Various candidates were discussed in the media ahead of the announcement of the 2017 laureates, and those who ultimately received the award were among the favorites.
Barry Barish is a leading expert on gravitational waves and co-director of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), located in the United States.
And Rainer Weiss and Kip Thorne were at the origins of this project and continue to work at LIGO.
The media also considered Briton Nicola Spaldin a strong candidate. for a long time worked as a material theory researcher at the Swiss Federal Institute technology in Zurich. She is credited with the discovery of multiferroics, a material with a unique combination of electrical and magnetic properties, which coexist simultaneously. This makes the materials ideal for creating fast and energy-efficient computers.
This year, foreign media also named Russian scientists among possible candidates for the Nobel Prize.
In particular, the name of astrophysicist RAS Academician Rashid Sunyaev, who is the director of the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics in Garching (Germany), was mentioned in the press.
As is known, a number of domestic scientists previously became Nobel Prize laureates in physics. In 1958, three Soviet scientists received it - Pavel Cherenkov, Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm; in 1962 - Lev Landau, and in 1964 - Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov. In 1978, Pyotr Kapitsa won the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 2000, the award was awarded to Russian scientist Zhores Alferov, and in 2003 to Alexey Abrikosov and Vitaly Ginzburg. In 2010, the award went to Andrei Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, who work in the West.
Total from 1901 to 2016 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded 110 times, while in only 47 cases the award went to a single laureate, in other cases it was divided among several scientists. Thus, over the past 115 years, the prize has been received by 203 people - including the American scientist John Bardeen, who became a Nobel laureate in physics twice - the only one in the history of the award. He first received the award jointly with William Bradford Shockley and Walter Brattain in 1956. And in 1972, Bardeen was awarded a second time - for the fundamental theory of conventional superconductors, together with Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer.
Among the two hundred Nobel laureates in physics, there were only two women. One of them, Marie Curie, received, in addition to the physics prize in 1903, the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1911. Another was Maria Goeppert-Mayer, who became a laureate in 1963 together with Hans Jensen “for discoveries concerning the shell structure of the nucleus.”
Most often, the Nobel Prize has been awarded to researchers in the field of particle physics.
The average age of Nobel Prize winners in physics is 55 years. The youngest laureate in this category remains 25-year-old Lawrence Bragg from Australia: he received the prize in 1915 along with his father William Henry Bragg for his services to the study of crystals using X-rays. The oldest remains 88-year-old Raymond Davis Jr., awarded in 2002 with a prize “for the creation of neutrino astronomy.” By the way, the Nobel Prize in physics was shared not only by father and son Bragg, but also by husband and wife Marie and Paul Curie. IN different time the winners were fathers and sons - Niels Bohr (1922) and his son Aage Bohr (1975), Manne Sigbahn (1924) and Kai M. Sigbahn (1981), J. J. Thomson (1906) and George Paget Thomson (1937).
, Nobel Peace Prize and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen "in recognition of his extraordinary services to science, expressed in the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named in his honor." This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and is widely considered the most prestigious award a physicist can receive. It is awarded in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.
Purpose and selection
No more than three laureates can be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics. Compared to some other Nobel prizes, nomination and selection for the physics prize is a long and rigorous process. That is why the prize became more and more prestigious over the years and eventually became the most important physics prize in the world.
Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee in Physics, which consists of five members elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. At the first stage, several thousand people propose candidates. These names are studied and discussed by experts before the final selection.
Forms are sent to approximately three thousand people inviting them to submit their nominations. The names of the nominees are not publicly announced for fifty years, nor are they communicated to the nominees. Lists of nominees and their nominators are kept sealed for fifty years. However, in practice, some candidates become known earlier.
Applications are checked by a commission, and a list containing about two hundred preliminary candidates, is directed to selected experts in these fields. They trim the list down to about fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations to the relevant institutions. While posthumous nominations are not permitted, the award can be received if the person died within a few months between the award committee's decision (usually in October) and the ceremony in December. Until 1974, posthumous awards were permitted if the recipient died after they were made.
The rules for the Nobel Prize in Physics require that the significance of an achievement be "tested by time." In practice, this means that the gap between discovery and prize is usually about 20 years, but can be much longer. For example, half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 was awarded to S. Chandrasekhar for his work on the structure and evolution of stars, which was done in 1930. The disadvantage of this approach is that not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. For some important scientific discoveries this prize was never awarded because the discoverers had died by the time the impact of their work was recognized.
Awards
The winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics receives a gold medal, a diploma stating the award and a sum of money. The monetary amount depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation in the current year. If the prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is divided equally between them; V case of three The money laureates can also be divided into half and two quarters.
Medals
Nobel Prize medals minted Myntverket in Sweden and the Norwegian Mint since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal has an image of Alfred Nobel's left profile on the obverse. Nobel Prize medals in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature have the same obverse showing an image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833-1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Economics Prize medal, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse side of the medal varies depending on the awarding institution. The reverse side of the Nobel Prize medal for chemistry and physics has the same design.
Diplomas
Nobel laureates receive a diploma from the hands of the King of Sweden. Each diploma has a unique design developed by the awarding institution for the recipient. The diploma contains an image and text that contains the recipient's name and usually a quote about why they received the award.
Premium
Laureates are also given a sum of money when they receive the Nobel Prize in the form of a document confirming the amount of the award; in 2009 the cash bonus was SEK 10 million (USD 1.4 million). The amounts may vary depending on how much money the Nobel Foundation may award this year. If there are two winners in a category, the grant is divided equally among the recipients. If there are three recipients, the award committee has the option of dividing the grant into equal parts or awarding half the amount to one recipient and one quarter each to the other two.
Ceremony
The committee and institutions serving as the selection committee for the award typically announce the names of the recipients in October. The prize is then awarded at an official ceremony held annually at Stockholm City Hall on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The laureates receive a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the cash prize.
Laureates
Notes
- "What the Nobel Laureates Receive". Retrieved November 1, 2007. Archived October 30, 2007 on the Wayback Machine
- "The Nobel Prize Selection Process", Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed November 5, 2007 (Flowchart).
- FAQ nobelprize.org
- Finn Kydland and Edward Prescott’s Contribution to Dynamic Macroeconomics: The Time Consistency of Economic Policy and the Driving Forces Behind Business Cycles (undefined) (PDF). Official website of the Nobel Prize (October 11, 2004). Retrieved December 17, 2012. Archived December 28, 2012.
- Gingras, Yves. Wallace, Matthew L. Why it has become more difficult to predict Nobel Prize winners: A bibliometric analysis of nominees and winners of the chemistry and physics prizes (1901–2007) // Scientometrics. - 2009. - No. 2. - P. 401. - DOI:10.1007/s11192-009-0035-9.
- A noble prize (English) // Nature Chemistry: journal. - DOI:10.1038/nchem.372. - Bibcode: 2009NatCh...1..509..
- Tom Rivers. 2009 Nobel Laureates Receive Their Honors | Europe| English (undefined) . .voanews.com (December 10, 2009). Retrieved January 15, 2010. Archived December 14, 2012.
- The Nobel Prize Amounts (undefined) . Nobelprize.org. Retrieved January 15, 2010. Archived July 3, 2006.
- "Nobel Prize - Prizes" (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:
- Medalj – ett traditionellt hantverk(Swedish). Myntverket. Retrieved December 15, 2007. Archived December 18, 2007.
- "The Nobel Prize for Peace" Archived September 16, 2009 on the Wayback Machine, "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
With the wording " for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter" Behind this somewhat vague and incomprehensible phrase to the general public lies a whole world of non-trivial and surprising effects even for physicists themselves, in the theoretical discovery of which the laureates played a key role in the 1970s and 1980s. They, of course, were not the only ones who realized the importance of topology in physics at that time. Thus, the Soviet physicist Vadim Berezinsky, a year before Kosterlitz and Thouless, took, in fact, the first important step towards topological phase transitions. There are many other names that could be put next to Haldane's name. But be that as it may, all three laureates are certainly iconic figures in this section of physics.
A Lyrical Introduction to Condensed Matter Physics
Explaining in accessible words the essence and importance of the work for which the physics Nobel 2016 was awarded is not an easy task. Not only are the phenomena themselves complex and, in addition, quantum, but they are also diverse. The prize was awarded not for one specific discovery, but for a whole list of pioneering works that in the 1970–1980s stimulated the development of a new direction in condensed matter physics. In this news I will try to achieve a more modest goal: to explain with a couple of examples essence what a topological phase transition is, and convey the feeling that this is a truly beautiful and important physical effect. The story will be about only one half of the award, the one in which Kosterlitz and Thouless showed themselves. Haldane's work is equally fascinating, but it is even less visual and would require a very long story to explain.
Let's start with a quick introduction to the most phenomenal section of physics - condensed matter physics.
Condensed matter is, in everyday language, when many particles of the same type come together and strongly influence each other. Almost every word here is key. The particles themselves and the law of interaction between them must be of the same type. You can take several different atoms, please, but the main thing is that this fixed set is repeated again and again. There should be a lot of particles; a dozen or two is not yet a condensed medium. And, finally, they must strongly influence each other: push, pull, interfere with each other, maybe exchange something with each other. A rarefied gas is not considered a condensed medium.
The main revelation of condensed matter physics: with such very simple “rules of the game” it revealed an endless wealth of phenomena and effects. Such a variety of phenomena arises not at all because of the variegated composition - the particles are of the same type - but spontaneously, dynamically, as a result collective effects. In fact, since the interaction is strong, there is no point in looking at the movement of each individual atom or electron, because it immediately affects the behavior of all nearest neighbors, and perhaps even distant particles. When you read a book, it “speaks” to you not with a scattering of individual letters, but with a set of words connected to each other; it conveys a thought to you in the form of a “collective effect” of letters. Likewise, condensed matter “speaks” in the language of synchronous collective movements, and not at all of individual particles. And it turns out there is a huge variety of these collective movements.
The current Nobel Prize recognizes the work of theorists to decipher another “language” that condensed matter can “speak” - the language topologically nontrivial excitations(what it is is just below). Quite a few specific physical systems in which such excitations arise have already been found, and the laureates have had a hand in many of them. But the most significant thing here is not specific examples, but the very fact that this also happens in nature.
Many topological phenomena in condensed matter were first invented by theorists and seemed to be just mathematical pranks not relevant to our world. But then experimenters discovered real environments in which these phenomena are observed - and a mathematical prank suddenly gave rise to new class materials with exotic properties. The experimental side of this branch of physics is now on the rise, and this rapid development will continue in the future, promising us new materials with programmed properties and devices based on them.
Topological excitations
First, let's clarify the word “topological”. Don't be alarmed that the explanation will sound like pure mathematics; the connection with physics will emerge as we go along.
There is such a branch of mathematics - geometry, the science of figures. If the shape of a figure is smoothly deformed, then, from the point of view of ordinary geometry, the figure itself changes. But figures have General characteristics, which, with smooth deformation, without breaks or gluing, remain unchanged. This is the topological characteristic of the figure. The most famous example of a topological characteristic is the number of holes in a three-dimensional body. A tea mug and a donut are topologically equivalent, they both have exactly one hole, and therefore one shape can be transformed into another by smooth deformation. A mug and a glass are topologically different because the glass has no holes. To consolidate the material, I suggest you familiarize yourself with the excellent topological classification of women's swimsuits.
So, the conclusion: everything that can be reduced to each other by smooth deformation is considered topologically equivalent. Two figures that cannot be transformed into each other by any smooth changes are considered topologically different.
The second word to explain is “excitement.” In condensed matter physics, excitation is any collective deviation from a "dead" stationary state, that is, from the state with the lowest energy. For example, a crystal was hit, a sound wave ran through it - this is vibrational excitation crystal lattice. Excitations do not have to be forced; they can arise spontaneously due to non-zero temperature. The usual thermal vibration of a crystal lattice is, in fact, a lot of vibrational excitations (phonons) with different wavelengths superimposed on each other. When the phonon concentration is high, a phase transition occurs and the crystal melts. In general, as soon as we understand in terms of what excitations a given condensed medium should be described, we will have the key to its thermodynamic and other properties.
Now let's connect two words. A sound wave is an example topologically trivial excitement. This sounds clever, but in its physical essence it simply means that the sound can be made as quiet as desired, even to the point of disappearing completely. A loud sound means strong atomic vibrations, a quiet sound means weak vibrations. The amplitude of vibrations can be smoothly reduced to zero (more precisely, to the quantum limit, but this is unimportant here), and it will still be a sound excitation, a phonon. Pay attention to the key mathematical fact: there is an operation to smoothly change the oscillations to zero - it is simply a decrease in amplitude. This is precisely what means that the phonon is a topologically trivial perturbation.
And now the richness of condensed matter is turned on. In some systems there are excitations that cannot be smoothly reduced to zero. It's not physically impossible, but fundamentally - the form doesn't allow it. There is simply no such everywhere smooth operation that transfers a system with excitation to a system with the lowest energy. The excitation in its form is topologically different from the same phonons.
See how it turns out. Let's consider a simple system (it's called the XY-model) - an ordinary square lattice, at the nodes of which there are particles with their own spin, which can be oriented in any way in this plane. We will depict the backs with arrows; The orientation of the arrow is arbitrary, but the length is fixed. We will also assume that the spins of neighboring particles interact with each other in such a way that the most energetically favorable configuration is when all spins at all nodes point in the same direction, as in a ferromagnet. This configuration is shown in Fig. 2, left. Spin waves can run along it - small wave-like deviations of spins from strict ordering (Fig. 2, right). But these are all ordinary, topologically trivial excitations.
Now look at Fig. 3. Two disturbances are shown here unusual shape: vortex and anti-vortex. Mentally select a point in the picture and follow a circular path counterclockwise around the center, paying attention to what happens to the arrows. You will see that the arrow of the vortex turns in the same direction, counterclockwise, and that of the antivortex - in the opposite direction, clockwise. Now do the same in the ground state of the system (the arrow is generally motionless) and in the state with a spin wave (where the arrow oscillates slightly around the average value). You can also imagine deformed versions of these pictures, say a spin wave in a load towards a vortex: there the arrow will also make a full revolution, wobbling slightly.
After these exercises, it becomes clear that all possible excitations are divided into fundamentally different classes: whether the arrow makes a full revolution when going around the center or not, and if it does, then in which direction. These situations have different topologies. No amount of smooth changes can turn a vortex into an ordinary wave: if you turn the arrows, then abruptly, across the entire lattice at once and at a large angle at once. The vortex, as well as the anti-vortex, topologically protected: they, unlike sound wave, they can’t just dissolve.
Last important point. A vortex is topologically different from a simple wave and from an antivortex only if the arrows lie strictly in the plane of the figure. If we are allowed to bring them into the third dimension, then the vortex can be smoothly eliminated. The topological classification of excitations radically depends on the dimension of the system!
Topological phase transitions
These purely geometric considerations have a very tangible physical consequence. The energy of an ordinary vibration, the same phonon, can be arbitrarily small. Therefore, at any temperature, no matter how low, these oscillations arise spontaneously and affect the thermodynamic properties of the medium. The energy of a topologically protected excitation, a vortex, cannot be below a certain limit. Therefore, at low temperatures, individual vortices do not arise, and therefore do not affect the thermodynamic properties of the system - at least, this was thought until the early 1970s.
Meanwhile, in the 1960s, through the efforts of many theorists, the problem with understanding what was happening in the XY model from a physical point of view was revealed. In the usual three-dimensional case, everything is simple and intuitive. At low temperatures the system looks ordered, as in Fig. 2. If you take two arbitrary lattice nodes, even very distant ones, then the spins in them will slightly oscillate around the same direction. This is, relatively speaking, a spin crystal. At high temperatures, spins “melt”: two distant lattice sites are no longer correlated with each other. There is a clear phase transition temperature between the two states. If you set the temperature exactly to this value, then the system will be in a special critical state, when the correlations still exist, but gradually, in a power-law manner, decrease with distance.
In a two-dimensional lattice at high temperatures there is also a disordered state. But at low temperatures everything looked very, very strange. A strict theorem was proven (see Mermin-Wagner theorem) that there is no crystalline order in the two-dimensional version. Careful calculations showed that it is not that it is not there at all, it simply decreases with distance according to a power law - exactly like in a critical state. But if in the three-dimensional case the critical state was only at one temperature, then here the critical state occupies the entire low-temperature region. It turns out that in the two-dimensional case some other excitations come into play that do not exist in the three-dimensional version (Fig. 4)!
The Nobel Committee's accompanying materials provide several examples of topological phenomena in various quantum systems, as well as recent experimental work on their implementation and prospects for the future. This story ends with a quote from Haldane's 1988 article. In it, as if making excuses, he says: “ Although the specific model presented here is unlikely to be physically realizable, nevertheless...". 25 years later magazine Nature publishes , which reports an experimental implementation of Haldane's model. Perhaps topologically nontrivial phenomena in condensed matter are one of the most striking confirmations of the unspoken motto of condensed matter physics: in a suitable system we will embody any self-consistent theoretical idea, no matter how exotic it may seem.
Story. Alfred Nobel was born in 1833 in Stockholm. He was a chemist, engineer, inventor. Most He received income from his 355 inventions, among which the most famous is dynamite. Thinking about how humanity would remember him, Nobel made a will in November 1895: “All my movable and immovable property must be converted into liquid assets, and the collected capital must be placed in a reliable bank. The income from the investments should belong to a fund, which will distribute them annually in the form of bonuses to those who, during the previous year, have brought the greatest benefit to humanity... My special desire is that when awarding prizes, the nationality of the candidates should not be taken into account.”
Nobel's will provided for the allocation of funds for awards to representatives of only five fields: Physics Chemistry Literature Physiology and Medicine Peace Prize ECONOMICS. On the initiative of the Swedish bank, since 1969, a prize named after him in ECONOMICS has been awarded. Who wins the Nobel Prize?
The award procedure takes place annually on December 10 in the capitals of two countries - Stockholm (Sweden) and Oslo (Norway). Stockholm - concert hall Oslo - city hall Prizes are awarded in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature, economics. Prizes in the field of peace are awarded. Procedure for awarding the Nobel Prize.
The first Nobel Prize winner in physics, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, was a great German physicist. Born March 27, 1845. His scientific research concerns electromagnetism, crystal physics, optics, molecular physics. In 1895, Roentgen discovered radiation shorter wavelength than ultraviolet radiation. This radiation was later named after him - X-rays. He explored the amazing properties of these rays to penetrate deep into matter. With the help of these rays you can “see” bones and internal organs. Now we cannot imagine medicine without x-ray examination. For the discovery of these rays, Roentgen was the first physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1901.
Women Nobel Prize winners in physics Maria Skladowska-Curie was born in Warsaw in 1867. Twice winner of the Nobel Prize: in physics (1903) and in chemistry (1911). She received the Prize in physics together with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel for research in the field of radiation, and in chemistry for the discovery of a number of new radioactive chemical elements. Maria Goeppert-Mayer was born in 1906 in Germany. She was awarded the Nobel Prize jointly with Hans Jensen in 1963 for the discovery of the shell structure of the atomic nucleus.
John Bardeen was born in 1908 in the USA. In 1956, together with William Bradford, he received the Nobel Prize for the invention of the bipolar transistor. In 1972, together with Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer, he received the Nobel Prize for the theory of conventional superconductors. Now this theory is called the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory or simply BCS theory. A superconductor is a material in which, under certain conditions (at very low temperatures), resistance completely disappears. In such a conductor electricity can exist without a current source. Twice Nobel Prize winner in physics.
Electricity and magnetism Hendrik Anton Lorentz - Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in 1902. For his study of line splitting in the spectrum of an atom in a magnetic field. Geike Kamerlingh Onnes is a Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in 1913. For the discovery of the phenomenon of superconductivity, Nobel laureates from a school physics textbook.
The quantum physics Max Ludwig Planck - German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1918. For the discovery of the quantum nature of thermal radiation E = hν Albert Einstein - German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1921. For explaining the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect. Niels Bohr - Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in 1922. For his explanation of the radiation and absorption of energy by atoms. Nobel laureates from a school physics textbook.
Nuclear physics Charles Thomson Wilson is an English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in 1927. For his method of visually detecting the trajectories of charged particles in a special chamber. James Chadwick is an English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in 1935 for the discovery of the neutron.
Georges Charpak - French physicist. Born in 1924 in the Volyn town of Dubrovitsa (now Rivne region). In 1931 the family moved to Paris. Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1992 for the creation of particle detectors. This is a device for detecting and measuring the parameters of elementary particles that are born in accelerators or during nuclear reactions. Lev Davidovich Landau - Soviet theoretical physicist. In 1932, Landau headed the theoretical department of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology in Kharkov. Here he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences without defending a dissertation. Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for his work in the field of the theory of condensed matter, especially liquid helium, in which many metals become superconductors. Nobel laureates in physics who were born or worked in Ukraine.
Rainer Weiss, Barry Barish and Kip Thorne
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has announced the winners of the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics. The prize will be awarded to Rainer Weiss (half the prize), Barry Barish and Kip Thorne, with the wording "for their decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves." The official presentation of prizes and medals will take place in December, after traditional lectures. The announcement of the winner was broadcast live on the Nobel Committee website.
Weiss, Thorne and Barish have been considered among the most likely candidates for the Nobel Prize in Physics since 2016, when the LIGO and VIRGO collaboration detected gravitational waves from the merger of two black holes.
Rainer Weiss played a key role in the development of the detector, a huge interferometer with extremely low noise levels. The physicist began related work back in the 1970s, creating small prototypes of systems at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A few years later, prototypes of interferometers were created at Caltech - under the leadership of Kip Thorne. Later, physicists joined forces.
LIGO gravitational observatory diagram
Barry Barish turned a small collaboration between MIT and Caltech into a huge international project - LIGO. The scientist led the development of the project and the creation of detectors since the mid-1990s.
LIGO consists of two gravitational observatories located 3000 kilometers apart. Each of them is an L-shaped Michelson interferometer. It consists of two 4-kilometer evacuated optical arms. The laser beam is split into two components, which pass through the pipes, are reflected from their ends and are combined again. If the length of the arm has changed, the nature of the interference between the beams changes, which is recorded by detectors. The large distance between the observatories allows us to see the difference in the arrival time of gravitational waves - from the assumption that the latter propagate at the speed of light, the difference in arrival time reaches 10 milliseconds.
Two LIGO detectors
You can read more about gravitational-wave astronomy and its future in our material “”.
In 2017, the Nobel Prize was increased by one million Swedish kronor - an immediate increase of 12.5 percent. Now it is 9 million crowns or 64 million rubles.
The 2016 Nobel Prize winners in physics were theorists Duncan Haldane, David Thouless and Michael Kosterlitz. These phenomena include, for example, the integer Hall effect: a thin layer of a substance changes its resistance stepwise with increasing inductance applied to it. magnetic field. In addition, the theory helps describe superconductivity, superfluidity and magnetic ordering in thin layers of materials. It is interesting that the foundation of the theory was laid by the Soviet physicist Vadim Berezinsky, but, alas, he did not live to see the award. You can read more about this in our material “”.
Vladimir Korolev