According to this theory, language is a sign system. It arose as a way of transmitting information using sound signals - words. Each sound signal - a word served as a designation of something, a sign of something. There are many sign systems for transmitting information: Morse code, marine signaling, mathematical symbolism, deaf-mute language. These sign systems are artificially created by man. Language is different from artificial sign systems. It arose naturally during historical development society and immeasurably richer than any artificial sign system. But in principle, a word is the same sign as all other signs.
Any sign is two-sided, that is, it consists of a material shell (image, sound, movement) and meaning. There cannot be a sign that has no meaning. In this case, it will not be familiar. And meaning cannot exist without material expression. As soon as a person has a new concept, he strives to somehow designate and name it.
The material sound shell of a word is called plan of expression, or lexeme. The meaning of the word is called content plan, or sememe. Sememe and lexeme are connected by relations of manifestation. The sememe is manifested, expressed by a lexeme. The lexeme manifests, expresses the sememe. Sememe and lexeme are combinatorial in nature, that is, they are a combination of components. The lexeme consists of morphemes: forester, a seme consists of semes, minimal semantic components: black- “color”, “soot”, “coal”.
The word has two forms - phonetic/graphic and grammatical. In oral speech, the form of a word is represented by a complex of sounds, in written speech by letters. The grammatical form of a word is represented by a system of its forms (word forms): water, water, water. Forms of the same word can be defined as regular modifications of a word, united by the identity of its lexical meaning and differing in morphological meanings.
The form of the word may have variations. Word variations- these are transformations of the same word fixed in the language, preserving its identity, but differing orthoepically, phonemically, morphologically formative affixes, and stylistically. There is a difference between formal and formal-style variation of a word.
TO formal variation refers to the presence of a word:
1) spelling options: ploughshare - ploughshare, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, spinning - spinning;
2) phonemic options: mattress - mattress, diamond - diamond;
3) morphological variants with affixes of different meanings: key - key, shutter - shutter;
4) stylistic options that differ in belonging to different styles of speech: girlish(common use) - girlish(obsolete, folk poet.), from afar(common use) - from afar(outdated, bookish).
Formal style options words are called syncretives. These include words, one of which belongs to neutral vocabulary, and the other to book, colloquial or colloquial vocabulary. The syncretives include: 1) orthoepic variants: selected- chosen one(obsolete); 2) phonemic: harness - harness, obstetrician And obstetrician; 3) morphological: hall - hall(obsolete), veil(female) - veil(m.r., obsolete).
Meaning of the word- this is a reflection in a word of a phenomenon of real reality: an object - book, boat; process - read, run; sign of an object or process - white, pure; white, pure; relationship - on, about; and, but; Here. Lexical meaning is objective-material content, formalized according to the laws of grammar of this language and being an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary of this language.
Lexicologists identify different numbers of features of a word: from three to twelve. N.M. Shansky in “Lexicology of the modern Russian language” identifies 12 main features of a word:
1. Phonetic design - the presence of a certain constant
sound shell.
2. Semantic valency - the potential property of a word to enter into combinations with other words based on the connection of their meanings: verb cut can only be combined with words denoting objects that can be dismembered, bread, paper.
3. Impermeability - inadmissibility of any insertions in the middle of a word: in the expression hit the hearts - in hearts one word, an adverb, since rearrangements and insertions inside are impossible; in expression in people's hearts– these are two words, since permutations and insertions are possible: in people's hearts.
4. Non-two-stressed - each word, unlike a phrase, has no more than one main stress, or may not have it at all ( to the house).
5. Lexico-grammatical relevance, or grammatical design - the presence of certain grammatical forms expressing the corresponding grammatical meanings. The set of grammatical forms is determined by the attribution of a word to a specific part of speech: table- noun,
dining room- adjective, eat- verb.
6. Constancy of sound and meaning. Each sound has a specific meaning. The connection between sound and meaning is traditional, developed historically and often not explained in any way.
7. Reproducibility - the word is not created in the process of speech, but is reproduced as a ready-made linguistic unit
8. The integrity and uniformity of the word is expressed graphically - in continuous writing its parts and written separately with other words: brought the seriously wounded(one word) and seriously wounded soldiers moaned(two words). However, with some methods of word formation, the word has a separate or semi-merged spelling ( hugging, half an apple, sofa bed). Analytical, composite can be separate forms words ( I will write, I would write, the most important). But the word remains an integral lexical unit.
9. Predominant use in combinations of words. The word is usually combined with other words to form phrases ( new house, build a house).
10. Isolability. The word has relative independence, that is, it can be used separately from other words, and its meaning will be clear. 11. Nominativity. Having a meaning, the word correlates with reality, naming surrounding objects, their signs, actions and relationships.
12. Idiomaticity is the irreducibility of the lexical meaning of a word to the meanings of its constituent morphemes. The meaning of a word always has additional components; it is not formed by automatically combining the meanings of morphemes. For example, the meaning of the word motor ship compared to the meanings of the morphemes, it has additional components “a large ship with an internal combustion engine.”
The characteristics of a word make it possible to distinguish it as a unit of language from other linguistic units.
A word differs from a PHONEME in its phonetic design (a phoneme can also be zero, that is, without a sound expression), unity of sound and meaning, semantic valency, predominant use in combinations of words, isolability, nominativity and lexico-grammatical relevance.
A word differs from a MORPHEME in its impenetrability, predominant use in combinations of words, isolation, nominativity, lexico-grammatical reference and phonetic design (a morpheme can also be zero, that is, having no sound expression).
The word differs from COMBINATION and SENTENCE in its single-stress, lexico-grammatical reference, predominant use in combinations of words, completeness and impenetrability, idiomaticity and reproducibility. Phrases and sentences “add up” in the process of speech.
The word as a linguistic unit performs certain functions, on the basis of which functional types of words are distinguished.
1. Nominative function of a word. With the help of words, names are given to objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Otherwise, this function is also called naming and epistemological (cognitive), since names are the result of a person’s knowledge of the world around him. Words with a nominative function are considered significant, or independent. Significant words are self-sufficient in their meanings and denote phenomena of reality directly and independently. These include nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs and adverbs.
2. Cumulative (cumulative)- the function of accumulating and storing knowledge about the world around us. Some significant words can be considered as fragments (pieces) of the general linguistic picture of the world.
3. Characterological function of the word. Some significant words not only name realities, but also give them some kind of assessment or characteristic. That's why this function also called characterizing, evaluative or expressive. The words little house, little house, small house, hut, hut contain a positive or negative assessment or characteristic.
4.Deictic function(Greek deiхis - “indication”). Some significant words do not directly name objects or signs, but only point to them ( he, this, such, some). These include pronouns and pronominal adverbs like here, there, where from. Only in context are pronominal words filled with content, replacing one or another significant word. Deictic functions can be of several types:
a) role deixis is an indication of the participant in speech: You you will curse, in impossible torment, all your life because there is no one to love! (A. Blok);
b) objective deixis is an indication of the objects of speech: Her he saw at the magic hour. It was an azure evening, and the west went out... (V. Bryusov);
c) chronotopic deixis - an indication of the spatio-temporal position of the object of speech: And the mountains freeze in the sky, Mysterious and unfamiliar, There lightning is ripening in the forests, There thunder lurks sensitively (N. Gumilyov);
d) generalizing deixis - a generalized indication of the previous content: The boat is pounding in a sleepy chest, the willows are hanging, kissing the collarbones... This after all, it can happen to anyone!.. (B. Pasternak).
5.Service function. The auxiliary function is performed by auxiliary words, which do not name realities, but express various relationships between words ( house by the road, house and garden, home after all). They are used only with significant words. Each category of function words expresses attitudes in different ways.
Prepositions serve as a means of subordinating one significant word to another and convey prepositional meanings (spatial, temporal, causal, target, etc.). For example, in the sentence And plunge V unknown, and hide V her steps (B. Pasternak) - the preposition “in” has a spatial meaning.
Conjunctions formalize connections between words in a sentence, parts complex sentence and independent offers. Unions determine the nature of the relationship between the connected fragments. For example, in the sentence Storm covers the sky with darkness, spinning snow whirlwinds; That like a beast she will howl, That will cry like a child (A. Pushkin) the conjunction “this - that” expresses the relationship of “enumeration”.
Particles express diverse relationships: attitude to the message, reality/irreality, denial, emotions, etc. For example, in the sentence Yes, to love as our blood loves, None of you have loved for a long time! (A. Blok) the particle “Yes” expresses the relation of “affirmation”.
6.Modal function. Modality is an expression of the speaker’s attitude to what is being communicated (probability, conjecture, doubt, etc.), for example: probably, probably, maybe. Such words are called modal.
7.Emotive or emotional-volitional function. Standing apart among the words are emotive interjections, which do not name emotions like significant words, but only signal them: oh, oh, alas. Interjections are associated with the emotional level of consciousness and sensually reflect the phenomena of reality. They perform contextual, situational, emotional-expressive, incentive functions. For example, in the sentence Oh, you are a glutton! Oh, the villain! Here Vaska, the cook reproaches (I. Krylov) the interjection “Ah” expresses emotions of indignation. In a sentence Oh! and lighter than a shadow Tatyana jumped into another canopy (A. Pushkin) the interjection “Ah” expresses fear.
The concept of the word
The word is the basic unit of language and speech. Used to name objects, persons, actions, characteristics, quantities, and relationships between them. The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, serving to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, possessing a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.
Characteristics of the word:
Seamless reproducibility in speech;
Separability;
Integrity.
Word definition problem
The problem of identifying and defining a word as a unit of language has two aspects. Firstly, it must be separated from other significant linguistic units, draw a boundary, on the one hand, between a word and a morpheme, on the other, between a word and a combination of words, that is, resolve the issue of the separateness and separability of a word in a speech chain. Secondly, it is necessary to solve the problem of the identity (unity) of a word: to distinguish inflection from word formation and polysemy from homonymy. The difficulty in defining a word lies not in the vagueness of the word, but in its versatility. Defining a word is possible if we recognize the presence of intermediate, transitional phenomena in the language; the systematic factor is also important: in some cases, identifying a word is possible only by taking it into account.
The word as the basic unit of language
The word is studied in different sections of linguistics, as it has a sound design, meaning, grammatical characteristics, that is, it combines the characteristics of different aspects of language. In lexicology, a word is considered primarily as an independent linguistic unit with meaning. A word is both a phonetic whole and a unit that has meaning - lexical and grammatical; in a sentence it has a syntactic function, as well as a number of other diverse features.
Signs of the word:
Nominativity (a word is capable of naming objects, qualities, actions, etc.);
A word consists of a number of phonemes and has a phonetic design;
A word has form and content (form is the sound expression of a word, and it is customary to call it a lexeme); the content plan is the meaning of the word, which is usually called sememe;
The sound and meaning are constant, because form and content are fixed in language; words are impenetrable: another word cannot be inserted inside a word (exception: negative pronouns);
Words can be stressed, single-stressed, multi-stressed and unstressed;
All words belong to different parts of speech and have certain grammatical forms;
The word has the attribute of isolability, i.e. words that are not combined with other words retain their meanings;
The word is reproducible
Functions of the word
Nominative function of a word. - a word is, according to the definition of D.N. Shmeleva, - “unit
names." This means that names of objects and phenomena are given with the help of words.
the surrounding world
Characterological function of the word. Such words not only name realities, but also give them some kind of assessment or characteristic.
Deictic function. Some words, without directly naming objects and phenomena, as well as their characteristics,
only point to them (he, this, that, some).
Service functions. Functional words do not name realities, but express various relationships between words (house by the road, house and garden, house after all)
Modal function. an expression of the speaker’s attitude towards what is being communicated (probability, conjecture, doubt, etc.), for example: probably, probably, maybe.
Emotive function. Emotive words do not name emotions,
as significant words, but only signal about them: ah, oh, alas.
The word as a universal sign
all theories of meaning, designed to explain the meaning of any utterance addressed by a speaker to a listener in a certain situation, and to reveal on this basis the essence and nature of communication and the elements necessary for its implementation, concentrate on analyzing the meaning of a word as a universal linguistic sign.
The main features of a word: A word is a sound structural unity created according to the laws of phonetics of a given language; The word is formed according to the laws of the grammar of a given language and always appears in one of its grammatical forms; The word is a unity of sound and meaning, and in language there are no words devoid of meaning; The word has the property of impenetrability, that is, another grammatically formed word cannot be inserted inside the word; Each word belongs to one or another lexicogrammatical category of words; The word is not...
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Basic features of the word
Word phonetically and grammatically formulated the main significant unit of language, which has impenetrability and lexico-grammatical relevance and which is freely reproduced in speech to construct an utterance.
Basic features of the word:
- A word is a sound structural unity created according to the laws of phonetics of a given language;
- The word is formed according to the laws of the grammar of a given language and always appears in one of its grammatical forms;
- A word is a unity of sound and meaning, and there are no words in language that are devoid of meaning;
- The word has the property of impenetrability, that is, another grammatically formed word cannot be inserted or wedged inside the word;
- Each word belongs to one or another lexical-grammatical category of words;
- The word is not created in the process of communication, but is reproduced in speech as a ready-made and integral structural-semantic unit;
- The word is building material for works of speech, for statements.
Realia what in objective reality corresponds to a given word.
Lexical meaning of the word- a historically determined connection between the visual or sound appearance of a word and the image of the named object
1) phonetic design, (a word is a sound complex with stress)
2) grammatical formalization (compare the root pal- in the word finger, which is not formalized, and the word finger, which is formalized as a masculine noun)
3) impenetrability (you can’t put anything in the middle of a word)
4) two-sidedness (unity of sound and meaning),
5) free reproducibility in speech (that is, we do not create a word every time in the act of speech, but we store it in ready-made form, and we reproduce it: we retrieve it from memory. Unlike the sentence that we build from words.).
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1. The most important feature of many words is nominativity, i.e. the ability to name objects, qualities, actions, etc. But auxiliary parts of speech, interjections, modal words, as well as pronouns do not have this feature, since they have a different specificity. Pronouns, for example, only indicate objects, qualities, quantities, and interjections express the feelings and experiences of the speaker without naming them.
2. Phonetic design. Every word has a phonetic (and for written speech, graphic) design. It consists of a number of phonemes (less often - of one phoneme).
3. Availability of lexical meaning. Words have a specific meaning. The sound design of a word is the external, material side, which represents the form of the word. Its meaning is the internal hypostasis, meaning its content. The form and content of a word are inextricably linked: a word cannot be perceived if we do not pronounce it (or write it), and cannot be understood if the pronounced combinations of sounds are devoid of meaning.
4. Constancy. Words are characterized by constancy of sound and meaning. No one has the right to change the phonetic shell of a word or give it an unusual meaning, because the form and content of the word are fixed in the language.
5. Phraseology, or idiomaticity, as a distinctive feature of a word means, on the one hand, the unmotivatedness of its lexical meaning (no one knows why, for example, the words house, smoke, be, drink got their due lexical meaning), on the other hand, a non-free connection between the morphemes that make up a word (certain word-formation models allow the use of only certain morphemes, excluding their free replacement with others). However, this feature is inherent not only in words, but also in phraseological units, the meaning of which is also not derived from the simple sum of their constituent components and which do not allow changes in their composition. For example, the meanings of phraseological units eat the dog(in some matter) - “to be well-versed in something”, “to achieve mastery in some craft.” These meanings have nothing to do with the word dog, not a word eat. Moreover, it is impossible to say "ate the puppy" or "ate a poodle". Replacing components also leads to absurdity. At the same time, there are many words with a motivated meaning: perestroika, anti-perestroika, acceleration, masterfully, bulletin and under. There are many words with a non-derivative base for which the criterion of a non-free connection between morphemes is not suitable mother, daughter, son and under.
6. Impenetrability. Words (unlike phrases) are impenetrable: any word appears as an integral unit, inside which it is impossible to insert another word, much less several words. Exceptions are provided by negative pronouns, which can be separated by prepositions ( no one - with no one, with no one).
7. Non-duality. Words have only one main stress, and some may be unstressed (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc.). However, there are no words that have two main stresses. The unstressed nature of a word distinguishes it from a stable (phraseological) combination that has a holistic meaning ( the cat cried, without a king in his head).
8. Lexico-grammatical reference. All words belong to one or another part of speech and have a certain grammatical structure. Thus, nouns, adjectives and other names are characterized by gender, number, and case forms; verbs - forms of mood, aspect, tense, person, etc. These words perform various syntactic functions in a sentence, which creates their syntactic independence.
9. Integrity And uniformity distinguish words from phrases. U difficult words type fresh frozen, radio show, fidgety grammatical features are expressed by only one ending. True, there are exception words that have two forms: white-white, five hundred; cf.: white-white, five hundred.
10. Reproducibility. We reproduce words in speech in the form in which they are known to all native speakers. This distinguishes words from phrases that we construct at the moment of utterance.
11. Words are distinguished by their primary use in combination with other words: in the process of communication, we build phrases from words, and from the latter - sentences.
12. One of the signs of words is isolability. Words, unlike phonemes and morphemes, can be perceived outside the speech stream, in isolation, while retaining their inherent meaning.
NB! In this case, the word must be distinguished from phraseological units and phrases.
The listed features of a word, according to Nikolai Maksimovich Shansky, in their entirety are characteristic only of classical words. From these features we can distinguish the “ultimate minimum”, which is sufficient to define a word: nominativeness, idiomaticity, lexical-trammatical reference and impenetrability.
Taking into account the above, we can give the following definition words - this is the basic unit of language, which serves to name objects, features, relations of reality and is characterized by a set of grammatical, phonetic and semantic features; represented by a set of word forms and lexical-semantic options; consisting of morphemes and characterized by independence and free reproducibility in speech; being the building material for proposals.
NB! Inflection and polysemy must be separated from word formation and homonymy. At the first appearance, the identity of the word is not violated: different shapes words and meanings (lexical-semantic variants) constitute one word, in other cases they do not.
| One word | Different words | ||
| Inflection (plan of expression) | Polysemy (content plan) | Word formation (plan of expression) | Homonymy (content plan) |
| The grammatical meaning changes (its formal indicator is the ending), for example, case in nouns or person in verbs: table - tables; building - building. | differs in lexical meanings, while having similar, common components: sewing needle 1 – pine needle 2(similarity of shape). | a new word is formed, acquiring additional shades of meaning due to the addition of service morphemes that have their own meanings: forest – forester(suffix -nick with the meaning of a person of a certain profession), build – build(prefix po- with the meaning of a completed action). | differ in lexical meanings that are not connected by common components: forest forest 1 – dental bur 2. |
In this case, one word can have spelling, phonetic, word-formation variants of words ( piano - piano, zero-zero, cottage cheese-cottage cheese). Under word variations we understand such modifications of its form (phonetic or grammatical) that do not entail a change in its lexical meaning, and such modifications of its meaning that do not entail a change in its form.
In this regard, several types of word variants can be distinguished:
Phonetic variants, in which, while the plan of content is identical, the plan of expression—the phonetic appearance of the word—varies. This happens in three cases: 1) phonemic options - the sound composition varies (galosh-galosh), 2) orthoepic (pronunciation) options - the pronunciation varies (kone[h]no-kone[sh]no), 3) accentological options - varies emphasis (cottage cheese - cottage cheese);
Grammatical variants in which, while the content plan is identical, the grammatical form of the word (word form) varies. This happens 1) during inflection (at home
Domov) - inflectional variants; 2) with variation of the same form (in the house - in the house) - formative options; when varying morphological category, for example, genus (under the cuff - under the cuff; white swan - white swan) - morphological variants.
Lexico-semantic variants in which, while the expression plan is identical, the
lexical semantics ( house for the elderly - the Romanov House), represent ambiguous words.
WITH word-forming variants, when the plan of expression changes due to the word-forming morpheme, without significantly changing the plan of content (fox-fox, leaf-leaf), are cognates.
1. Types of words By general character lexical meaning.
1.1. Independent(significant) - can independently and directly designate phenomena of reality
1.2. Service– express various relationships between words or sentences, together with significant ones they can indicate phenomena of reality.
1.3. Interjections- do not name, but express phenomena of reality (usually emotions), do not enter into grammatical connections with other words..
1.4. Modal- deprived of a nominative function and
express the modality of the message about reality (probability, confidence, possibility, etc.);
2. Types of significant words according to the nature of their functioning.
2.1.Identifying (identifying) lexical signs (proper names);
2.2.. Characterizing (predicate) full-meaning words.
2.3. Pronominal words: deictic (indicative words: personal, demonstrative and other pronominal words) and anaphoric (substitute words - indefinite, interrogative, negative and other pronouns) pronouns - denote phenomena of reality indirectly, relying on speech situation, not naming, but pointing
3. Word as action: performatives - narrative judgments and at the same time speech actions ( I promise, I order, I cancel).
2.3. Lexical semantics. Lexical meaning and its structure.
Word- unity of sign (sound and graphic shell; expression plan) and meaning (specific linguistic reflection of reality; content plan). The shell becomes a sign because it has meaning. Therefore, a random set of letters (in writing) or a set of sounds (in speech) does not become a sign.
Linguistics considers the plane of content (meaning) as the most important part of language, since the expression and perception of meaning ensures communication. The branch of lexicology that studies the meaning of various units of language, expression and perception of meaning to ensure the communicative function of language is called semantics.
The study of lexical meanings goes in two directions:
1) Semasiology(theory of meaning) - the study of meaning from the plane of expression to the plane of content (from sign to meaning). Semasiological relations are represented in such phenomena as polysemy and homonymy. The semasiological approach is reflected in explanatory dictionaries.
2) Onomasiology(theory of designation) - the study of meaning from the plane of content to the plane of expression (from meaning to sign). Onomasiological relations are represented in such phenomena as synonymy and antonymy. The onomasiological approach is reflected in ideographic dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms, etc.
Semantics is reflected in lexicology and grammar, since they distinguish grammatical (formal-structural; for example, GC case) and lexical meaning (objective). Lexical and grammatical meanings coexist in a word and closely interact; a complete understanding of the semantics of a word is possible with an integrated approach.