The scientific literature contains many formulations of the concept “system”. In this case, there are two main approaches to its formation:
- 1) an indication of its integrity as an essential feature of any system;
- 2) understanding the system as a set of elements along with the relationships between them.
A subsystem is understood as “a purposeful integrity of interconnected elements, having new integrative properties that are absent in each of them, associated with the external environment.”
In the specialized literature (V.G. Afanasyev, P.K. Anokhin, N.V. Kuzmina, Yu.A. Konarzhevsky, V.A. Yakunin, etc.) it is noted that any system has: goals, objectives, functions, signs, structure, attributes, relationships or interactions, the presence of two or more types of communication (direct and reverse), levels of hierarchy.
Among many species social systems pedagogical systems are distinguished. According to their characteristics, pedagogical systems are real (by origin), social (by substance), complex (by level of complexity), open (by the nature of interaction with the external environment), dynamic (by variability), probabilistic (by the method of determination), purposeful (based on the presence of goals), self-governing (based on controllability) character. Provided they are purposeful and dynamic, they still have developing properties, which is manifested in their constant variability. Pedagogical systems are open because information processes occur between them and the surrounding reality.
Many prominent scientists have devoted their works to a systems approach, in which such a phenomenon as the pedagogical system is considered to varying degrees of completeness. Various authors give the following formulations of the concept “system”:
- 1) a set of interconnected components that make up a certain whole in its structure and functioning (S.I. Arkhangelsky);
- 2) a certain community of elements functioning according to its inherent goals (Yu.K. Babansky);
- 3) an ordered set of interconnected elements, identified on the basis of certain characteristics, united by a common goal of functioning and unity of control and acting in interaction with the environment as an integral unity (T.A. Ilyina). The educational process, means, methods, and organizational forms of teaching are considered as a pedagogical system;
- 4) any process taking place under certain conditions, in combination with these conditions (V.P. Bespalko). Systems in which pedagogical processes take place are defined as pedagogical systems that have certain elements or objects and their relationships or structures and functions. The system can be a university, technical school, etc., which includes administrative, economic, and other subsystems. But the leading element in them is the pedagogical subsystem, which is also a system. The pedagogical system, like any other system, has its own structure (didactic task, teaching technology, public and state order, subjects of the educational process). Also, a pedagogical system is understood as a certain set of interrelated means, methods, processes necessary to create an organized, purposeful and deliberate pedagogical influence on the formation of a personality with given qualities.
The pedagogical system is “a socially determined integrity of participants in the pedagogical process interacting on the basis of cooperation between themselves, the environment and its spiritual and material values, aimed at the formation and development of personality.” This is “a relatively stable set of elements, an organizational connection of people, their spheres of action, the order of performing functions, spatio-temporal connections, relationships, methods of interaction and structure of activity in the interests of achieving certain educational goals and results, solving planned cultural and developmental tasks of education and human learning."
An educational institution is considered as a complex socio-pedagogical system, i.e., as a set of interconnected elements. It is possible to highlight big variety educational systems. Thus, the holistic pedagogical (educational) process is a system. The learning process, being a subsystem of the holistic educational process, is also considered as an educational system. An educational lesson is a subsystem of the learning process and, in turn, is a complex educational system.
Each individual pedagogical system (in particular, a university as an educational system) is complex because it itself has subsystems in the form of groups, classes, etc., but this system itself is included as a subsystem in the education system.
A relatively closed pedagogical system is characterized by a clearly defined internal structure, often hierarchical; it is built according to certain rules, and the individual is subordinate to the group in it. On the contrary, an open pedagogical system is characterized by a high degree of individualism and a minimum desire of team members to maintain both internal and external boundaries.
The functioning, development and self-development of the educational process as a pedagogical system is the main condition for its existence.
Development and self-development are basically a real means of functioning, that is, in a broad sense, a consequence of purposeful activity. For example, the development of any person is a consequence of his activities and communication. Any educational system is created with the goal of ensuring the development of growth and qualitative change in students, primarily based on their interactions with the teacher, with each other, with the textbook, with the computer, and so on.
It is known that the elements of any pedagogical system can be systems of lower orders. The educational process as a system is characterized by the presence of relationships between its objects and between their properties.
The structure, or organization, of a system is the most important condition for its existence and an equally necessary feature. This provision relates most directly to the educational process as a pedagogical system, since it makes no sense at all to talk about its existence without the interaction of real people, in the real conditions of a secondary educational institution, classes and the like.
The educational process as a system has specific goals, functions and properties that differ from the goals, functions and properties of its constituent objects, relationships and attributes. The objects of any system are simply its parts, components, and attributes are the properties of system objects. Relationships are what unites the system into one whole; in our case, it is the interaction of subjects of the educational process as a whole.
The presence of two or more types of communication is also the most important feature, characteristic, and condition for the existence of the educational process as an active system.
Integrity is the most important condition for the existence of the educational process as a pedagogical system, its main property and main feature. Violation of integrity leads to the collapse of the overall activity of the system as such. The property of integrity determines the interconnection, mutual influence, and mutual development of all components and system-forming factors of the pedagogical system as a whole.
Thus, the educational process, as an active system, is constantly in continuous development, possessing a colossal ability to improve, provided there is a clear, scientific organization of its management, and vice versa, it shows a tendency to degradation in the absence or poor organization of management of this process. In principle, no person can be taught anything unless he wants to. Managing the cognitive and self-educational process means, first of all, directing, helping, correcting on the basis of clear planning of the organization and control of the process as a whole.
information educational system personality
Let us consider in more detail the concept of “educational system”. In pedagogy, educational is any system whose goals are related to learning, development and upbringing.
Some researchers believe that an educational system is any specially organized system designed to include a person in culture (past, present and future), ensuring the safe course of the evolutionary development of culture, i.e. in order to develop and form a certain readiness for action, to establish mechanisms of orientation, adaptation, motivation, communication, and production of values in a particular area.
The long and complex process of development of educational systems in each country of the world acquires specific features, but their common feature is the focus on continuity of education. The principles for constructing educational systems of continuous education are dictated by the objective needs of civilization. These include:
The orientation of the educational system towards the individual, his unique individuality and basic needs, among which the most important place is occupied by the need for continuous self-improvement and self-realization; - broad democracy of the educational system, accessibility and openness of any level and form of education to every individual, regardless of gender, social status, nationality, race;
The flexibility of the educational system, its rapid response to educational demand and the characteristics of the interests, styles and pace of learning of various categories of the population;
Diversity educational services offered by the system, the right of every person after basic school to choose his own strategy for further education and development;
Integration of formal and non-formal types of education, creation of a holistic “educational field” that turns society into a “teaching” and “learning” one;
Widespread use of electronic technologies for educational purposes at any stage of people’s lives (work, leisure, etc.).
Pedagogical practice shows that educational systems should be focused on creating purposefully constructed sets of conditions conducive to human development. This is the essence of the educational services provided to the student by the educational system. The provision of these services is the subject of professional pedagogical activity of teachers and other teaching staff, as well as educational leaders.
The certainty of the educational system, the individuality of its appearance is determined by the goals, content and nature of the pedagogical process, the subjects of which are the student and the professional teacher.
Examples of educational systems include:
Education systems (education system of the Russian Federation; education system of a region - a subject of the Russian Federation; municipal education system);
Educational institution;
Educational program, educational process (for example, implemented in a lesson), etc.
Let us consider the structure of some of the above educational systems.
According to Art. 8 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” the interacting components of the specified educational system are:
Continuing educational programs and state educational standards of various levels and orientations;
The network of educational institutions implementing them, regardless of their organizational and legal forms, types and types;
Educational authorities and institutions and organizations subordinate to them.
It should be noted that the structures of the regional and municipal education systems are adequate to the above structure of the education system in the Russian Federation.
The system-forming factors in education systems are the goals of education systems. Each of the above components of the education system Russian Federation itself is a complex educational system.
Educational program determines the content of education at a certain level and focus. In the Russian Federation, educational programs are implemented, which are divided into general education (basic and additional) and professional (basic and additional).
General education programs solve the problems of forming a general personal culture, adapting an individual to life in society, creating the basis for an informed choice and mastering professional educational programs.
General education programs include the following types of programs:
Preschool education programs;
Primary programs general education;
Basic general education programs;
Secondary (complete) general education programs.
From the standpoint of modern pedagogical science, the structure of the general education program as a system object includes the following components:
Target component;
Technological component (used in the implementation educational program didactic systems, pedagogical technologies, techniques, methods of teaching and education);
Organizational and pedagogical component (organizational forms of training and education used; regime conditions for the implementation of the educational program);
Diagnostic support of the educational program (didactic diagnostics, socio-pedagogical diagnostics of teachers and students, diagnostics of students’ personal self-determination);
Pedagogical support for the student in the educational process (preservation of health, support in learning and personal self-determination);
The result of the implementation of the educational program.
According to a number of researchers, state educational standards are a reflection of a new type of relationship between society and the state, realizing most fully the rights of man and citizen and based on the principle of mutual consent of the state and society in matters of the formation and implementation of policy in the field of education. These relationships presuppose that the state, influencing the quality and conditions of education, protects the student from low-quality education and acts as a social guarantor of his right to education, taking into account his needs and capabilities.
In modern pedagogical literature, educational standards guarantee a certain level of education and are considered as:
The level of education of the population recognized by the state and society, guaranteeing its capacity and adaptation to existing socio-economic conditions;
Mandatory conditions, without which the preservation and reproduction of culture is impossible;
A standard by which any person can judge his development and the quality of the educational services provided to him.
State educational standards in modern Russian school education are normatively presented in the form of federal and national-regional components. In school practice, they exist documented in the form of the basic curriculum of general education institutions of the Russian Federation.
Currently, the federal component of state educational standards determines the mandatory minimum content of basic educational programs, the maximum volume study load and requirements for the level of training of graduates.
State educational standards are taken into account when formulating the goals of the educational program and designing its curriculum (based on the standard - the basic curriculum). They act as factors that determine the purpose and content of education of the educational program being implemented.
The network of general education institutions is a collection of educational institutions of various types, types and organizational and legal forms. The structure of an educational institution as an educational system is presented in Chapter 4.
In order to ensure accessibility and variability of general education, the creation of an educational infrastructure that provides favorable conditions for the training, education and development of citizens in accordance with their inclinations, abilities, interests and state of health, various types of general educational institutions can be created, the activities of which are regulated by the relevant standard provisions.
Education authorities and related management services are presented in detail in Chapter 5.
When considering various educational systems from the perspective of their management, it is necessary to disclose such concepts as “management of educational systems” and “management of an educational institution.”
According to some authors, management of the education system is expressed in the conscious regulation of the process of its development in order to create optimal conditions for meeting the diverse needs of the individual at all stages of education based on the maximum use of the scientific, cultural, and economic potential of the city and region. We will look at the management of an educational institution in Chapter 4.
Scientific management theory uses the concept control object. It is interpreted as an area, a sphere in which management is carried out. The objects of management can be a general education school or a teaching staff.
Subject of management is the one who implements management - the school director and his deputies.
In practice, quite often the subject and object of management is a system defined as a “control system” (“control system”). In this case, the control object is called a “managed system”.
Speaking about educational systems from the perspective of management objects, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that a large number of components of these systems are endowed with subjective properties.
For example, if we consider an educational system such as a school from a management perspective, then the objects of management will be teachers and students. At the same time, teachers are subjects of managing the educational process, and students are endowed with subjective properties in managing self-education, self-development, and self-realization.
Influencing an object that has its own subjective abilities, will, values and goals does not imply unilateral control of this object, but the interaction of the subject and the object of control. Thus, the management of education systems has a two-way nature.
We will consider the educational system as an object of management using the example of an educational institution in more detail in chapter5.
4. STATE AND PUBLIC CHARACTER OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION SYSTEM
In accordance with the Concept of modernization of Russian education for the period up to 2010 adopted by the State Council of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, domestic education should develop as an open and unified state-social system in which the participation of society in the development, adoption and implementation of political, legal and management decisions, the state and public components in the activities of management structures in the field of education are identified and coordinated. The Concept emphasizes that all citizens of Russia, the family and parental community, federal and regional government institutions, local governments, the professional and pedagogical community, scientific, cultural, commercial and public institutions should become active subjects of educational policy 1 .
The interests of society and the state in the field of education do not always coincide with the sectoral interests of the education system itself, and therefore the determination of directions for modernization and development of education cannot be confined to the framework of the educational community and department.
Understanding the role of state-public relations presupposes the coordination and definition of ideas about the capabilities of the state and public components and the contractual relations emerging between them. The state component of education must guarantee accessibility and equal opportunities to receive a full-fledged quality education. In the social component, one can distinguish internal (internal professional community, student self-government) and external (representatives of parents, business, public organizations, alumni associations, national-cultural communities, development funds) components.
The public is organized structures that reflect the interests of social groups in the field of education and not subordinate to educational authorities. These may be structures not directly related to the education system (associations of employers, creative unions, scientific institutions), uniting educators (for example, an association of teacher-researchers, an association of school leaders), uniting participants in the educational process (parents, students), etc. These structures can be permanent (associations, unions, councils, non-profit partnerships) and temporary (meetings , meetings, conferences).
Specialists who study the educational needs and problems of the population (sociologists, psychologists, educational organizers) can also express the interests of certain social groups in the field of education. This group of specialists can be defined as a group of experts on social problems of education. The public also includes a group of experts on the management of educational systems, independent of educational authorities.
State-public education management is developing on the basis of principles that include openness and democracy, interaction and coordination, participation and co-management. In addition, we can highlight the main features of state-public management: joint management activities of state and non-state structures in the management of educational projects; the procedure for making a decision by the state education management body, which provides for mandatory coordination of the draft decision with representatives of the public; delegation of part of the power of education management bodies to structures representing the interests of certain groups of the public.
The public’s need for management of educational systems depends on the level of organization of the public itself, the presence of structures representing its interests, including expert structures. Therefore, various measures that make it possible to study public opinion, involve the public in the certification of educational institutions, examine educational results, and organize public discussion of educational problems are a necessary condition for increasing the level of public activity in the field of education. In this context, a fundamentally new project in the field of domestic education, which has received the definition of “national”, gives public institutions the opportunity to really participate in making the most important decisions.
The Republic of Mordovia is actively involved in the implementation of the activities of the priority national project “Education”. By order of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Moldova, a list of civil expert organizations was approved for carrying out expert assessment of the best teachers of general education institutions to receive monetary incentives and educational institutions introducing innovative educational programs. These are organizations operating in various areas of public life (Republican public organization "Union of Women of Mordovia", Union of Journalists of the Republic of Mordovia, Council of Rectors of Universities of the Republic of Mordovia, Mordovia Republican Organization of the Trade Union of Public Education Workers, etc.) 2.
From simple financial participation of the public in the activities of an educational institution, significant progress has been made to an understanding of its role in the management of an educational institution. Parity participation of the public, authorities, students and teachers in the management of the educational process provides the conditions for the formation of a new social contract between society, authorities and schools, parents, teachers and students. All general educational institutions of the republic have a management structure in which the social component is represented to one degree or another (councils of general educational institutions, pedagogical councils, methodological associations, creative groups). These forms of state-public management in the education system operate quite effectively, have specific plans, programs, activities, etc. Boards of trustees, co-government bodies of the parent community, student self-government have been formed and function in different models and options (from the council of high school students to the presidential republic ). All municipalities of Mordovia have education management councils. The majority of councils (colleges) include representatives of civil institutions. In the city of Saransk, for example, there is a board, a public council for the interaction of educational institutions with parents and the public, an expert council, and a city methodological council.
A non-profit partnership “Association of the Best Schools of the Republic of Mordovia” has been created in the republic, the goals of which are to actively participate in the development of the educational system of the republic, improve the republican educational policy, as well as actively promote the spiritual and moral education of children and students. Since 2006, the Mordovian regional and municipal branches of the All-Russian public organization “All-Russian Pedagogical Assembly” have been functioning, the main goal of which is to involve civil society institutions in the constant renewal of domestic education, increasing the competitiveness of the educational sphere, and educating and preventing antisocial behavior among young people.
The negotiation process, within which topical issues of education are discussed and fundamental decisions in educational policy are developed, has become important in expanding the state-public nature of education management. Republican and municipal parent meetings have proven themselves well, where issues of exercising the rights of parents to participate in the management of an educational institution are considered. One of the platforms where various civil society institutions related to education interact is the board of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Mordovia (the board includes representatives of public organizations, institutions of higher vocational, secondary vocational and primary vocational education). The board is an important mechanism for the participation of civil institutions in the development of state educational policy. At board meetings, representatives of the parent community and employers are actively involved in the discussion of problems relating to the content of general education and control of its quality. This is especially clearly shown by the meetings of the board, at which the issues of introducing final certification of graduates in the form of the Unified State Exam and the prospects for implementing a priority national project in the field of education are discussed.
Along with the republic’s participation in the federal experiment to conduct state final certification of graduates of the 11th grade of general education institutions in the form of the Unified State Exam, since 2005, the republic has been testing a new form of final certification of students in the 9th grade. During the final certification, the presence of a public observer is mandatory at the Unified State Examination points.
Public examinations are used quite widely in the republic. For more than 10 years, the Republican Expert Council has been operating under the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Moldova, which includes representatives of institutions of higher professional and secondary vocational education, and representatives of the public. His responsibilities include expert assessment and approval of programs for elective courses, electives, and academic subjects of the regional component of school education.
The fundamental point in improving the state-public management of education in the region can be called the formation of governing councils of educational institutions, which represent a specially organized space where students, parents, teachers, and managers program the future of the school. The main tasks of the council include determining the main directions of development of the educational institution, the features of its educational program; ensuring the quality of educational services; increasing the efficiency of financial and economic activities of an educational institution; assistance in creating optimal conditions and forms of organizing the educational process in an educational institution; promoting the creation of healthy and safe conditions for learning, education and work in an educational institution.
The main factors determining the effectiveness of the creation of the Governing Council are the readiness of the heads of the educational institution for a productive dialogue with participants in the educational process and representatives of the public; the formation in the educational institution of school self-government bodies, public organizations representing the teaching community, the parent community, children's public organizations and alumni associations; experience in solving problems using methods of collective activity, skills in programming future joint activities.
Modernization of education is a national task that cannot be carried out as a departmental project. Today, the role of public participation in education management remains clearly underestimated. An effective system of state-public management of the regional education system can only be built on the basis of genuine openness of the education system, on the formation of its network interaction with other institutions and agents of individual, economic and social development.
Expanding public participation in education management is aimed at a wide range of subjects of the education system, which can be united into groups such as the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Moldova, municipal education authorities, local governments; administration of an educational institution, teaching staff, students of a general education institution; parent community, potential social partners, representatives of public education authorities, representatives of charitable organizations.
The problems that exist today are associated with the lack of necessary legal, economic and managerial knowledge among representatives of public structures, and the unpreparedness of public institutions to interact with educational institutions. Therefore, various measures to study public opinion, involve the public in the certification of educational institutions, examine educational results, and organize public discussion of educational problems are a necessary condition increasing the level of public activity in the field of education. The most important direction in this context was the placement of the results of innovative activities, educational materials, etc. on the websites of schools and teachers. Today in the republic all educational institutions have their own websites. In this regard, an open, socially oriented educational space has been created. An important means of ensuring information openness of a state educational institution is intended to be a public report of an educational institution as a form of broad informing the public, especially parents, about the educational activities of the institution, the main results and problems of its functioning and development.
It is clear that the effects of increased public participation in educational governance cannot be reduced to a formal increase in the number of councils, websites and public reports. A valid indicator of the systemic effects of the implementation of this direction is the recognition of the public as a full-fledged subject of educational regional policy.
5. Formation and development of scientific foundations of management
F. Taylor and his followers are considered the creators of scientific management - G. Gantt, F. and L. Gilbreth, S. Thompson and others. They showed in practice that management carried out on scientific principles allows one to obtain significantly better results than management based on common sense and experience.
F. Taylor, the creator of the first theory of “scientific management”, developed at the beginning of the 20th century, criticized contemporary management practices and argued that in order to increase efficiency, management should be carried out on the basis of certain laws, rules and principles. He believed that the same principles could be applied with equal success not only to enterprises, but also to various types of social activities.
F. Taylor considered the main tasks of management to be: uniform division of work between performers in accordance with their abilities; clear definition of tasks given to employees; identifying rational work technologies and teaching them to subordinates, provided that everyone uses them and works to their full potential; material incentives for completing tasks and the simultaneous organization of a system of fines for unproductive work, its fair application. The worker should not think about how to “do” the job, what tools are needed for this, what methods need to be used to achieve good results. All this must be clearly defined by the administration, which rewards or punishes performers depending on the results. The personal judgment of the employee, according to F. Taylor, should be replaced by a scientific organization of labor, which involves the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas. The workers' task is only to perform. Therefore, F. Taylor considered tasks, bonuses and fines to be the most important elements in the mechanism of scientifically based management.
F. Taylor's theory is based on a mechanical model of organization, i.e. an idea of an ideal organization operating on the principle of a well-oiled clockwork mechanism. In such an organization, the influence of the individual characteristics of employees and their interests on the final results is reduced to zero. The disadvantage of this theory is that it is focused only on creating a stable functioning organization; it does not say anything about managing the development of an enterprise. F. Taylor focuses on ensuring the productive work of each performer, but if the overall goals of the activity are set incorrectly, then no matter how productive the work of the performers is, the organization as a whole will be ineffective.
The first holistic theory of management, later called classical, is considered to be the theory of F. Taylor’s contemporary, the French researcher A. Fayol. It is presented in his work “General and Industrial Administration,” published in 1916. Many of its ideas, developed by A. Fayol’s followers, primarily L. Gyulick and L. Urvik, have not lost their significance today.
Unlike F. Taylor, A. Fayol studied management activities themselves and methods of rational organization of management systems. From his point of view, to manage means to foresee (i.e., take into account the future and develop a program of action), organize (i.e. build the material and social organism of the enterprise), dispose (i.e. force personnel to work properly), coordinate (i.e. connect, unite, harmonize all actions and efforts) and control (i.e. ensure that everything is done according to established rules and given orders).
Just like F. Taylor, A. Fayol believed that there are general principles of management, adherence to which is necessary to ensure effective management. Although A. Fayol considered these principles to be basic, in his opinion, the number of management principles is unlimited. There is nothing permanent or absolute in management. The same principle in similar conditions is almost never applied: it is necessary to take into account various changing circumstances, individual characteristics of people, what is currently called “staff turnover”, and many other factors. That is, the principles must be flexible and one must be able to operate with them.
A. Fayol believed that management functions are performed at different levels of the organization, including at the level of ordinary performers. He paid great attention to the coordination of goals and actions. He compared an organization to the human body: management, by setting goals, performs the functions of the brain and, just as the brain directs the activities of other organs, coordinates the activities of ordinary performers.
A. Fayol's main contribution to management theory is that he was the first to consider management as a universal process and identify its components. He was also the first to stop viewing management solely as a function of top management. The researcher showed the critical importance of the formal structure of the organization, i.e. a method for grouping work and distributing powers and responsibilities for its effectiveness and proposed principles for constructing such a structure. Just like F. Taylor, A. Fayol did not consider the issues of managing the development of an organization. His theory is based on an extremely simplified model of man.
E. Mayo, founder behavioral approach to management, developed a management theory called theory of human relations. If the center of classical management theory is formal structure, then the center of the theory of human relations is informal structure. E. Mayo's closest associate F. Roethlisberger defined the informal structure as a set of norms, unofficial rules, values, beliefs, as well as a network of various internal connections within a group and between groups, centers of influence and communications. They cannot be regulated within a formal structure, but they significantly determine the behavior of people in the organization. - M.: MAKS Press, 2009. - 438 p.
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4. Gretchenko A.I., Gretchenko A.A. Bologna process: integration of Russia into the European and world educational space. – M.: KNORUS, 2009.
5. Kuptsov V.I. Education, science, worldview and global challenges of the 21st century. – St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2009.
6. Science in Russia: current state and revival strategy. - M.: Logos, 2004. - 380 p.
7. Science in the context of globalization / Edited by Allahverdyan A.G. Semenova N.N., Yurevich A.V. - M.: Logos, 2009. – 517 p.
8. Salmi J. Creating world-class universities. – M: publishing house “The Whole World”, 2009.
9. Synergetic paradigm: synergetics of education. - M.: Progress-Tradition, 2007. - 592 p.
10. Shpakovskaya L.L. Policy higher education in Europe and Russia. – St. Petersburg: Norma, 2007.
11. Yurevich, A.V. Science in modern Russian society. - M.: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2010. - 335 p.
Software and Internet resources:
1. http://www.pedlib.ru Electronic pedagogical library. Electronic pedagogical library. The site contains the library itself, a news feed on pedagogy, legislative materials in the field of education and family upbringing, and a short psychological dictionary.
2. http://www.internt - biblioteka.ru/pedagogy Internet library. On the site you can find books, articles, dictionaries on pedagogy; materials on pedagogical practice, scientific methodology, educational theory
3. http://www.ioso.ru Institute of content and teaching methods of the Russian Academy of Education.
4. http://obraz.mmk-mission.ru/Education methodology. Website of the Moscow Methodological Corporation. The website contains information about conferences and seminars of the network of thought-activity pedagogy; Regulations on the Tournament of Abilities for junior schoolchildren and tournament tasks; publications on the problems of thought-activity pedagogy; information about other MMK projects.
5. http://www.oim.ru/Education: researched around the world. International scientific pedagogical Internet journal with a depository library under the patronage of the State Scientific Pedagogical Library named after. K.D. Ushinsky Russian Academy of Education. The online journal with a library “Education: Researched in the World” (“oim.ru”, “OIM”) exists only in electronic form and consists of the journal itself and the library attached to it. The journal and its library are a single database of full-text documents (a depository of small and large format texts), united by the name (of the journal), its direction, a single editorial board and its principles.
6. http://www.aboutstudy.ruTraining. ru: educational portal.
7. http://www.e-joe.ru/Open education. Scientific and practical journal on information technology in education. On the website you can find out about the latest issue of the journal (individual articles are available in electronic form); information about conferences, seminars and exhibitions on IT; get acquainted with the list of IT magazines and information about IT on the Internet.
8. www.youngscience.ru/753/820/280/index.shtml Federal target program “Scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel of innovative Russia” for 2009-2013. Approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of July 28, 2008 N 568.
9. http://www.mon.gov.ru/work/nti/dok Strategy for the development of science and innovation in the Russian Federation for the period until 2015 // Official website of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation:
10. http://www.mon.gov.ru/work/nti/dok/Official website of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation:
11. www.science-education.ru. Modern problems of science and education. Electronic scientific publication (journal)
Under system It is customary to understand the totality of a certain set of naturally interconnected elements that form a certain integrity. This definition is fully applicable to the phenomenon of education, which is the so-called large, or complex system, the elements of which are lower-level systems, or subsystems. At the same time, due to its dynamic nature education as a system should be considered as a developing network of elements of various types and levels. Educational systems, generally speaking, should be considered all those social institutions, whose main goal is human education.
Education as a system can be considered in three dimensions, which are:
Firstly, social scale of consideration, that is, education in the world, a certain country, society, region, individual organization, etc. The system of state, private, public, secular, clerical, etc. is also considered here. education;
Secondly, level, or stage of education. These levels are preschool, school, secondary vocational, higher education, master's degree, various systems of advanced training and retraining of personnel, graduate school, doctoral studies;
Thirdly, education profile. In accordance with it, general, special (mathematics, humanities, natural sciences, etc.), professional, and additional education are distinguished.
The educational system has specific educational institutions in which the relevant tasks are directly carried out. The main structural elements of the phenomenon of education as a specific educational institution are the following (Fig. 16):
Goals and objectives of education.
Ways to get education.
Forms of organization of the educational process.
The quality of education.
Educational environment.
Subjects and objects of the educational process.
The result of education, which determines the level of education of a person acquired in the process of education.
Let's take a closer look at the essence and purpose of each of these elements.
Rice. 16. General structure of the phenomenon of education
Under goals and objectives of education commonly understood consciously planned expected results that society, the state and the person himself strive to achieve at the present time and in the near future. This expected result is a person who has modern knowledge and skills and is able to successfully apply them in professional activity and in life. Purpose modern education is also the development of those properties and qualities of the individual that are necessary both for herself and for society to be able to effectively include a person in socially significant activities.
One of the characteristic features of modern education is that it takes place in a rapidly changing information environment, rich in constantly updated knowledge, in which both students and teachers must learn. In this regard, in the new conditions, to achieve this goal, the main objectives of education are:
Formation of basic knowledge;
Formation in a person of the ability and desire to independently learn and improve professionally;
Formation of motivational orientation towards the productive-contributive learning process.
The most important task of education today is the optimization of training, that is, the identification of such methods and forms of training of specialists that would improve the quality of their education while possibly reducing costs.
In this case, it is possible to optimize the education system by reducing the required amount of information and leaving only that which is absolutely necessary for the student to solve specific problems specified in the requirements of the social order.
IN modern conditions When determining the goals of education, both the social demands of the state and society, as well as the goals of the individual, his interests and inclinations are usually taken into account. The goals of education depend on various conditions: on the nature of society, on state educational policy, on the level of cultural development, on the system of priority values and the socio-economic situation of the country.
Contents of the concept “education” means a certain a set of systematized knowledge, skills, views and beliefs, certain practical training achieved in the educational process. In each specific educational institution, the content of education is understood as the content of the activities of subjects of the educational process, that is pedagogical activity teacher and educational and cognitive activity of the student.
Under general is understood as education, the result of which is a person’s ability to perform his general cultural, universal functions and activities. Special education provides preparation for special, primarily professional activities.
Polytechnic education is seen as an area of intersection between general and special education, which provides the opportunity for successful life of a person of any profession in our complex technical world, in conditions of constant development and complication of the technosphere.
Professional education is a certain type of education that prepares a person to perform certain socially differentiated functions.
The correct selection of educational content determines the quality of education and its impact on the formation and development of the individual.
At various historical stages of the development of society, the content of education changes qualitatively depending on various factors - on socio-economic, political conditions, on the goals and urgent tasks that society sets for educational institutions of various types, as well as on the goals and prospects for the development of the society.
The educational content of each discipline is specified in educational programs, each of which is meaningfully reflected in the curriculum, textbooks and teaching aids. There are several ways of structuring and constructing the content of education, which in pedagogical practice determine the ways of developing an educational program in a given discipline and writing the corresponding textbook. The main ones of these methods are linear, concentric, spiral and modular.
Linear way of structuring content academic discipline consists in dividing it into a certain set of relatively complete sections and topics, the possibility of sequential study of which is ensured by the fact that the material of each subsequent section is based on information already known to students, learned in the previous sections (Fig. 17).
Rice. 17. Sequential circuit
In this diagram, solid arrows show the sequence of studying sections and topics of the course, and dotted arrows show possible dependencies of the content of this section on the content of previous sections.
Concentric way of structuring content educational material also consists in dividing it into separate large sections, as if nested sequentially into each other. The study of such a discipline occurs through the sequential development of the conceptual-information field of each previous level, which creates the prerequisites for the transition to the development of the conceptual-information field of the next, deeper level (Fig. 18).
Rice. 18. Concentric method
structuring the content of education
Rice. 18. Concentric method
structuring the content of education
Rice. 18. Concentric method
structuring the content of education
Rice. 18. Concentric method
structuring the content of education
Rice. 18. Concentric method
structuring the content of education
Spiral the method of structuring the content of educational material is somewhat reminiscent of concentric, however, the fundamental difference here is the study of the same material with a gradual deepening of the level of its complexity and rigor of presentation at each new turn of the spiral (Fig. 19). Usually there can be two or three such turns. An example of the use of this method is the study of physics in high school and university.
Rice. 19. Spiral method
structuring the content of education
Modular The method of structuring the content of the educational material of any discipline is to divide it into separate complete, relatively independent modules, which allows you to organize various options for their study. This means the possibility of not only sequential, but also parallel study, even with different teachers. In this case, individual modules can take the form independent disciplines, the result of the final control at the end of their study can be counted towards students when passing an exam or test for the entire course. Schematically, this method of structuring educational material can be represented in the form of Fig. 20.
Rice. 20. Modular way of structuring
educational content
It should be emphasized that for each of the methods of structuring the content of educational material discussed here, both its advantages and certain disadvantages can be cited. Therefore, in real pedagogical practice one should proceed from the specific objectives of the academic discipline, the conditions for its study and the interests of students.
When designing the content of education, in addition to the ways of structuring it, there is such a pedagogical category as the levels of formation of the content of education that plays a very important role. Usually stands out three the main levels of formation of educational content (Fig. 21).
1. Level general theoretical understanding– the necessary content is fixed in the form of a generalized idea of the main components of social experience that students need to master in the learning process.
2. Level academic discipline– work on individual elements, content and detailing their specific goals and functions in the general context of the designed content, as well as the formation and concretization of ideas about the main forms of implementation of this content in the educational process.
Rice. 21. Levels of formation of educational content
3. Level educational material– the development of the content of education is carried out in the composition, nature and content of the material, which becomes the direct subject or means of educational activity - in textbooks, teaching aids, methodological guides.
Each of the levels of content design identified here corresponds to one or another type of regulatory documentation.
The most important document fixing the content of education at the level of a general theoretical concept is specialty curriculum, establishing the composition of disciplines studied at a given university, their distribution by years of study, the weekly and annual amount of time allocated to each of them. It determines the general direction and main content of specialist training, types, forms and methods academic work, forms and deadlines for testing students' knowledge. Every 5 years, curricula are revised based on accumulated experience and taking into account current and predicted changes in science, technology, production, and culture.
The curriculum receives its specification at the second level of content design - at the level of academic disciplines, the composition, content, goals and functions of which are reflected in educational programs. The program determines the content of a specific academic discipline, the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities that must be obtained in the process of studying it; forms, methods, teaching aids, types of intermediate and final control. The program also includes an explanatory note, which reveals the objectives of studying the academic discipline and its connection with other disciplines of the curriculum.
Further specification of the content of education is carried out at the third level - at the level of educational material. The most important form of recording educational material is textbook, acting as the leading element in the complex teaching aids and other elements of methodological support for the process of studying this discipline. A university textbook must meet certain requirements: have a high scientific level, orient students to deep self-study disciplines, correspond to practice, take into account interdisciplinary connections, etc.
Since 1991, gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges began to be revived in Ukraine, new educational systems, creativity centers, etc. appeared. In this regard, various schools and universities operate today in different ways. curriculum and programs. In this case, the state only establishes general standards and requirements, the satisfaction of which is a mandatory condition for issuing a state document confirming the level of education received - a matriculation certificate or diploma.
There are several different ways to get education. The main ones today include:
Training in a specific educational institution followed by passing final exams or defending a thesis (project).
Individual training at home independently or with the help of teachers and passing exams and other forms of reporting to the state examination commission at a specific educational institution (externship).
Remote, or Remote education(from the English distanse - distance) is training using a computer and special training programs posted on the Internet.
Correspondence course with writing tests, attending orientation, summarizing lectures throughout the course, consultations, as well as passing tests and exams and (or) defending a final (diploma) thesis.
The following are distinguished: Forms of organization of the educational process:
Lesson (lasting 35 or 45 minutes) – at school;
A lecture (lasting 90 or 120 minutes) with or without a break is the main form of education at a university;
Seminars or practical classes for the entire study group are intended for a deeper study and practical consolidation of the material listened to in the lecture;
Laboratory workshop is a practical lesson using technology, special equipment, conducting an experiment, experience, research.
Group or individual consultations with a teacher on specific academic topics or issues.
The quality of education defined:
The degree of correspondence between the goals and results of education;
Correspondence between various parameters in assessing the result of a particular person’s education (the quality and depth of his knowledge, the degree of development of relevant skills and abilities, the development of creative and individual abilities, personality traits and value orientations);
The degree of correspondence of theoretical knowledge and skills to their practical use in life and professional activities in the development of a person’s need for constant updating of their knowledge and skills and their continuous improvement.
The quality of education depends on many factors, primarily on the quality of the pedagogical activities of the educational institution, as well as on its educational and material base and scientific, methodological, organizational, managerial, technical and personnel support, the scientific school through which the student passes during his years of study at the university. .
Atmosphere and environment of the educational process are complex concepts including:
Good relationships between all subjects of education,
Help and friendliness of the teacher towards students,
Rational and effective organization teachings,
Creating an atmosphere of creative development,
Constant support of interest in learning.
A characteristic feature of the education system is that it is a continuously developing system. It is focused on the future, therefore it must meet the requirements of the time and at the same time be based on the strategy for the development of society and the people in it.
Principles of education.
The pedagogical practice of higher education has formed a certain set of general methodological principles for determining the content of education and planning the educational process. Let's look at these principles.
Principle compliance of education content in all its elements and at all levels of design requirements for the development of society, science, culture and personality. It involves the inclusion in the content of education of both traditional knowledge, skills and abilities, and information that reflects the modern level of development of society.
Principle structural unity of education content at various levels of its formation presupposes the presence of consistency of theoretical concepts, educational subject, educational material, pedagogical activity, and the personality of the student.
Principle flexibility, predictability, unity and continuity, diversity of education.
Principle compulsory availability of complete general secondary education, since the content of higher education is based on the knowledge acquired by students in secondary school .
Principle organic relationship with world and national culture, traditions. In the context of globalization, its role only intensifies, since a specialist, on the one hand, must be competitive in the international labor market, and on the other, take care of preserving and enhancing the achievements of the national culture of his country.
There are a number of other principles, the general focus of which is to form a highly moral creative personality with systemic innovative thinking.
Thus, education as a system represents the basis of all intellectual, cultural, spiritual, moral and socio-economic development of society and the state.