. The person is extremely busy and cannot stop at work. He takes on everything, not understanding what is really important and what is not. Escape. A person, unexpectedly for himself, stops doing anything. He wants to run away from all the terrible calamities and misfortunes that appear before his eyes. Sometimes he still has enough strength to control himself enough to hide from the place of work unnoticed. Despair. Suddenly, the person notices that they can no longer cope with their feelings. He does not understand why this is happening. He is experiencing a complete breakdown, lack of any feelings, huddled somewhere in a quiet place, devastated and desperate. He feels dizzy, he is shaken, he wants to sit down. Exhaustion. Suddenly, the person feels unable to take even one step. He wants to sit up, he tries to catch his breath. All his muscles ache, any "thinking" is too hard for him. Typical psycho-vegetative reactions of rescuers in extreme situations are as follows: Palpitations. Suddenly, a person feels chest pain, and although he knows that his health is all right, nevertheless, he is really scared and worried. He thinks that he may have a heart attack, and he tries to sit somewhere calm. Nervous chills. Just as unexpectedly, the rescuer begins to tremble uncontrollably, so strong that he cannot even light a match or pour a cup of tea. He does not know what to do. Sudden tears, crying. For no reason a person has Conclusion
The normal state is the most important part of all mental regulation, plays an essential role in any kind of activity and behavior. However, the theory of mental states is far from complete; many aspects of mental states have not been studied with the required completeness. According to the doctor of psychological sciences L.V. Kulikova, "the potentials of the personality, which allow regulating the state, remain little studied." The analysis of the influence of emotional stress on the body is devoted to the research of the authors - specialists in the field of sociology, psychology and physiology. First of all, in such situations it is necessary to take into account the possibility of normal positive adaptation to frustration. "Frustration is an emotionally difficult experience of a person of his failure, accompanied by a feeling of hopelessness, the collapse of hopes in achieving the desired goal." A person who often has to be in emergency situations is able to develop the skills of the most adequate reactions, the most correct mobilization of his functions. Training in different ways of fear elimination is possible. The role of positive experience, a sense of satisfaction in connection with the task at hand, is also significant. All this leads to an increase in self-confidence, which contributes to better adaptation to extreme situations that may arise as a result of emergency situations. In conclusion, you can also draw a conclusion about how to proceed to avoid the depressed state of people in an emergency. First, it must be borne in mind that a person who has suffered severe mental trauma restores mental balance much faster if he is involved in some kind of physical work and not alone, but as part of a group. Secondly, in order to weaken the negative impact on a person, we need constant preparation for action in emergency situations, the formation of mental stability, the education of will. That is why the main content of psychological training is the development and consolidation of the necessary psychological qualities. Thirdly, preparation for psychological stress, increased stamina, development of endurance, self-control, unswerving desire to fulfill the assigned tasks, development of mutual assistance and interaction are of particular importance. It must be remembered that the level of psychological training of people is one of the most important factors. The slightest confusion and manifestation of fear, especially at the very beginning of an accident or disaster, at the time of the development of a natural disaster can lead to serious, and sometimes irreparable consequences. First of all, this applies to officials who are obliged to immediately take measures to mobilize the team, while showing personal discipline and endurance. Glossary Asthenization is a decrease in the functional capabilities of the central nervous system, manifested by a deterioration in working capacity, mental fatigue, deterioration of attention, memory, increased reactivity with irritable weakness. 3. Asthenia (from ancient Greek.<#"justify">Literature
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tears, although he tries to hold them back. He is ashamed of the fact that with him
going on. He tries to retire, pull himself together and restore the disturbed mental balance.Similar work to - Behavior of people in extreme situations
Many scientists, psychologists and psychophysiologists paid attention to the description of extreme situations. (So, for example, L. A. Kandybovich and V. A. Ponomarenko talk about "tense situations" with which people of certain professions have to face; "abnormal conditions" are mentioned in their works by S. A. Shapkin and L. G. Wild; sometimes this kind of situation is called stressful, based on the teachings of Hans Selye.) Regardless of the name, this situation is characterized by the fact that, getting into it, a person goes beyond the usual state and "loses the ground underfoot."
Even a conflict situation in which there is no threat to life can become extreme. While working as a psychologist at one of the Russian airlines, I was faced with the fact that flight attendants, as well as airport employees, literally fall off their feet after a work shift spent communicating with passengers. A work situation in which there was no direct threat to life, but there were many conflicts up to insults, may well turn out to be extreme in terms of health risks, both psychological and physical.
What happens to a person in an extreme situation?
If a person on duty often has to deal with so-called emergencies, he knows that the main enemy of reasonable action is fear. Fear makes inexperienced firefighters flee from a burning house, it forces pilots to make irreparable mistakes. It interferes with thinking and solving problems necessary for survival.
Fear can manifest itself in flight or panic, it is often accompanied by a narrowing of consciousness, distortion of perception and loss of control over one's own actions and even aggressive outbursts. Another unpleasant manifestation of fear is stupor, during which a person cannot move *.
Another "enemy" of ours is emotional stress. Even if we were able to suppress our fear or insecurity, this does not mean that it disappeared. In fact, we keep it inside, spending an incredible amount of soul strength. And restraint sooner or later leads to breakdowns, mistakes and even diseases.
Is it possible to predict human behavior in an extreme situation? How do you know if you can overcome your fear? To answer this question, psychologists have revealed that people who are anxious, emotionally unstable, have low or too high self-esteem and a weak nervous system lose their minds in difficult situations. However, even people with all these traits can pull themselves together and overcome their weaknesses. And the strong and self-confident often lose their heads. Also does not give guarantees and human experience.
In 1987, an incredible incident occurred in the skies over England. In a passenger plane, the windshield flew off during the flight, as a result of which the unfastened commander of the aircraft fell out and was pressed by the air stream to the nose of the aircraft. His assistant, a very young pilot who had no experience of independent flights, was forced to land the liner alone in a lack of oxygen, while a tornado was raging in the cockpit. He coped with his task brilliantly, the flight ended without casualties.
How to explain these and other similar cases? What allows a person to gather and not fall into a stupor or panic? There is no definite answer.
No one can give an accurate forecast of the behavior of this or that person in an acute situation. So what should those who are recruiting for difficult or dangerous jobs do? What should a person who is going to connect life with a difficult profession to do and wants to know if he can keep a sober mind if there is a risk to his life? The answer is simple. You need to prepare for extreme situations, you need to learn to manage yourself and your behavior. Such training can be called ensuring your own psychological safety.
Providing psychological safety
Psychologists of the Ministry of Emergency Situations, who are faced with extremely difficult situations on a daily basis, pay great attention to the ability to manage emotions. Let's take a look at some techniques that can help you take control of your own emotional sphere.
- Deliberate relaxation. This exercise allows us to learn to consciously relax certain muscle groups, and since our emotions are connected with the body, we learn to control them too. To perform this exercise, you need to sit or lie down as comfortably as possible and begin to relax the body from the legs to the head.
- Awareness of emotions and draining. You need to take a piece of paper and a pen, and then start writing down the feelings that overwhelm you at the moment. It is important not to hold back and write "uncensored", releasing on paper what has accumulated inside. Then the sheet must be thrown away. Some people recommend burning it. This method allows you to learn how to cope with fear, insecurity, anxiety and other unpleasant conditions. In doing so, it relieves restraint and tension.
- Suspension. In conflict situations, you can use the following technique. Imagine that your opponent is behind a wall and his insults and attacks do not reach you. This method allows you to "close" from someone else's aggression, divert attention and not be offended. This method is good for service workers who understand that they cannot spend energy on sorting out the relationship in a conflict.
How to act in a difficult situation?
In conclusion, I would like to give some advice to those readers who, on duty, may find themselves in difficult conflict situations. How to proceed? How to protect yourself if you find yourself alone with an angry crowd or an aggressive person and are not going to fight them?
When communicating with a crowd, you must remember that a person in a crowd loses his individuality. The crowd is a kind of organism that is sensitive to changes in the opponent's states. Try to stand in such a way that there is a wall behind your back. Better, there will be a table or other obstacle between you and the crowd. Do not in any way show fear or anxiety. Avoid aggressive tones and threatening gestures. Speak clearly, in simple language, in short sentences, without emotion. Try to let people see that you are calm and confident. In this case, you can enter into negotiations, and if you are lucky, even direct the actions of the crowd.
As Antoine de Saint-Exupery wrote, action saves from fear. Often the aggression of the crowd or of individuals is caused precisely by fear or uncertainty. If your position allows it, try to channel people's energies into specific actions that can be beneficial. This will change their condition.
If you get into a difficult conflict, try not to insist on your own. Use the techniques of "psychological aikido", created by M. E. Litvak. Remember that an aggressive person expects resistance and indignation from you. Don't let him drag you into his game. Maintain aloofness and do not show irritation or aggression. Very quickly, his fuse will run out, and he will stop fighting.
Perhaps these recommendations will help you learn not to lose yourself even in the most difficult conditions. If you learn to manage emotions and correctly build your behavior, many situations will cease to be extreme for you.
Psychologist Natalia Chirkova
*Details about fear: Malkina-Pykh's book "Psychological assistance in crisis situations."
It has been established that human behavioral reactions in extreme conditions, their temporal characteristics, and in general the psychophysiological capabilities of people are extremely variable values, depending on the characteristics of the nervous system, life experience, professional knowledge, skills, motivation, and style of activity.
At present, it is almost impossible to deduce the integral form of human behavior in a tense situation. Nevertheless, there is more and more evidence that psychological factors - individual qualities, abilities of a person, his skills, readiness, attitudes, general and special training, his character and temperament - in a difficult situation are not summed up arithmetically, but form a certain complex, which is ultimately realized in either right or wrong action.
In general, an extreme situation is a combination of obligations and conditions that have a strong psychological impact on a person.
Style of behavior in extreme situations
Behavior in a state of passion.
Affect is characterized by a high degree of emotional experiences, which leads to the mobilization of a person's physical and psychological resources. In practice, quite often there are cases when physically weak people in a state of strong emotional excitement perform actions that they could not perform in a calm environment. For example, they inflict a lot of fatal damage or plant an oak door with a single blow. Another manifestation of affect is partial memory loss, which does not characterize every affective reaction. In some cases, the subject does not remember the events preceding the affect, and the events that occurred during the latter.
The affect is accompanied by the excitement of all mental activity. As a result, the person experiences a decrease in control over his behavior. This circumstance leads to the fact that the commission of a crime in a state of passion entails specific legal consequences.
The Criminal Code does not say anything about the fact that a person in a state of passion is limited in his ability to realize the nature of his actions or to direct them. This is not necessary, since strong emotional excitement is characterized by a limitation of consciousness and will. It is the “narrowing” of the latter that allows us to say that the state of passion has a certain legal meaning. "From the standpoint of criminal legislation, such emotional states of the accused that significantly limited his volitional purposeful behavior can be recognized as legally significant."
Affect has a significant impact on human mental activity, disorganizing it and affecting higher mental functions. Thinking loses flexibility, the quality of thought processes decreases, which causes the person to realize only the immediate goals of his actions, and not the final ones. Attention is concentrated entirely on the source of irritation. That is, the person's ability to choose a model of behavior is limited due to strong emotional stress. Because of this, there is a sharp decrease in control over actions, which leads to a violation of expediency, purposefulness and sequence of actions.
Suddenly, a strong emotional excitement is preceded by one of the following situations described in the law.
Violence, bullying, grave insult, other illegal or immoral actions (inaction) of the victim. Here, a state of passion is formed under the influence of a one-time and very significant event for the guilty one. For example: a spouse who has suddenly returned from a business trip discovers the fact of adultery.
A long-term traumatic situation arising in connection with the systematic illegal or immoral behavior of the victim. An affective reaction is formed as a result of a long-term "accumulation" of negative emotions, which leads to emotional stress. In this case, the next fact of unlawful or immoral behavior is sufficient for the occurrence of affect.
Within the meaning of the law, affect arises in connection with certain actions or inaction of the victim. But in practice, there are cases when a sudden strong emotional excitement causes illegal or immoral behavior of several people. At the same time, for the development of an affective reaction, a set of actions (inaction) of two or more persons is necessary, that is, the behavior of one of them, in isolation from the behavior of the other, might not be the reason for the emergence of affect.
Behavior under stress
Stress is an emotional state that suddenly occurs in a person under the influence of an extreme situation associated with a danger to life or activities that require a lot of stress. Stress, like affect, is the same strong and short-term emotional experience. Therefore, some psychologists consider stress as a type of affect. But this is far from the case, since they have their own distinctive features. Stress, first of all, arises only in the presence of an extreme situation, while affect can arise for any reason. The second difference is that affect disorganizes the psyche and behavior, while stress not only disorganizes, but also mobilizes the defenses of the organization to get out of an extreme situation.
Stress can have both positive and negative effects on a person. Stress has a positive role, performing a mobilization function, a negative role - harmful to the nervous system, causing mental disorders and various diseases of the body.
Stress affects people's behavior in different ways. Some, under the influence of stress, show complete helplessness and are unable to withstand stressful influences, others, on the contrary, are stress-resistant individuals and best of all manifest themselves in moments of danger and in activities that require the exertion of all forces.
Frustrated behavior
A special place in the consideration of stress is occupied by a psychological state that arises as a result of a real or imagined obstacle that prevents the achievement of the goal, called frustration.
Defensive reactions during frustration are associated with the appearance of aggressiveness or avoiding a difficult situation (transferring actions to an imaginary plan), and it is also possible to reduce the complexity of behavior. Frustration can lead to a number of characterological changes associated with self-doubt or fixation of regular forms of behavior.
The frustration mechanism is quite simple: first, a stressful situation arises, leading to an overstrain of the nervous system, and then this tension is "discharged" into one or another most vulnerable system.
There are positive and negative reactions to frustration.
Anxiety level in extreme situations
Anxiety is an emotional experience in which a person is uncomfortable with an uncertain perspective.
The evolutionary meaning of anxiety lies in the mobilization of the body in extreme situations. A certain level of anxiety is necessary for the normal functioning and productivity of a person.
Normal anxiety helps you adapt to different situations. It increases in conditions of high subjective significance of the choice, an external threat with a lack of information and time.
Pathological anxiety, although it can be provoked by external circumstances, is due to internal psychological and physiological reasons. It is disproportionate to the real threat or is not associated with it, and most importantly, it is not adequate to the significance of the situation and sharply reduces productivity and adaptive capabilities. The clinical manifestations of pathological anxiety are varied and can be paroxysmal or permanent, manifesting themselves as mental and - even predominantly - somatic symptoms.
Most often, anxiety is viewed as a negative state associated with experiencing stress. The state of anxiety can vary in intensity and change over time as a function of the level of stress to which the individual is exposed, but the experience of anxiety is characteristic of any person in adequate situations.
The reasons causing anxiety and affecting the change in its level are diverse and can lie in all spheres of human life. They are conventionally divided into subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include informational reasons associated with a misconception about the outcome of an upcoming nature, leading to an overestimation of the subjective significance of the outcome of the upcoming event. Among the objective causes of anxiety, there are extreme conditions that place increased demands on the human psyche and are associated with the uncertainty of the outcome of the situation.
Post-stress anxiety develops after extreme, usually unexpected situations - fires, floods, participation in hostilities, rape, kidnapping. Anxiety, irritability, headache, increased quadruple reflex (reaction to a sudden stimulus), sleep disorders and nightmares, including pictures of the past situation, feelings of loneliness and distrust, feelings of self-inferiority, avoidance of communication and any activities that may remind of what happened are usually observed events. If this whole complex develops after a certain latency period after an extreme situation and leads to significant disruptions in life, then a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder is made. Post-stress anxiety develops less often if a person actively acts during an extreme situation.
extreme situation behavior
Lecture 8
While a person is in a familiar environment, he behaves normally. But as soon as a difficult, and even more dangerous situation sets in, the most incredible changes can occur to him. In an extreme situation, psychological stress increases many times, behavior changes, the criticality of thinking decreases, coordination of movements is impaired, perception and attention decrease, emotional reactions change, and much more.
In an extreme situation, in other words, in a situation of a real threat, one of three forms of response is possible:
a) a sharp decrease in the organization (disorganization) of behavior;
b) a sharp inhibition of active actions;
c) increasing the effectiveness of actions.
Disorganization of behavior can manifest itself in the unexpected loss of acquired skills, which seemed to be brought to automatism.
Increasing the effectiveness of actions in the event of an extreme situation is expressed in the mobilization of all resources of the human psyche to overcome it. This is increased self-control, clarity of perception and assessment of what is happening, the performance of actions and deeds adequate to the situation. This is the most desirable form of response, but is it always possible for everyone and is it always possible?
In order to make the right decision in an extreme situation, it is necessary, if possible, to understand what situation you are in.
First, in a situation of threat of the use of force, first of all, it is necessary to determine how real it is, whether it is possible to avoid the onset of undesirable consequences.... Assess the place where the threat is. If this is your office or living quarters, then you should take into account that the threatening person is much less familiar with the situation than you: you know where this or that thing is. But your loved ones can be in the living room, and the threat can, under certain circumstances, turn against them. However, this may be a room in which the owner is a threatening one, and here the initiative is more on his side.
Another situation is the street. One thing is a street with people on it, another is when there is no one around and the possibility of someone else appearing is very doubtful.
Secondly, the time when the threat of the use of force arises.(day or night) In the dark, any threat is perceived differently than during the day. The attitude that violence is committed mainly at night can work here. And in general, darkness itself can keep many people in increased tension.
Third, the number of people accompanying the threatening one. It is one thing if he is alone, completely different if there are several people with him. The nature of the relationship between them can guide you in which of them is the main one, whether they perform such an act for the first time or act as a harmonious mechanism.
Fourth, the physical characteristics and equipment of the threatening one. The nature of the dress, to a certain extent, can indicate whether the threatening person was preparing for a meeting with you, whether it corresponds to his intentions. In loose-fitting clothing, you can easily hide the instruments of violence, which later a person can use.
When analyzing the situation when they are trying to blackmail you, you should pay special attention to the following points.
First, whether the event that the blackmailer is using actually took place. If what they are trying to threaten you with was not, then it is far from always worth notifying the blackmailer about it immediately. But sometimes a situation may arise when the event itself took place, but it looked completely different than it is stated in the threat. In this situation, it is necessary to quickly assess whether you can prove what this event actually looked like.
Secondly, how real is the possibility of compromising you in case of refusal to comply with the demands of the blackmailer. What are the consequences for you, in what way they will try to achieve this.
Thirdly,do you have time to neutralize possible negative consequences, is it possible to delay their onset even a little.
Fourth,whether the threat affects your loved ones or only you. After all, these are different situations when they blackmail with the onset of harmful consequences for yourself now, or when the threat touches your loved ones, but in the future.
Fifth,whether blackmail is carried out by telephone, in writing, or through personal contact with the blackmailer.
The persons from whom the threat of attack or blackmail comes can be classified into three large groups:
1) mentally normal people who are in a state where there are no deviations in behavior;
2) mentally normal people in a state of alcoholic or drug intoxication;
3) people with pathological abnormalities in the psyche.
If there is a threat of a physical attack or it is already being carried out, then first of all it is necessary to navigate in the physical data of the partner: height, weight, physique, characteristic signs indicating that he underwent some kind of special training.
Pay attention to how the person is standing. (boxer stance, karateka, etc.) The boxer, as a rule, takes an open, but still boxing stance, involuntarily clenches his fists, often with the fist of his leading hand taps into the open palm of the other, as if playing with himself (here you can get visual information about whether he is left-handed or right-handed) ... Often, boxers have characteristic changes in the structure of the nose - as a result of repeated injury to the bridge of the nose.
The wrestler usually stands with his shoulders slightly lowered, his arms along the body, they can be bent, the fingers seem to be ready to grab something, the legs are shoulder-width apart or slightly wider. The stance can be perceived as threatening, the movement is smoother than that of the boxer.
A person practicing karate can involuntarily take one of the stances of this type of confrontation, legs and arms take a characteristic position, fingers are not always clenched into fists, and aboutif compressed, it is much tighter than boxers do.
As a rule, all these people have a good physique, developed muscles, move well, look at their partner, fixing the slightest changes in his behavior.
By the way, it is extremely important to fix the external signs of a threatening, attacking, blackmailing person, since it is possible that you will have to enter into a relationship with law enforcement agencies, and then any little thing you notice may come in handy.
If time and conditions permit, it is advisable to pay attention to height, physique, hair color and hairstyle features, eye color, shape of the forehead, nose, lips, chin, ears. Pay attention to what the enemy is wearing, but most importantly, the special features that distinguish this person.
Special signs include fie only moles, scars, tattoos, any physical flaws, but also the manner of speaking, gestures, voice features, pronunciation, vocabulary and much more, which together are characteristic only for of thishuman.
If the threatened communicated onphone, pay attention to the nature of the call - a local or nonresident, as the subscriber introduced himself, he immediately brought up a speech about the essence of the case, without asking who he was talking to, or at first specified who he was talking to.
The characteristic of his speech is fast or slow, intelligibility, the presence of stuttering and accent, clarity and other features of pronunciation. Voice - volume, timbre, hoarse, soft, drunk. The manner of speaking is calm, confident, connected, incoherent, unhurried, hasty, decent ”, obscene, embittered, emotional, colorless.
The presence of noises accompanying the conversation - another voice that tells what to say to the subscriber, silence or loud noise, the sound of transport (train, subway, car, plane), the noise of machine tools, stationery cars,phone calls, music, street noise.
Coming into direct contact with a threatening person, you should also pay attention to the degree of his aggressiveness. Is it directed specifically on you, which may indicatepersonal motives, or it is aggressiveness of a general nature, that is, it is directed at you simply as an object over which it is instructed to make violence. Try to assess how real the likelihood of violence is, or whether they are trying to "scare you".
It is important to determine the emotional state of the enemy - the nature and speed of his actions, the degree of aggressiveness, the possibility of conducting a dialogue with him and avoiding consequences harmful to you depends on this.
We will describe some emotional states and show how by external signs it is possible to determine which (or which) emotion is experiencingthreatening.
Fear- sometimes you can face a situation where the threatening or attacker himself is afraid. With fear, as a rule, there is a sharp contraction of the muscles, due to which the person experiencing fear becomes stiff in movements. They are somewhat uncoordinated, tremors of the hands, especially the tips of fingers, toes, etc., can be clearly recorded. The eyebrows are almost straight, slightly raised, their inner corners are shifted towards each other, the forehead is covered with horizontal wrinkles. Eyes disclosed enoughthe pupils are wide, often dilated, the lower eyelid is tense, and the upper one is slightly raised. The mouth is open, the lips are tense and slightly stretched. The look is perceived as running.
Sweating occurs more actively, although the temperature is comfortable indoors or outdoors. Sweat can be observed in the following areas: forehead, above and below the upper lip, on the neck, armpits, palms, back. The person is actively wiping away sweat, his face turns pale.
Angercan often be observed with aggressive behavior. It is this emotion that is an indicator of the partner's aggressiveness. His posture takes on a harvest character, the person looks as if he is preparing to throw. Muscles are tense, but there is no tremor characteristic of fear. The face is frowned, the gaze can be fixed on the source of anger and express a threat. The nostrils widen, the wings of the nostrils flinch, the lips are pulled back, sometimes so hard that they expose clenched teeth. The face turns pale, but more often it turns red. Occasionally, you can see convulsions running across the face of the angry person.
Threat speech through clenched teeth. Very rude words, turns of phrase and obscene language may take place. It is characteristic that in strong anger even people of non-Russian nationality often use Russian obscene language.
It should be especially noted that with anger, a person feels a surge of strength, becomes much more energetic and impulsive. In this state, he feels the need for physical action, and the stronger the anger, the greater this need. Self-control is reduced.
Contempt- unlike anger, this emotion rarely causes impulsive behavior, but it is possible that this is precisely why a person showing contempt is in some way more dangerous than an angry one.
Outwardly, it looks something like this: the head is lifted up, and even if the person showing contempt is shorter than you, then it seems that he is looking from above. You can observe a pose of detachment and a smug expression on his face.
Disgust -negative emotion that can stimulate aggression. The disgusted person looks like they got something nasty in their mouth or smelled extremely bad. The nose wrinkles, the upper lip is pulled up, sometimes it seems that such a person's eyes are squinting. As with contempt, the pose of detachment, but without pronounced superiority.
Disgust combined with anger can cause very aggressive behavior, since anger motivates the attack, and disgust is the need to get rid of the unpleasant.
We will not dwell on the description of such emotions as joy, surprise, grief, shame, since they are not so typical for situations of aggression and attack. But if the person causing the pain shows outward signs of joy, then this is at least a sign of sadism.
Man is "not in himself"
Often, the threat of an attack, the attack itself or blackmail is carried out by a person who is in a state of alcoholic or drug intoxication. Alcohol and drugs lead the psyche of the attacker or the threatening one into a state of increased excitability, and sharply reduce the level of self-control. That is why it is sometimes important to determine what kind of "doping" and how much the opponent took and what can be expected from him.
The symptoms of alcohol intoxication are so well known that there is no need to describe them in detail. But it is important to know: the most dangerous are the mild and medium stages of intoxication, which often cause an increase in aggressiveness. Some people take alcohol for "courage", thereby overcoming feelings of fear, signs of which can nevertheless be recorded.
With alcoholic intoxication, the criticality of the perception of what is happening decreases, such a person hardly perceives or does not perceive any argumentation at all. Movements are activated and can quickly turn aggressive. As a rule, a physical attack in such situations is preceded by swearing, abuse, threats.
A person who is in a state of drug intoxication looks like almost any normal person outwardly, and someone who has never seen people in such a state may not even notice it.
Narcotic intoxication is characterized, as a rule, by increased activity in movements: fast, excessively lively speech, not quite an adequate response to questions,a kind of "sparkle" in the eyes, sometimes unreasonable laughter, in general a state of euphoria. For some people in this state, sensitivity to pain decreases, there is practically no awareness of responsibility for their actions, and there is no feeling of empathy for others. All this is characteristic of mild drug intoxication, which has a stimulating effect.
A chronic drug addict can have injection marks, bags under the eyes. It should be borne in mind that the reaction to a drug can be quite short-lived, and the end of its action in an extreme environment for a drug addict can cause him to withdraw abstinence, which will result in a sharp deterioration in his condition, he can become depressed, angry, even more agitated and aggressive.
He may have an irresistible desire to remove the obstacle on the way to the next dose of the drug as soon as possible. For some drug addicts, this period of activation lasts a short time, after which a period of severe depression can occur, up to epileptic seizures, when a person becomes almost helpless.
Aggression can come from a person with a mental disorder. Quite conventionally, such people are divided into four groups: patients suffering from paranoid schizophrenia; patients suffering from manic-depressive psychosis; patients with antisocial behavior; persons with an inadequate response.
If the person threatening to attack belongs to the first group, then it should be taken into account that such people have practically lost all connection with reality, they often have auditory and visual hallucinations, as well as a manic syndrome manifested in megalomania or persecution. With megalomania, a person considers himself endowed with special qualities, as a result of which he is much "higher" than others. In a persecution mania, a person is sure that he is being persecuted for his “special mission,” “special gift,” etc.
A manic person may consider you a “great sinner” from whom he must rid the world. These are people with a sufficiently developed intellect, it is difficult to deceive and mislead them. In certain situations, they can be quite aggressive.
Persons belonging to the second group are usually in a state of such deep depression that they lose all connection with the real world. Often they consider themselves unworthy to live, but they are ready to take others with them to another world, since they sincerely believe that they will render a service by saving them from the horrors of earthly existence.
The patient's speech is extremely slow, to answer the simplest questions he needs from 15 to 30, and sometimes more seconds. The movements can resemble a slow motion movie demonstration. He may experience spontaneous "improvements" of the state, when he suddenly quite calmly says: "Well, now I know what to do." Do not rejoice ahead of time, it is better when his condition improves gradually.
The next two groups do not belong to the mentally ill, since they do not lose touch with reality, but they can also be classified as persons with mental disorders.
The classic manipulator or swindler is characterized by a complete absence of guilt and conscience. Morality and ethics in the common human sense are alien to him, which makes it unlikely his ability to treat those whom he threatens or whom he exerts physical influence, as people. Often he strives for physical pleasures, loves to manipulate other people, knows how to "present" himself and at first he can form an opinion about himself as a pleasant person. He is highly impulsive, can seek immediate satisfaction of his demands.
And, finally, there are people who, without losing touch with reality, think immaturely, although they may be aware of the consequences of their actions and deeds. Shows an inadequate response to stress, feels like a failure in life, a person who is always unlucky. An incident with you is an opportunity to prove something important to someone, and a physical collision can be viewed by him as one of the thrills. He often makes statements like, “I'll prove it to them. what I am capable of. "
Survival in extreme situations requires endurance from a person and an unshakable belief that there are no hopeless situations. We have collected 5 stories, the heroes of which managed to survive in the most difficult conditions.
Long flight and 4 days of struggle
The record height, after a fall from which a person managed to survive, is 10 160 meters. This record is entered in the Guinness Book and belongs to Vesna Vulovic, the only survivor of the plane crash on January 26, 1972. She not only recovered, but also wanted to return to work - she did not have a fear of flying, because she did not remember the very moment of the disaster.
On August 24, 1981, 20-year-old Larisa Savitskaya and her husband flew from their honeymoon on an An-24 plane from Komsomolsk-on-Amur to Blagoveshchensk. In the sky, at an altitude of 5220 meters, the plane in which the newlyweds were flying collided with a Tu-16.
Larisa Savitskaya was the only one of 38 people who managed to survive. On a wreck of an aircraft measuring three by four meters, it fell in free fall for 8 minutes. She managed to get to the chair and squeeze into it.
Later, the woman claimed that at that moment she remembered an episode from the Italian film "Miracles still happen" where the heroine survives in similar conditions.
Rescue work was not carried out very actively. Graves have already been dug for all the victims of the plane crash. Larisa Savitskaya was eventually found last. She lived for three days among the wreckage of the plane and the bodies of the dead passengers. Despite numerous injuries - from concussion to spinal injuries, with broken ribs and a broken arm - Larisa Savitskaya not only survived, but was also able to build herself something like a hut from the wreckage of the fuselage.
When the search plane flew over the crash site, Larisa even waved to the rescuers, but they mistook her for a geologist from a nearby expedition.
Larisa Savitskaya was twice included in the Guinness Book of Records: as a person who survived a fall from a great height, the second time as a person who received the minimum amount of compensation for physical damage in a plane crash - 75 rubles (in 1981 money).
On a small raft
On November 23, 1942, a German submarine torpedoed the British ship Belomond. All members of his crew were killed. Almost all. Sailor Lin Peng managed to survive. He was lucky - during a search on the surface of the water, he discovered a life raft, on which there was a supply of food.
Lin Peng, of course, understood that food and water would sooner or later run out, so from the first day of his "Robinsonade" he began to prepare equipment for collecting rainwater and fishing. He stretched an awning over the raft, made a line from the threads of the rope found on the raft; from a nail and wires from a flashlight - hooks; made of metal from a tin can - a knife with which he cut a caught fish. Interesting fact: Lin Peng could not swim, so he was tied to the raft all the time.
Lin Peng caught fish very little, but took care of its safety - he dried it on ropes stretched over the deck of his "ship". For a hundred days, his diet consisted of one fish and water. Occasionally, seaweed was overboard, the consumption of which prevented Lin Peng from contracting scurvy.
The bitter irony of Lin Peng's record voyage is that he could have been rescued multiple times. Once he was not taken on board a cargo ship just because he is Chinese. Then he was noticed by the American Navy and even threw a rescue buoy at him, but the storm that broke out prevented the Americans from completing the rescue mission. In addition, Lin Peng saw several German submarines, but for obvious reasons did not turn to them for help.
Only in April 1943, Lin Peng noticed that the color of the water had changed, and birds began to appear in the sky every now and then. He realized that he was in the coastal zone, which means that his chances of success increased many times over. On April 5, he was found by Brazilian fishermen, who immediately took him to the hospital. Surprisingly, Lin Peng was able to walk on his own after his journey. He lost only 9 kilograms during the forced “Robinsonade”.
Well-read cabin boy
"Robinsonade" is the survival of a person alone for a long time in a natural environment. The record holder in this "discipline" was Jeremy Biebs, who lived on the island for 74 years.
In 1911, during a hurricane in the South Pacific Ocean, the English schooner "Beautiful Bliss" sank. Only 14-year-old boy Jeremy Bibs managed to get to the coast and escape on a desert island. The boy was helped by his erudition and love of reading - he knew by heart the novel by Daniel Defoe.
Following the example of the hero of his favorite book, Biebs began to keep a wooden calendar, built a hut, learned to hunt, ate fruit and drank coconut milk. While Biebs lived on the island, there were two world wars in the world, an atomic bomb and a personal computer were created. He knew nothing about it. Found Bibs by accident. In 1985, the crew of a German ship unexpectedly found the Robinson record holder, who had already reached the age of 88, and brought him home.
Father's daughter
In the story about Larisa Savitskaya, we remembered the film "Miracles Still Happen". It is based on real events. On December 24, 1971, the Lockheed L-188 Electra of the Peruvian airline LANSA hit a vast thunderstorm area, was struck by lightning, entered the turbulence zone and began to collapse in the air at an altitude of 3.2 kilometers. He fell into the jungle, 500 kilometers from Lima.
The only survivor was 17-year-old schoolgirl Juliana Margaret Kepke. At the time of the fall, the girl was fastened to the chair. Her collarbone was broken, her right arm was injured, and she was blind in one eye. Juliana's survival was helped by the fact that her father was a famous zoologist, who from childhood instilled in his daughter the skills of survival in extreme conditions. Immediately after the crash, putting aside attempts to find her mother among the bodies of the dead, the girl examined the luggage for food, but found only a few sweets - also a result.
Then Juliana found a stream near the place of the fall and went downstream. Only nine days later she was lucky enough to go to the boat on the river bank. The girl treated a wound on her right shoulder with gasoline from a canister, in which at least 40 larvae had already bred.
The boat owners, who turned out to be local loggers, showed up only the next day. Juliana was fed, treated wounds and taken to a hospital in the nearest village.
Alone with the snow
On October 13, 1972, a plane carrying the players of the Old Christians of Montevideo, the Uruguayan rugby team, as well as their relatives and sponsors, crashed in the highlands of the Andes. After the fall, 27 people remained alive. Later, due to the avalanche, 8 more people died, three more died from their wounds.
The Uruguayans realized that there was nowhere to wait for help, 11 days after the accident, when they said on the radio that their search had been stopped and they were presumed dead. The dire situation in which the passengers found themselves was aggravated by the fact that supplies were leaving very quickly. Having miraculously survived the crash, they made a difficult decision - to eat the meat of the dead.
The victims were rescued only 72 days after the disaster. Only thanks to the fact that the group equipped three people on the road who needed to cross the Andes and report what had happened. The most difficult transition was overcome by two. Z
and for 11 days, without equipment and warm clothes, they walked 55 kilometers through the snow-covered Andes and came to a mountain stream, where they met a Chilean shepherd, who informed the authorities about the surviving passengers.
Imagine a group of athletes preparing for a major running event. In training, they knock about the same results, their functional capabilities are equal - one asks why some are, as it were, doomed to win, while others always lose, even
having better results shown on control evaluations?
When all the runners line up on the preliminary start line, you can see that almost everyone is worried and nervous. But some of them turn red, while others turn pale. We know from history that when Julius Caesar selected soldiers from recruits for his invincible legions, he tried at first to properly confuse a person. Fear manifests itself in different people in different ways - in some, the skin of the face turns pale, while in others, on the contrary, due to the rush of blood to the skin, it turns red. Think and tell me - did Caesar try to get into his army who were turning pale or blushing?
This means that there is a huge, fundamental difference between activity under normal conditions (say, in training, in a regular lesson) and the same activity, but at major competitions or at the entrance exam, on the results of which, perhaps, all knowledge depends.
there are such signs as “difficult”, “difficult”, “special”, “critical”, “emergency”, “emergency”, “extreme”, “super-economic”, “hyper-stress”, etc. It turns out that in one case the emphasis is on the characteristics of the objective conditions of activity (complex conditions), in the other on the person's attitude to the situation that has arisen (“difficult” conditions), in the third, the emphasis is on the state that has arisen in the person (“hyperstress” conditions). 
The very concept of extreme conditions is defined by some experts as "unfavorable for life", others as "conditions requiring the mobilization of the emergency capabilities of the organism." It is known that everyone can run fast if a snarling shepherd dog is racing from behind. Consider the story that happened at KiiTae on the eve of the Tokyo Olympics. The police pursued one robber and drove him into a dead end, from which there was no way out. Tall fences surrounded the street on three sides.
The police triumphed - the thief's fate was a foregone conclusion. Ho the thief continued to rush forward, increasing speed
growth; turned on the siren and the searchlight - this finally frightened the unfortunate man. Emitting a heartbreaking cry, he took off from a straight run, with a push of his right leg over a fence 2 m 51 cm high and disappeared. China then needed at least one gold medal at the Olympic Games. It was announced in the newspapers that if this criminal voluntarily appears at the stadium in the high jump sector, then everything will be forgiven him, and in addition he will be included in the Olympic team and pay a solid monetary reward. Seven people came to the stadium. The best jumped 2 m 03 cm. This was below the Olympic standard ^ and just in case the winner of these "criminal-police" competitions was put in jail.
Or another example that is closer to us. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin, at the age of 52, was vacationing in Switzerland. He lay on the green grass, on the bank of the stream, with his feet to the water and admired the clouds floating in the sky. And suddenly a snake's head fluttered before his eyes. And Bunin was afraid of snakes from childhood. Terrified, he jumped up and jumped over the stream. And the width of the stream was 2 m 94 cm. It is known that Bunin was an intelligent man, of short stature, who had never been involved in sports in his life. I am sure that among the readers of this book there are a lot of "tough" guys - I m 90 cm. Let them try to jump at least 2 m 50 cm from a spot. This means that people in normal conditions use only a small fraction of their potential. Extreme conditions are needed so that a person can show his true capabilities. But it turns out that not all people are able to improve their results in a critical situation for their life. Some, on the contrary, in a difficult situation get lost and are not able to show even their usual result.
Psychologists know that under the influence of various psychological conditions of activity there is a weakening of the impact of some and an increase in other properties of temperament. Thus, the performance indicators in training sessions show practically no connections with any property of temperament. In familiar conditions and in a calm atmosphere, each person can show everything that he is capable of. But the effectiveness of performances in competitions is negatively influenced by such personality traits as anxiety and emotional excitability. These properties of temperament in competitions, differently than in training, affect other aspects of activity: the duration of concentration of attention before exercise, the level of aspirations, etc. change. In particular, in conditions of cipecca, the motives of the same activity cause an unequal degree of neuropsychic stress in athletes with a strong and weak nervous system. In people with a strong nervous system, with high motive activity, as a rule, the level of psychological stress is optimal, and this contributes to the improvement of their activity. Classic example of the behavior of American sprinter and long jumper Jesse Owens at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. After receiving the gold medal in the long jump, he began to prepare for the final 200m race. The interval between these views is 30 minutes. All athletes are in monstrous nervous tension. Owens calmly wraps himself in a blanket and calmly goes to sleep on the green grass of the stadium. Exactly 20 minutes later, he wakes up and begins to warm up confidently. The sight of Owens sleeping on the eve of the most responsible start in his life had a devastating effect on his main competitors. For Ifflx, it was a demonstration of absolute confidence in their victory.
As for athletes with a weak or unstable nervous system, then with active motivation, they usually experience excessive mental stress, leading to a deterioration in performance. I remember how, on the eve of the national championship in track and field athletics, with me, with a young 20 km walker, they had an ideological and educational conversation: “Tomorrow morning you will have the final. The fate of the entire team struggle depends on your successful performance. You have to go all out and show everything that you are capable of. " As a responsible person, I took this instruction very seriously. So, start at 8 am. You need to get up at 5 o'clock and eat properly. So, you need to go to bed early to get a good sleep. And so I went to bed at 21.00 and until 5 in the morning I could not close my eyes. No matter how much I convinced myself that I needed to fall asleep, everything was useless. Great responsibility literally crushed me. During the night, at least 20 times I started and fought with imaginary opponents to the end. In the morning, completely exhausted, I was able to crawl out of bed with great difficulty. Known to be influenced by stressful pages, call zzzzzzz \u003d\u003d rzzz
factors, excitation is stimulated and a dominant is formed with varying degrees of mobility of nervous processes. In a person with a strong nervous system, the dominant is stable and stable, and in athletes with a weak nervous system, it is unstable and easily turns into inhibition, accompanied by a deterioration in motor capabilities. A very important role in human behavior in an extreme situation is played by such qualities as temperament, such as sensitivity (emotional sensitivity and excitability), anxiety and activity in overcoming obstacles. Sensitivity in the broadest sense of the word is an indicator of the effectiveness, adaptation of a person to stressful or extreme conditions. High sensitivity is the opposite of the stability and stability of the mental state. Practice shows that with an increase in sensitivity, the effectiveness of a person's activity worsens, especially in a critical situation (say, important competitions, exams, an unexpected attack by hooligans in the street).
It is known that almost all Olympic champions have a reduced sensitivity. Why is that? Imagine that there is a log 30-50 cm thick on the ground. Will you worry, worry, worry, doubt your abilities, turn pale with fear if you are asked to walk on this log? Well, of course not. After all, the log is very wide and this walk does not pose any danger for you. And if the same log is thrown over a deep gorge, along the bottom of which the river roars in a fierce battle with huge boulders? And you will no longer be asked, but forced to cross the gorge along this log. Some may die of fear at the very thought of it. A person before such a test turns pale, sweats, his arms and legs are shaking. And all why? He doesn't just want to walk this log. But he really wants to! And the more he will inspire himself that “you need to”, “you need to force yourself”, “by all means”, “I must”, “otherwise shame or death on sharp stones”, the less chances he has for a successful completing this task. But you just have to convince yourself that there is no danger, that I have run on this log hundreds of times, that because it was raised to a great height, it did not become thinner, you can easily complete the task. The main thing is not to look down at boiling water and sharp rocks at the bottom.
gorges. So, in order not to be afraid, it is necessary to really look at things, soberly assess the situation (this is not the last exam in life, it will not work - I will come again, I will not win at these competitions - I will win at others, in the end both the score and the sports result - this is not the main thing in life). Sometimes it is even useful to underestimate the degree of possible danger (well, what is it that since childhood I was thrown a familiar log over the abyss, because I ran along it a hundred times while it lay on the ground). It is no accident that the greatest orator of Ancient Rome, Cicero, uttered a paradoxical thought: "A good speech can only be made in front of a herd of sheep." Therefore, everyone preparing for a public speech should treat his audience without excessive Tpeneia and excessive respect, otherwise he will only be able to shake with fear and babble nonsense. You have to look at the audience from top to bottom. Veda you were preparing, you all know what to be afraid of. The time has come to enlighten these "rams" too. The same applies to people with speech impairments. The more a person thinks about his stuttering, the more he tries to get rid of it, the worse his speech will be. To begin with, you need to be able to relax and convince yourself that my speech defects have no meaning for life. After all, an intelligent person is not visible to the eyes. If I could then, many lots ago, be able to relax on the night before the start, I would show a good result.
According to psychological studies, persons who, due to a violation of the regulatory functions of the personality, are not able to cope with a difficult situation, show a tendency to avoid it. In particular, it was found that among people with high self-esteem, there are more people who are unstable to stress than among those with adequate self-esteem. The athlete is always afraid of physical injury. How disappointing it is to stretch a tendon on the eve of a competition! But it is equally important to learn how to avoid mental trauma. Indeed, in difficult conditions, not individual organs or systems of the body, but the entire body as a whole, participate in the implementation of activities, although any of the systems may be subject to predominant stress. It should be borne in mind that the biological structures of the individual are more and more transformed as the personality develops and, at the level of a developed personality, become subject to it. In a mature and developed personality, the biological functions of the body largely depend on psychological determinants. Psychologists emphasize “the fine adaptability of the organism to various emotional situations; so, autonomic, somatic and behavioral responses to fear are completely different depending on whether the possibility of avoiding danger is real or not. " In sports psychology, there are data according to which "biological functions during the competition proceed under the strong influence of mental factors." Ho mental factors act, firstly, individually, and secondly, selectively. The autonomic nervous system, which is responsible for the internal functions of the body, is practically uncontrolled by consciousness. Therefore, people with a strong, balanced and mobile - sanguine temperament, in an extreme situation, there is a "lion stress". It turns out that the more difficult the situation, the more optimally, rationally and reliably such an individual acts. Here he is at the start, reddened, with eyes shining with excitement. A large amount of adrenaline, a hormone that stimulates motor activity, is currently entering his bloodstream. the hormone will help him give his best to the end and show a higher result than in a quiet training work, without a large number of spectators and strict judges. And the louder the roar of the stands, the more confident such an athlete feels. Danger kind of spurs such a person, makes him act boldly, confidently, decisively. ”Napoleon wrote about one of his marshals as follows:“ She had mental illumination only among the nuclei, in the thunder of the battle; quiet office, studying the map. " But next to our hero is his friend, who in training surprised everyone with his high results. But something very pale, worries and shudders when shouting from the stands. He also wants to be the first and set a record, but he has a weak nervous system and acetylcholine is secreted in his blood - a hormone with the opposite effect of adrenaline. Therefore, under the same extreme situation, a person with a weak nervous system has a completely opposite reaction - “rabbit stress” - disorganization of activity, a sharp drop in its effectiveness, passivity and general inhibition. Moreover, for a particular athlete, "rabbit stress" can every time
manifest in different ways. For two false starts, he can simply be removed from the competition, he stumbles and falls, badly tied shoes with spikes fly off him, etc. After an unsuccessful finish, such an unlucky athlete, explaining his defeat, will each time find different reasons: sudden stomach upset (called "bear disease" - a direct consequence of stress), an old injury suddenly started to hurt, started the distance too quickly and did not have the strength to finish, etc. .d. Other losers in such cases always blame their rivals - they are overwritten at the start, elbowed on the liver, pushed over the edge, etc. It is interesting that if such incidents occur with a person who is confident in his abilities, then, say, a blow to the liver can only make him angry and become a new incentive for a brilliant victory. Therefore, one and the same property of temperament - for example, anxiety (by which we mean a person's tendency to exaggerate the physical or social danger of a situation and experience negative emotional states - fear, anxiety, anxiety, etc.), is not the same in different people. This personality trait largely determines the intensity of the anxiety reaction in athletes on the eve of important competitions. But the whole point is that without this very anxiety, there is no way to show a higher result in competitions than in training. The anxiety response should therefore be seen as a natural process of adaptation of the body to a stressful situation. To a certain extent, the intensity of this reaction is positive, and only excessive anxiety is undesirable and leads to a deterioration in performance. Anxiety serves as a trigger for the manifestation of activity in overcoming external and internal obstacles on the way to achieving the goal. Anxiety and excitability within various limits contribute to the emergence of a state of mobilization, mental readiness for activity in stressful conditions, and an improvement in its effectiveness.
For us, it is not important that people with a strong nervous system (and this is an innate property given to man from God) are capable of high results. These people are by nature intended to be victors. It is much more interesting that among athletes of a very high class there are people with weakness, imbalance, inert
th of nervous processes, excessively excitable and mentally unstable. But even such properties of the nervous system and temperament do not prevent them from achieving outstanding success in sports. This is largely facilitated by the formation of an individual style of activity, which is understood as a set of methods and methods of activity and forms of response, conditioned by the typological properties of the nervous system, that allow to achieve success in its implementation. An individual style of activity is one of the most significant aspects of self-actualization, something that every person should strive for. The formation of an individual style of activity mainly occurs not through overcoming or correcting the negative aspects of temperament and properties of the nervous system, but through the effective use of their positive aspects for this activity. So, the reliability of an athlete in the extreme conditions of large competitions depends not only on whether he has a strong or weak type of nervous activity, but also on how much he dominates his psyche. After all, almost any person, with proper preparation and training, has the ability to self-regulation at an involuntary and voluntary level just before a performance. Involuntary regulation of the prelaunch state is carried out through the implementation of certain programs, automated during the preparation process.
Conscious regulation of the pre-start state is based on the athlete's developed ability to control its manifestations and causes, purposefully create images-representations, concentrate and switch attention to any objects, distract from the influence of negative psychogenic factors and stimuli, use verbal formulations and special techniques for. effects on muscle condition, autonomic functions and emotional arousal. Conscious regulation of the mental state can help to improve the reliability of an athlete only with the daily use of the system of psycho-regulatory influences (autogenous, psycho-regulatory training).
So, practice shows that under the same conditions, different individuals react differently, and these differences relate to both the degree of exposure to influences and the type of observed effects. So, some celebrate you
high resistance to stress, to activities in extreme conditions, while others have low. At the same time, in some extreme conditions, the activity improves (sometimes quite significantly, while in others it worsens up to a breakdown).
This means that we can talk about two types of state associated with activity in an extreme situation: tension, which has a positive mobilizing effect on activity, and tension, which is characterized by a decrease in the stability of mental and motor functions up to the disintegration of activity.
What does the emergence of this or that state depend on? Largely from a subjective assessment of the degree of importance, significance of a tago or other event for a particular individual. This can be called a potential threat assessment. According to the data obtained by psychologists, the threat is a person's anticipation of the possible negative consequences of the situation affecting him. This assumption was tested in experiments in which subjects were shown the same movie showing accidents at a sawmill. In the first version of the experiments, the subjects were simply told that the film would show accidents at the sawmill; in the second, that events are not real, but are only imitated by the actors; Finally, in the third case, the experimenters tried to distract the attention of the subjects from the difficult episodes in the film: the audience was asked to impartially follow, for example, how clearly and convincingly the master expounded the safety rules to the workers. On the basis of the data obtained, it was concluded that in the first case, the majority of viewers had pronounced stress reactions, in the second, no stress occurred, since the events in the film were considered non-dangerous. As for the third version of the film, if the subjects interpreted these events as dangerous and thus did not take an impartial observer position, then a stressful state arose.
The psychological specificity of states of tension, therefore, depends not on external influences, although they should be strong enough for a person, but also on the personal meaning of the goal of the activity, assessment of the situation in which he is, etc. For the solution of the problems arising here, the developed psi
chologists questions about the power of motives, about their hierarchy, types of such hierarchies, the effectiveness of potential and actual motives, their awareness and unconsciousness, the dependence of the implementation of motives on time, on distance to the goal, on the intensity of needs, on the adequacy of ways to achieve goals, age characteristics, etc. ...
However, it remains unclear to what extent the regularities established for ordinary conditions are preserved in difficult situations. Indeed, in situations that create a threat, all motivational processes come into play and the implementation of one of them will depend not only on its strength, place in the hierarchy, etc., but also on various situational factors, degree of danger, etc. Thus, a person who knows that running away in conditions of physical danger is unworthy of a "real man" may, having been attacked by hooligans, flee, because at this moment preserving health is more important than maintaining a good opinion of oneself.
Everyone knows that in difficult conditions in a critical situation, the dynamic side (pace, energy, intensity) of activity and behavior becomes extremely important, since it directly determines the effectiveness and reliability of a person. This means that the innate dynamic characteristics of the course of mental reactions in extreme conditions have a decisive impact on the final effectiveness of human actions. Of course, the strength of the nervous system plays an important role in the dynamics of mental states. The strength of the nervous system is a physiological prerequisite for a person's reliability. This factor has always been taken into account in professional selection and vocational guidance. Therefore, for work as an air traffic controller, pilot (and other professions that require an instant correct decision in an emergency), people with a strong, balanced and mobile nervous system were always selected. This means that the natural features of a person limit human capabilities. It is in a critical situation that their functioning can acquire decisive importance and affect the process of activity as a whole. The fact is that there are general and individual limits of permissible intensities of biological processes, within the framework of which various kinds of biological rearrangements occur, accompanied by the mobilization of the body's reserves, its adaptation to the influencing stimuli. When-
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approaching these limits or exceeding them leads to various pathological shifts, which are sometimes even irreversible.
The question is, can a person not in extreme, but in the most ordinary conditions go beyond their biological capabilities? Many amazing facts, which science is not yet able to explain, prove that human capabilities are truly unlimited. This can be understood only through the unity and interconnection of the natural properties of a person with his properties as a person. And a person, as already mentioned, can be described not only as a biological individual, but also as an unlimited field of consciousness, which has unlimited experiential access to various aspects of reality without the help of the senses. For example, the newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda (1996, No. 44) wrote about a 56-year-old strongman from the city of Serpukhov - Anatoly Ivanovich Amodov. Anatoly Ivanovich is short, strong, but not Stallone. If you meet on the street, you won't turn around. It lifts 6.5 tons from the ground. In principle, it is impossible to explain how he does this based on data from physiology, anatomy, physics, chemistry and other sciences. The limit of a person's biological capabilities (meaning a super-strong man weighing 150 kg) cannot exceed 1.5 tons.
Once Samodumov got into the hands of a book by Vladimir Shaposhnikov "Iron Samson" - about Russian strongmen. After reading it, he was surprised that all the "heroes" in their achievements stopped at 60 poods (about one thousand three hundred kilograms). "Why not more?" - thought Anatoly and began to solve the riddle, based on his own experience. And he also stalled at this mark. When I lifted a ton of three hundred, it seemed that you can add a couple more hundred kilograms. Ho added fifty, and the bar seemed to grow into the ground. However, training continued, and in the end the bar gave way. After that, Samodumov was in euphoria for a month and a half. “It was an idiotic state,” he recalls. - I was absolutely happy, satisfied with everything, although I understood that from the outside I looked abnormal. When this state passed, I began to realize that in this way you can achieve a lot and get into an area hitherto unknown. "
How does Samodumov himself explain his phenomenal
results? According to him, it’s not a matter of pumped up muscles and monstrous physical strength.
“In addition to gravity, there are a lot of other phenomena in the world that we did not know anything about before and which are just beginning to comprehend,” he says. - For example, there is an internal energetic state of every living being or object. It is important to learn how to manage this state of vie. Doctors have established that if a person is engaged in lifting weights, it has a beneficial effect on him: the body is very quickly healed. When we lift the barbell, all our capabilities are included in the work. The energy supply of each cell is being rebuilt. Our activities are as natural a need as to eat, drink and sleep.
The trouble with yogis, all martial arts is that he is. develop some centers in a person, but suppress others. Development is one-sided. We achieve harmony - in this; the uniqueness of the method. And all our records are only an effect of self-improvement classes. "
Anatoly Ivanovich does not declare his method as a panacea for all diseases. He only cites facts - a fifty-four-year-old patient had a purely female pathology. Doctors forbade her to carry more than five kilograms, otherwise; -reanimation department. The most complicated operation threatened. After six months of training in the section, this woman raised eight centners, the operation was no longer necessary. Almost all the diseases that I tried to treat with my own technique disappeared, ”says Samodumov. - “Side effect” - weight loss, rejuvenation, general strengthening of the body. People who study with me stop getting sick. Even colds, from which it is very difficult to protect themselves, they run very easily and quickly ... But do not immediately try to grab heavy weights to get rid of the sores. It won't work. It could get worse. Here, as in studies, training is based on the principle of "teacher-student". This is very important, because, according to the shackles of Anatoly Ivanovich, for the first time it is he who "charges a person with energy drawn from the Cosmos." Without her, all classes are in vain.
It is curious that Anatoly Ivanovich deals only with girls. He believes that girls are more open, more trusting, more disciplined. Men question everything, they need to analyze and put everything on the shelves, and there can be no question of trust. In addition, the stronger sex is very easy to squander the accumulated potential with difficulty.
This means that a person not only under extreme conditions, but under ordinary conditions, when it is necessary to do something beyond the limits of human capabilities, can draw additional energy from a still unknown source. Extra energy can explain not only this, but many other unusual results. How, for example, can a karateka smash 10 concrete blocks on top of one another with his bare hand? Even if we assume that his bones and muscles are stronger than steel, it is still impossible in principle, since the power of a heavy artillery shell is needed to perform such work. Or, as a karateka, with a wave of his hand, extinguishes a candle behind a thick glass? Moreover, sometimes such phenomenal opportunities are manifested in the most ordinary people who are in a critical situation. After all, facts are a very stubborn thing.
One day, in front of a woman's eyes, a wall collapsed on her 15-year-old house. The guy was crushed by a very heavy plate. There was no need to wait for salvation, there was no one there, and he was doomed. But the fragile woman did not think that only a crane could lift a slab weighing about three tons. She thought only about saving her only son and knew that no one else would do it besides her. Therefore, she was able to jerk the slab up and pull her son out. More famous examples can be cited. So, the famous yogi Sri Chen Moi, in front of numerous spectators, lifted a weight of 2 tons from the mief and over his head. From history, you can recall how 14-year-old American Lulu Hirst in 1885, standing on the scales in the circus arena, lifted a chair over her head with a man weighing 80 kg sitting on it. The most amazing thing is that the scales showed only her weight. The weight lifted by an unknown force has decreased to 0. Obviously, it is only in some exceptional conditions that a person gains such incredible strength and gains new unprecedented opportunities. Conventionally, psychologists call these phenomena special states of the psyche. These special conditions usually arise in extreme or, more precisely, borderline situations. These are situations of individual existence in which the self-awareness of the individual is sharpened and a person involuntarily cognizes himself. More precisely, he learns something new about his essential powers and capabilities.
According to K. Jaspers, borderline situations arise exclusively in the face of death, unrequited love or trials with an unpredictable outcome. Borderline situations encourage a person to rely on their essential forces and serve as an important source of personal self-development. Borderline states do not have continuous existence; they seem to be interspersed into our everyday experience. Being in this state, a person acts in spite of everything, regardless of common sense and in spite of everything. Many real facts prove the legitimacy of this purely philosophical abstraction: for example, a person rushes to the aid of another, not only risking his life, but often not realizing whether it is possible to save him at all. The husband of the rank defends his dignity and male honor, knowing that no one will ever know about it.
Imagine that you are walking along the Voroshilovsky bridge and before your very eyes a five-year-old baby is suspended over the railing and rapidly falls down. How to deal with this situation? All men are divided into two categories: some, without thinking about anything, jump from the bridge into the water, while others, convulsively clutching the railing, think tensely about something. But there is something to think about. Does it make sense at all to take risks and jump down if the child has already crashed into the water and drowned? What if iron piles or concrete blocks are sticking out of the water in this place? What if a barge comes in from the other side, and I jump onto the iron deck? Finally, it would not hurt to take off your expensive leather jacket, etc. etc. It is clear that after such a comprehensive analysis of the current situation, there will be no one to save. But on the other hand, how can a rational person commit reckless acts?
Some guy can boast a lot of his "coolness" and courage, but he will never go unarmed against a crowd of twenty people. After all, this is recklessness - the forces are too unequal. But why is it that the other (who falls into the category of "real man") does not come up with these reasonable arguments, and with burning eyes he crashes into a crowd of twenty people? Paradoxically, such recklessness often leads to a convincing victory. There is something in the madness of the brave that makes a stronger and more numerous enemy flee.
Masculinity is always irrational and paradoxical. Sometimes a person realizes that the act he is doing
not only a steelyard, but also meaningless, but in principle, he cannot act differently, keep himself. Sometimes the concept of "masculinity" is illegally substituted by the concepts of "ideological conviction", "moral maturity", "moral choice in an extreme situation", etc. But this is not entirely true, since moral choice is still controlled by consciousness, as well as devotion to any ideas or ideals. And masculinity is beyond the control of consciousness, logic and common sense.
An old film about the joint military operations of Soviet and "French pilots" Normandie-Niemen "shows one real episode. One French pilot had to overtake the plane to another airfield. He put a Russian mechanic in the bomb compartment without a parachute. But after taking off, the pilot lost management as a result of an accident. There was a critical situation when he could not land the plane, he could not help the mechanic. He reported this to the ground, and he was ordered to eject. But to do so would violate the code of a real man (“die yourself, but help out your comrade. ") But in this situation he is not only a man with thoughts and feelings, but also a combat unit that must be saved in order to use it for its intended purpose in the next battle. He is strictly ordered to eject, but he cannot do anything with himself . The internal code of male honor turns out to be higher than orders and even the will to live. Finally, the mechanic on the internal communication device begs him jump, but it explodes together with the plane.
What is the reason for such actions, if we discard all considerations of prudence and common sense? But they are not unreasonable (moreover, a person in such situations assures that he could not have acted otherwise). To say that the reason for these actions is irrational and existential is to raise the question of the nature of these reasons. Therefore, for psychologists, borderline states are a kind of "windows" into a special dimension of human life - into that "existential space", the laws of which act on a person just as inexorably (it is impossible to do otherwise) as physical laws. The external reasons for the reckless behavior of a person in a borderline state can be very different - religious fanaticism, political convictions, patriotism,
just the generally recognized "coolness", but inside the same reason operates - masculinity. It is the formed masculinity, like a tightly compressed spring, (like a constantly cocked trigger), in a critical situation, instantly straightens, pushing (or rather shooting) a person, throwing him into battle against the whole world. The moment of the "shot", in principle, cannot be realized and critically interpreted. A person will be burned at the stake, and he, not feeling pain, will shout with delight: "Glorious is the Lord!" Such masculinity has always been "like a bone in the throat" of the mighty, accustomed to dealing with obedient loyal subjects. Over the centuries, many have tried to break a courageous person, to force him to change his previous position. But even if a mountain runs into a real knight, he, putting his spear forward, will continue to shout loudly that there is no lady more beautiful and worthy than his beloved.
The Holy Inquisition operated in Europe for 300 years. What did the wife struggle over the centuries with the inquisitive thought of "creatively minded" inquisitors? How can one come up with such torment, torture, such a sophisticated method of execution for a person to force him to abandon his previous (heretical) views, change his beliefs and principles? Find a way to confuse a person so as to break his masculinity. It is not easy to make it very painful, but to split the consciousness of a person, like a "rotten nut". But it turned out that there is no such MjrKH, such torture that a courageous person convinced of his righteousness could not bear. We respect Archpriest Avvakum not for his views (views can be both stupid and insane; like Dulcinea of \u200b\u200bDon Quixote's ideal poser can turn out to be a fat, pockmarked and stupid girl), but for his courage in defending his position.
At the end of the 20th century, it would seem, they found a way to break any person, no matter how courageous he may have. We are talking about a psychotropic weapon, with the help of which specially encoded information, freely passing through the filters of consciousness, invades the subconscious and subordinates a person to someone else's will. I don't want to believe it, because the proliferation of this weapon can kill the main thing in humanity, its masculinity. It seems that this weapon may not subdue, but simply kill a courageous person. It is always much easier to kill.
The author believes that true masculinity, as the core of the personality, permeates not only consciousness, but also the subconscious of a person, determining his behavior in almost any situation. I would like to tell a story that many years ago I heard from my late grandfather. Now it is not possible to verify the authenticity of individual details of this story, but the principle itself is more important. The bottom line is that in 1942 in Ukraine the head of one of the district offices of the Gestapo was a psychologist by training. Even before the war, he wrote in his writings about man as "an animal covered with a thin film of civilization." And since a person is essentially an animal, then such phenomena as honor, conscience, nobility, courage are all husks, empty words of morality that very quickly fly off any person, he has only to drive a few needles under his nails. The main thing is to be able to drive them deeper. In peacetime he did not have the opportunity to test his views in practice, but during the war such an opportunity presented itself. For the experiment, only those prisoners were selected who had already established themselves as a "tough nut to crack." As a rule, they turned out to be red commanders, political instructors, former athletes and just ordinary communists and patriots. The man was put in a deaf leather bag with a load at his feet and thrown to the bottom of a deep and cold river. The bag was on a long rope, for which it could always be lifted to the surface. And a thin string was wound around the fist of the person *, passing through the neck of the bag to the surface. Imagine yourself sitting in this leather bag for 30 seconds, feel the hopelessness of the situation, feel the cold water pressing on your ears. These seconds pass very quickly, and there is only one insane hope to breathe one more time, to live a little longer. Here a weak person can pull the string. The bell will ring and the bag will be quickly pulled to the surface. But the attitude of our "psychologist" was not designed for this primitive animal fear. He had a thinner one; vile, as it seemed to him, scientifically grounded and insidious calculation. After all, when the last breath of air is consumed, the consciousness turns off. And when the consciousness turns off, then all the attitudes developed by the consciousness disappear - communist ideas, patriotism, sacred hatred of enemies, religious principles and everything else. What remains? Only one animal instinct, and among them the most important one - self-preservation. The stake was made for this short period of time, when the consciousness was switched off, and the organism itself is still alive and can act. The dying brain sends the last signal, and the hand against all the previous beliefs of the person pulls the string itself. The bag with a semi-conscious person is immediately pulled to the surface.
He immediately receives a glass of schnapps for warming and for courage, he is dressed in a warm police uniform, given a carbine (to begin with without cartridges) and forced in this uniform to participate in a mass execution in front of everyone. You can also take a picture of him against the background of the gallows with the hanged and give him as a keepsake this photo with a dedication from the boss himself. The enlightened Gestapo wanted to put this case on the conveyor belt - you put the political officer in the bag, and pull it out with the policeman. Ho the experiment failed. Of the hundreds of those executed, only 2 or 3 turned out to be weak and pulled the rope. But after a while they themselves laid hands on themselves, since they could not tread on their native land in the role of a traitor. In fact, the experiment did not fail, but confirmed once again that true masculinity not only permeates the entire conscious structure of the personality, but also captures the subconscious (and maybe the sphere of the unconscious, where masculinity is fixed at the level of archetypes). Grandfather also said that a report was drawn up on the basis of the experiment and sent to headquarters. Based on this report, appropriate decisions were taken. In particular, since the end of 1944, the communists were no longer tortured, since a corresponding icon was put in the personal files of prisoners, indicating that this person is a convinced communist (in the context of the problem under consideration, this meant a real man) and the use of torture on him is a waste of time. Therefore, such a person is subject only to immediate destruction.
One conclusion can be drawn from all this that true masculinity is not subject to all considerations of prudence and common sense. In the situation of “being a man in the face of death,” a person must cast aside all the arguments generated by modern life and act in accordance with some ancient motivational programs. It was these ancient programs that constantly pushed
men (even against their will) at the forefront of the evolutionary process.
Imagine that people, suffocated in a sack, somehow survived. How would the experienced existential state be reflected on their personality? Would they leave the bag the same, or would there be some kind of transformation?
Practice shows that the experience of borderline states leads to the "conversion" of the personality. The person himself begins to feel himself different, changed. Something is revealed to him that does not allow him to lead the old way of life, he really already thinks, feels and understands differently. The basic reasons for the basic actions of a person are the state that he has discovered and experienced in existential experience, and not the usual motives determined by the environment. This means that the existential state experienced by a person (the reasons for which are usually hidden from us) itself becomes the cause of subsequent events.
It is important to emphasize that the influence of the social on biological processes in states of tension is carried out primarily through mental, in particular motivational and emotional components of activity, their specific content. Along with the examples just given, this can also be confirmed by works from the field of prevention and overcoming the negative effects of mental stress, which show the possibility of conscious regulation of some vegetative processes, which leads to an increase in the functional capabilities of the physiological systems of a disabled person, their compensation and, on this basis, an increase in resistance to acting stimulation. Moreover, we can say that under certain conditions a person can restrain the manifestations of his bodily being at their greatest stress, as if suppressing them and, to a certain extent, go beyond the limits of biological laws.
This means that the effect of a stressor is not limited only to its specific action, but is also due to the psychological characteristics of a person. Thus, immediate danger to life, severe pain, which are recognized as effective stressors, may not be so in connection with the performance of a certain role or, for example, in connection with religious or ideological motives. Psychology of races
11. The school of burning out believes in a large number of studies showing that. that the motivational, intellectual and other psychological characteristics of a person, his life experience, the amount of knowledge, etc. significantly correct the influence of the objective properties of the stimulus. For example, in works on the study of mental states of parachutists, it has been repeatedly shown that the degree of fear of a jump is positively correlated with a lack of faith in oneself and a lack of experience, in particular, the era of the ability to fight against the wind during a jump.
Even more striking confirmation is the data obtained by American psychologists. The study was conducted on recruited soldiers. The situations of “crash” and forced landing of the aircraft were simulated. The subjects were in a twin-engined military aircraft DC-Z. Each of the passengers had communication via headphones with the cockpit.
Before boarding, each participant in the experiment was handed a brochure with instructions for a 10-minute study - a list of necessary actions in case of a possible disaster. In addition, as required by the Air Force regulations, each participant in the flight, under the control of the aircraft commander, put on a life belt and a parachute. Around 5000 feet the plane began to roll as it climbed. All the subjects saw that one of the propellers stopped rotating, and through the headphones they learned about other problems. Then they were told directly that a critical situation had developed. The subjects, as it were, accidentally hear through the headphones an alarming conversation between the pilot and the ground observation post, which finally leaves no doubt about the reality of the situation. Since the plane was flying near the airfield, the subjects could see how trucks and ambulances were moving onto the runway, i.e. that the earth is clearly anticipating a crash and preparing to help. A few minutes later, an order was issued to prepare for a splashdown in the open ocean due to the failure of the landing device. Some time later, the plane landed safely at the airfield. On the whole, the experimental situation was perceived as real, there were strong emotional experiences associated with the fear of death or injury ("numb from horror"), etc. However, some of the subjects did not observe these phenomena: some of them had extensive flying experience and were able to determine the staged nature of the danger, while others were confident in their ability to survive the "impending catastrophe", to overcome it.
This gives reason to believe that the main role in the emergence of a threat belongs not so much to the objective danger and objective opportunities to resist this danger, but to how a person perceives the situation, assesses his capabilities, i.e. subjective factor. If a person believes in himself, in his capabilities, he can handle the most difficult and extreme situations.
According to the rescue services of different countries, about 80% of people in moments of danger fall into a stupor, 10% start to panic, and only the remaining 10% quickly pull themselves together and act to save themselves. See how a clear understanding of the situation and self-control help a person survive in any, even the most wild conditions.
The 17-year-old girl was one of the passengers on a plane that flew over the Peruvian jungle in 1971. The plane was struck by lightning, and it fell apart right in the air. Only 15 of the 92 passengers managed to survive the fall, but all, except for Julian, were seriously injured and died before help arrived. Only she was lucky - the crowns of the trees softened the blow, and, despite the fracture of the collarbone and torn ligaments in the knee, the girl, strapped to the seat and falling with him, survived. Juliana wandered through the thickets for 9 days, and she managed to reach the river, along which a group of local hunters sailed. They fed her, provided first aid and took her to the hospital. All the time spent in the jungle, the girl was inspired by the example of her father, who was an experienced extreme and walked the path from Recife (Brazil) to Lima, the capital of Peru.
The British couple spent 117 days in the open ocean in 1973. The couple went on a trip on their yacht, and for several months everything was fine, but off the coast of New Zealand, the ship was attacked by a whale. The yacht received a hole and began to sink, but Maurice and Marilyn managed to escape on an inflatable raft, taking documents, canned food, a water container, knives and a few other necessary things that turned up at hand. The food ran out very quickly, and the couple ate plankton and raw fish - they caught it with homemade pin hooks. Nearly four months later, they were picked up by North Korean fishermen - by that time, both husband and wife were almost completely exhausted, so salvation came at the last minute. The Baileys covered more than 2000 km on their raft.
The 11-year-old boy showed an amazing example of self-control and self-control in an extreme situation. A light-engine plane, in which Norman's father and his girlfriend, the pilot, as well as Norman himself were, crashed into a mountain at an altitude of 2.6 km and crashed. The father and the pilot died on the spot, the girl tried to go down the glacier and fell down. Fortunately, Ollestad Sr. was an experienced extreme and taught his son survival skills. Norman built some kind of skis from those found in the mountains and safely went down - it took about 9 hours. Growing up to become a writer, Norman Allestad recounted the incident in his bestselling book Crazy for the Storm.
A traveler from Israel, together with his friend Kevin, were rafting in Bolivia, they were taken to a waterfall. After the fall, both survived, but Kevin almost immediately managed to get to the shore, and Yossi was carried away down the river. As a result, a 21-year-old guy found himself alone in a wild forest far from civilization. Once a jaguar attacked him, but with the help of a torch, the young man managed to drive the beast away. Yossi ate berries, bird eggs, and snails. At this time, a rescue team was looking for him, which Kevin gathered immediately after the incident - after 19 days the search was crowned with success. One of the stories of the popular Discovery Channel program “I shouldn't have survived” was dedicated to this case.
An Italian policeman in 1994 decided to take part in the Marathon de Sables, a six-day 250-kilometer race in the Sahara Desert. After being caught in a violent sandstorm, he lost direction and eventually got lost. 39-year-old Mauro did not lose heart, but continued to move - he drank his own urine, and ate snakes and plants that he managed to find in the bed of a dry river. Once Mauro came across an abandoned Muslim shrine where bats were found - he began to catch them and drink their blood. After 5 days, he was discovered by a family of nomads. As a result, Mauro Prosperi covered 300 km in 9 days, losing 18 kg on the way.
The Australian lost almost half of his weight during forced wanderings in the deserts of the northern part of the continent. His car broke down, and he went on foot to the nearest settlement, but did not know how far and in which direction it was. He walked day after day, feeding on grasshoppers, frogs and leeches. Then Ricky built himself a shelter from branches and waited for help. Luckily for Ricky, it was rainy season so he didn't have much of a drinking water problem. As a result, he was discovered by people from one of the cattle farms located in that area. They described him as a "walking skeleton" - before his adventure, Ricky weighed just over 100 kg, and when he was sent to the hospital, where he spent six days, his body weight was 48 kg.
Two 34-year-old Frenchmen survived for seven weeks in the wilderness of Guiana in 2007, feeding on frogs, centipedes, turtles and tarantulas. The first three weeks, friends, lost in the forest, spent on the spot, building a shelter - they hoped that they would be found, but then they realized that the dense crowns of trees would not allow them to be seen from the air. Then the guys hit the road in search of the nearest accommodation. At the end of the trip, when, according to their calculations, there were no more than two days to go, Gilem became very ill, and Luke went alone to bring help as soon as possible. Indeed, he soon went to civilization and, together with the rescuers, returned to his partner - for both the adventure ended well.
A tourist from France survived a fall from a height of about 20 meters, and then spent 11 days in the mountains in northeastern Spain. The 62-year-old woman fell behind the group and got lost. She tried to go down, but fell into a hollow. She could not get out of there, so she had to spend almost two weeks in the middle of the wild waiting for help - she ate leaves and drank rainwater. On the 11th day, rescuers noticed from the helicopter a red T-shirt, which Teresa spread on the ground, and rescued her.
A 29-year-old ship's chef from Nigeria spent almost three days underwater on a sunken ship. The tug got into a storm 30 kilometers from the coast, was badly damaged and quickly went to the bottom - at that time Okene was in the hold. He groped around the compartments and found the so-called air bag - "pocket", which was not filled with water. Harrison was in some shorts and was in water up to his chest - he was cold, but he could breathe, and that was the main thing. Every second Harrison Okene prayed - the day before his wife sent him via sms the text of one of the psalms, which he repeated to himself. There was not much oxygen in the air bag, but it was enough until the arrival of the rescuers, who could not get to the ship immediately due to the storm. The remaining 11 crew members were killed - Harrison Okene was the only survivor.
72-year-old Arizona resident survived in the wild for 9 days. An elderly woman went to visit her grandchildren in a hybrid car on March 31, 2016, but it ran out of charge as she drove through completely deserted places. Her phone did not catch the network, and she decided to climb higher to call the emergency services, but in the end she got lost. A dog and a cat traveled with Ann - on April 3, the police, who were already searching, found a car and a cat sitting in it. On April 9, a dog was found and an inscription Help (help), lined with stones. Under one of them was a note from Anne, dated April 3rd. On the same day, rescuers first found a makeshift shelter, and a little later - Anne herself.
A.A. Bodalev
ABOUT A MAN IN AN EXTREME SITUATION
As you know, the advancement of any person along the path of life, the implementation of his life activity necessarily presupposes the emergence of various situations on this path and in this life activity, some of which, for one reason or another, become events for him, deeply imprinted in his consciousness and self-consciousness and often influencing his fate. Situations that, by their content and form of objectification of this content, differ sharply from those that ensure normal existence for him as an individual (a most complex living being), as a person (the core of which is his typical relationship) and as a subject of activity (if he is an adult, first of all, as a citizen, spouse, parent, professional specialist), turn out to be extreme for him.
Their extreme nature, as a rule, is expressed in the fact that they, intruding into the relatively established course of a person's life and into the algorithms that have become habitual for performing various types of activities, globally or depending on the sphere of his being - in part, with large negative consequences can affect health and life plans of a person, on his lifestyle, career, relationships with people who are significant to him, on his general well-being and, in extreme cases, even cause his death.
The factors that cause extreme situations through which people go through in their life are diverse. First of all, these are changes in nature that look like large deviations from the norm and take the form of natural disasters. Technogenic disasters can also be the cause of extreme situations in people's lives. Sources that give rise to extreme situations in which people find themselves can also be in a large society and act in the form of changes occurring in politics, economy, in solving the national question, in the spheres of education, science, culture, health care, pensions, in relation to army, etc.
At the same time, in most cases, the causes of extreme situations in which people find themselves are directly related to the activities they perform on a daily basis, with their communication and with what usually constitutes their life.
In the literature devoted to the problem of extreme situations, the assertion is widespread that situations that arise in a person's life and have a negative result for him are divided into three types: first, everyday troubles; secondly, negative events associated with different stages of life, for example, with a person's age, and thirdly, these are actually extreme situations, the results of which impact on a person do not fit into the measuring scales of troubles traditional for most people. (-< Нам представляется, что приведенная классификация имеет в определенном смысле
It is formal in nature, since when developing it, the meaning of this or that H situation for an individual concrete person was ignored and the reasons for the transformation of precisely these situations and precisely for this person into extreme ones were not taken into account. And if we keep this circumstance in mind and endow the situations with a sign of extremeness that are extremely subjectively significant and extremely difficult for a particular person for a particular person and, moreover, can have both objectively and subjectively, extremely negative consequences for him, then the classification of situations will take on a completely different form and not only will be included in the category of extreme situations
natural disasters, man-made disasters, political and economic upheavals in society, wars and other global-scale events that drastically change people's lives.
With this approach, a sign of extremeness will acquire, for example, a situation of unrequited love for a chaste and morally pure young man, after which he will not want to live. The situation will also be extreme for a person who was passionately longing for great wealth and who lost all the money he had in an unsuccessful commercial operation. The situation will also be extreme for a crystal-clear old woman, a former teacher living on a beggarly pension and therefore poorly dressed, who was suspected of stealing from a self-service store and was searched at the exit.
Situations are reflected, experienced by people as extreme and accordingly affect their behavior most often after they establish their meaning for themselves and for those who are especially subjectively significant for them.
When determining the meaning of an extraordinary situation that a person is faced with, it is of paramount importance for him to what value his system of values \u200b\u200bbeats this situation (if its nature seems negative to a person) or what value in this system this situation, on the contrary, fundamentally reinforces it, if the impact appears to him to be positive.
Obviously, no additional explanations are required in order to understand that the assessment of the meaning of a situation depends not only on its characteristics, which are not hidden, but rather expressed outside, but also on the attitude that is objectified in a person when he, so to speak, real and subjective entry into the situation and, of course, on his emotional state at the same time and the activity and productivity of his intellect.
As you know, real life is replete with cases when this or that situation, in its essence and in the consequences that it brings to a person, turns out to be extreme for him, but it may not have obvious signs of extremeness here and now, and, naturally, a person in such cases gives an inadequate response to it.
The peculiarities of the attitude that a person actualizes in each specific situation also play an important role in identifying signs of extremeness in a situation that is just coming for him or in which he has already turned out to be an active or passive participant. Depending on whether its nature is preceded by the actual content of the expected situation, or whether a person expects a situation with a completely different content than the upcoming situation, the attitude affects the person's encounter with an extreme situation in different ways, mobilizing his mind, feelings, will to a response corresponding to his capabilities in the first case and demoralizing and demobilizing him in the second case.
The emotional state in which a person is, faced with an extreme situation for him, is also a significant subjective factor that determines how he will "read" the situation he is faced with, what decision he will make and how he will implement it.
It is clear, for example, that a state of horror, deep confusion, depression, or their antipode - euphoria - these are such manifestations of the emotional sphere of a person that prevent him, figuratively speaking, fully armed as a person and as a subject of activity to meet an extreme situation and find the best way out of it ...
What kind of intelligence a person has formed by the time when he, being, so to speak, in the epicenter of an extreme situation, must assess its parameters, predict its consequences and often plan actions and implement them under time pressure is, among others, the most important subjective factor. on which the result of a person's stay in an extreme situation depends.
On the one hand, in the spheres of activity "man - man", "man - nature", "man - technology", "man - images of art", "man - sign systems", knowledge has been accumulated about typical extreme situations that can, under a certain circumstances arise in them, and, accordingly, optimal algorithms have been developed
human behavior in these situations.
On the other hand, in everyday life, especially if it is not stable, there are constant coincidences that give rise to situations with which a person has not previously met and some of which turn out to be carrying the quality of extremeness for him.
And in such cases, a variety of options for how people respond to what is happening are possible. After all, it is not what is happening in reality that makes us feel and act in one way or another, but how we think and relate to it.
The characteristic "how we think" directly speaks of how capable people are, figuratively speaking, "to see the forest behind the trees", or rather, to recognize the essence of the unusual in the situation they are faced with, to predict the further course of events, to imagine how this will affect and on them, and on those who are dear to them, as well as on everything that is included in the sphere of subjectively valuable for them.
The degree of optimality of the work of the intellect of people in an extreme situation will manifest itself further and specifically in what decision they will take and how they will act in these unusual and difficult conditions for them. And of course, how and with what result the human intellect will work, here it is necessary, figuratively speaking, to have their say and the relationship that each person carries in himself as a person. A.C. Makarenko wrote more than once that "it is impossible to wrest a person out of a relationship, practically impossible," and V.N. Myasishchev, starting from the formula that "a person as a person is an ensemble of relationships," in his writings repeatedly emphasized that to understand correctly why a person acted this way and not otherwise in a certain situation, it is not enough to know how he thinks, and it is imperative to find out what kind of relationships and how subordinate are characteristic of his personality. And he also insisted that a person's behavior in an extreme situation is a hundred times better than any tests to highlight his true insides, his personal essence. And therefore it is understandable why when people make decisions about the nature of action in the current circumstances and in the very implementation of actions, as a rule, there is a more or less extended continuum of options that differ from each other or the goals formed for themselves by people who are in an extreme situation and those looking for a way out of it, or the motives that induce them to realize these goals, or the ways that they use to move towards this goal. And all these differences turn out to be conditioned by the characteristics in which the individuality of each of those who are faced with the need to seek and implement an acceptable way out of an extreme situation is manifested.
And in fact, the peculiarities of the functioning of the cognitive sphere of people, the manifestation of their feelings and will, the originality of their behavior in extreme situations of various types are largely determined by individual, personal and subjective characteristics, which each of them individually, uniquely managed to form in the time interval, preceding the emergence of this or that extreme situation on their life path.
At the same time, as a rule, there is no direct direct manifestation of these features, which carry, so to speak, a positive or negative sign and refer to each of the named main hypostases of a person, when he meets an extreme situation. The psychological instance that mediates the actualization of these features in an extreme situation is, as mentioned above, a person's system of values, the other being of which is his beliefs, which accumulate not only knowledge, but also relationships always associated with them.
During the Great Patriotic War, with an unsuccessful breakthrough from the encirclement organized by the Germans near Vyazma, General M.G. Efremov preferred to commit suicide than to be captured. In the same situation near Rzhev, General A.A. Vlasov not only surrendered to the Germans, but also with their help created the so-called Russian Liberation Army,
which began to fight on the side of Nazi Germany.
In besieged Leningrad, during a terrible famine in the winter of 1941/42, the former head teacher of the school where I studied, and in 1941-1942, the commissar of one of the Leningrad hospitals S.I. Tupitsyn, along with the hospital's supplier and chef, got into the habit of stealing food intended for the wounded and were shot. And at the same time, and also in Leningrad, a communist with pre-revolutionary experience, an illiterate Tatar M. Maksutov guarded the scanty stocks of flour for Leningraders transferred by airplanes to the besieged city and died of hunger.
During the collapse of the Soviet Union, when the wealth created by the labor of the people was being plundered, some partocrats, who had recently vowed to devote all their strength to building communism, tried to seize more of the nation's good. Others, and there were many of them, remained true to the ideals they had learned in their youth, and did not allow themselves to follow the example of yesterday's party colleagues.
It seems that all the examples given indicate how values \u200b\u200band their antipodes - pseudo-values, formed in the subjective world of people, are concretized in their beliefs and, of course, in relationships, influencing the direction of the functioning of the motivational sphere of each of them, determine the nature of their behavior in extreme for them situations.
An absolutely obvious difference between people who find themselves in an extreme situation is the degree of their will formation, which is manifested in the expression of the ability to maintain a presence of mind in this situation, not to allow oneself, as the people say, to break down and purposefully and persistently seek a moral worthy and a productive way out of this situation based on results.
In the past twelve years, an extremely difficult situation has arisen for a significant part of the population of Russia: lack of work, non-payment of wages, material difficulties with admission and study in universities, the actual elimination of free medical care, low pensions, a sharp decrease in funding for science, the army, etc. People actually were put in a situation of struggle for survival. A very large part of them did not have sufficient physical and spiritual strength for this struggle. And as a result, a very noticeable increase in the number of suicides compared to the previous period and an even more obvious increase in the number of neuropsychiatric diseases. These cases, when a person stops fighting for survival, or when he, on the contrary, actively resists extremely negative circumstances that invade his life, were tried to explain in the key of psychophysiology B.G. Ananiev and his students.
The productivity of a person's behavior as a subject in an extreme situation and the effectiveness of his activities aimed at finding and implementing a successful exit from it depend not only on what kind of "alloy" they form when solving the problem of overcoming an extreme situation, his personality traits and his ability and what level of solution to this problem by themselves they can provide.
As shown by the studies conducted by B.G. Ananyev and his students, this level of solution and its implementation are also determined by the strength of the energy potential the human body carries. In some people it is very high, in others it is weak, and in others at a high level it appears only sporadically.
B.G. himself Ananyev, denoting the essence of the named energy potential, introduced the concept of "vitality" into scientific circulation and, relying on a large array of data, convincingly proved that both in situations that are most favorable for a person to reach high achievements for him, and in extreme situations, which not only impede such achievements, but very often induce a person, so to speak, to cease to be what the people around him are used to seeing, and he himself, not one property is manifested, but the whole complex of its properties, including viability. Only, naturally, in the first and fio second cases they will be structured in different ways, the role of one relative to the other will change, relations of dominance and subordination will develop in a new way, the severity of each will manifest in a different way.
quality in structure.
Both in terms of intensity and in its other characteristics, it undergoes changes and vitality. Especially the negative changes occurring in it are clearly visible when a person is in a state of depression.
As you know, vitality is the initial component of a person's general working capacity, influencing the specific features of his working capacity, intellectual activity, the level of volitional effort, emotional endurance, the stability of the attitude towards the realization of a goal set aside far in time, etc.
And the indicators of these mental manifestations become worse when a person's energy potential decreases when he experiences a state of depression - this is an obvious fact. Suffice it to recall to confirm the validity of this statement, the state of V. Mayakovsky, M. Tsvetaeva or A. Fadeev before their death, which was preceded by individually peculiar extreme situations for each.
At the same time, it would be a mistake to think that an extreme situation that intrudes into the course of his life that has become habitual for a person, generates, reducing his viability, only such an extremely negative result. In the examples given, all the previous extreme situations, which, as the biographies of our compatriots mentioned, were abundant in their lives, summed up, exceeded the threshold of emotional endurance and sharply weakened their ability to resist life's adversities.
But, as evidenced by the facts that reality gives us, an extreme situation that has arisen in life, on the contrary, can help a person better see the meaning of his life and mobilize him for a struggle aimed at realizing this meaning, embodied in a large-scale large goal.
For example, two tragic events happened in the Ulyanov family in Simbirsk: the head of the family, I.N. Ulyanov, and in St. Petersburg his eldest son, a university student Alexander Ulyanov, was executed for participating in the preparation of regicide. The second son of Ilya Nikolaevich, who brilliantly graduated from high school, Volodya Ulyanov, could choose the future of a successful lawyer for himself, but he preferred the thorny path of a revolutionary - an implacable fighter against tsarist Russia, which led him, as we know, to the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917. Or fighter pilot A.P. Maresyev, after one of the sorties during the Great Patriotic War, lost his feet. Everyone believed that he had only a disability ahead. But he decided to return to the ranks of combat pilots. And as you know, having overcome many obstacles, A. Maresyev again began to fly and shoot down enemy planes.
The examples given, and the surrounding reality is rich in cases like them, indicate that the physical capabilities of people, their attitude to different aspects of reality, including themselves, their activity experience, fused in their individuality, always affect how they enter the extreme situation, stay in it and get out of it.
If we abstract from, so to speak, intermediate options for people's response to extreme situations and focus on the analysis of the psychological underside of this response, as it makes itself felt in the so-called extreme types, then the following picture emerges.
Not very often, life still brings us to the type of people who, at all stages of an extreme situation, manifest themselves actively and creatively. Their optimistic outlook, responsibility for their own actions and the actions of others, realistic reflection of life, and high motivation for achievement work on such a general characteristic in their behavior in an extreme situation. They learn about an extreme situation in the context of other manifestations of reality that influenced its appearance, and in a wide variety of its characteristics. Speaking about the last feature of their reflection of an extreme situation, it is important to note that they have an increased sensitivity to the characteristics of this unnoticed by most people.
situation, of course, it is more successful to seek and find a way out of it. In cases when this "exit" still turns out to be unsuccessful, they do not give up, do not lose faith in themselves, and once again assessing all aspects of the extreme situation and the reasons that gave rise to it, they conduct a purposeful search for a solution to the problem.
An equally obvious personal characteristic of a person that constructively influences his behavior in general and on individual actions in an extreme situation is his self-confidence and self-esteem directly related to it.
A persistent state of self-doubt, low self-esteem of a person makes him unable to get together for a real overcoming of an extreme situation, dooming him to passivity, prevent him from being a strategist in the sense of planning and implementing his actions for a longer period in the hope of obtaining a cardinally significant result while eliminating negative consequences extreme situation. And vice versa, high and persistent self-confidence and the same self-esteem help a person not to succumb to difficulties and not to be afraid of irreparably surprises that are often present in extreme situations, but by rethinking the gained experience as actively as possible and mobilizing his intellect and will, find a solution, so to speak , which removes, after its implementation, the characteristic of extremeness from the situation in which a person had to act.
The creator of the operatic masterpieces "Tannhäuser", "Lohengrin", "Tristan and Isolde", "Meistersinger" and the uniquely grandiose "Ring of the Nibelungen" brilliant Richard Wagner was bankrupt more than once and, as they say, fell to the very bottom of life, but self-confidence in pairing with other qualities, which were discussed above, helped him again and again to get out of extreme situations in which he from time to time found himself, and to rise to a new, higher level in his work.
Both this and other similar cases indicate that especially often named qualities as stable traits of their personality are seen in people ranked by subsequent generations as great or outstanding. Many of them, passing their life paths, found themselves, without exaggeration, in extremely difficult extreme situations and nevertheless emerged victorious from them.
The power to resist the extremely unfavorable circumstances that constituted the essence of these situations and prevented them from realizing the main goals of life for each of them was surprisingly powerful. Both motivational involvement and involvement in the work of their whole life were so strong in these people that they did not even allow doubts about the possibility of achieving the result they were striving for. And the obstacles beyond the reach of ordinary people that arose in their path, they did not perceive as a manifestation of evil fate or blows of fate, but as natural problems, born of life, which must be purposefully addressed by mobilizing all of themselves)