The Russian language is rich and diverse, with the help of it we ask questions, share impressions, information, convey emotions, talk about what we remember.
Our language allows us to draw, display and create verbal pictures. Literary speech is like painting (Fig. 1).
Figure: 1. Painting
In poetry and prose, a bright, picturesque speech that stimulates the imagination, in such a speech the visual means of the language are used.
Visual aids of language- these are ways and techniques of reconstructing reality, making it possible to make speech vivid and figurative.
Sergei Yesenin has the following lines (Fig. 2).
Figure: 2. The text of the poem
Epithets give an opportunity to look at the autumn nature. By means of juxtaposition, the author gives the reader the opportunity to see how the foliage falls, as if flock of butterflies(fig. 3).
Figure: 3. Comparison
As ifis an indication of the comparison (Fig. 4). This comparison is called comparison.
Figure: 4. Comparison
Comparison - this is a comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object according to a common feature for them. For comparison you need:
- So that there is something in common between the two phenomena;
- A special word with the meaning of matching - as if, exactly, as, as if, as if
Consider a line of a poem by Sergei Yesenin (Fig. 5).
Figure: 5. Line of poem
First, a fire is presented to the reader, and then a mountain ash. This is due to the equalization, the identification by the author of two phenomena. It is based on the similarity of rowan bunches with a fiery red fire. But the words like, like, like are not used because the author does not compare the mountain ash with a fire, but calls it a fire, this metaphor.
Metaphor -transfer of properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.
Metaphor, like comparison, is based on similarity, but difference from comparison is that it happens without using special words (as if, as if).
When studying the world, you can see something in common between the phenomena, and this is reflected in the language. The figurative means of language are based on the similarity of objects and phenomena. Thanks to comparison and metaphor, speech becomes brighter, more expressive, you can see the verbal pictures that poets and writers create.
Sometimes the comparison is created without a special word, in a different way. For example, as in the lines of S. Yesenin's poem "The fields are squeezed, the groves are bare ..." (Fig. 6):
Figure: 6. Lines from the poem by S. Yesenin "The fields are compressed, the groves are bare ..."
Month compared with coltthat grows before our eyes. But there are no words indicating comparison; instrumental comparisons are used (Fig. 7). Word coltstands in the Instrumental case.
Figure: 7. Using the instrumental for comparison
Consider the lines of the poem by S. Yesenin "The golden grove dissuaded ..." (Fig. 8).
Figure: 8. "Dissuaded the golden grove ..."
In addition to metaphor (Fig. 9), the personification technique is used, for example, in the phrase dissuaded the grove(fig. 10).
Figure: 9. Metaphor in a poem
Figure: 10. Incarnation in a poem
Impersonation is a kind of metaphor where an inanimate object is described as living. This is one of the most ancient speech techniques, because our ancestors animated the inanimate in myths, fairy tales and folk poetry.
The task
Find comparisons and metaphors in the poem by Sergei Yesenin "Birch" (Fig. 11).
Figure: 11. Poem "Birch"
Answer
Snowjuxtaposed with silverbecause it is similar to him in appearance. The word is used exactly (fig. 12).
Figure: 13. Good comparisons
The metaphor is used in the phrase snowflakes are burning (fig. 14).
Figure: 15. Impersonation
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. M .: Education, 2014.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Part 1. Kanakina V.P., Goretsky V.G. M .: Education, 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V. 5th ed., Rev. M., 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Ramzaeva T.G. M., 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Zelenina L.M., Khokhlova T.E. M., 2013.
- Internet portal "Festival of pedagogical ideas" Open lesson "" ()
- Internet portal "literatura5.narod.ru" ()
Homework
- What are the visual means of the language used for?
- What is needed for comparison?
- How is comparison different from metaphor?
When asked what a comparison is in the literature, one can briefly answer that this is a trope, that is, a special one.This technique is based on the display of certain properties of the described object or phenomenon by comparing these features with others, relying on how others see or perceive them or individually by the author himself.
Components of comparisons
This path is characterized by the presence of three components: the described object or phenomenon, the object with which it is compared, and the basis for analogy, that is, a common feature. An interesting fact is that the name itself, an indication of this common feature, can be omitted in the text. But the reader or listener still perfectly understands and feels what the author of the statement wanted to convey to the interlocutor or reader.
However, the very understanding of the definition that explains what comparison is in the literature does not yet give a complete picture without examples. And here the clarification immediately arises: with the help of which parts of speech and in what forms do the authors form these tropes?
Types of comparisons in literature for nouns
Several types of comparisons can be distinguished.
Mode of action comparisons in literature
Typically, such constructions involve verbs and adverbs, nouns or whole phrases and
Why are comparisons in literature needed
Having dealt with the question of what comparison is in the literature, it is necessary to understand: are they needed? To do this, you should do a little research.
Here is one that uses comparisons: “The dark forest stood as if after a fire. The moon hid behind the clouds, like covering her face with a black handkerchief. The wind seemed to fall asleep in the bushes. "
And here is the same text in which all comparisons were removed. “The dark forest stood. The moon was hiding behind clouds. Wind". In principle, the very meaning is conveyed in the text. But how much more imaginative the picture of the night forest is presented in the first version than in the second!
Are comparisons necessary in ordinary speech
Some may think that comparisons are only necessary for writers and poets. But ordinary people in their ordinary life do not need them at all. This statement is absolutely wrong!
At the doctor's appointment, the patient, describing his feelings, will certainly resort to comparisons: "The heart hurts ... It seems like it cuts with a knife, or it looks like someone squeezes it into a fist ..." Grandmother, explaining to her granddaughter how to make pancake dough, is also forced to compare : "You add water until the dough looks like thick sour cream." Mom tiredly tugs at the overly amused baby: "Stop jumping like a hare!"
Probably, many will argue that the article is devoted to comparison in the literature. What does our everyday speech have to do with it? Be proud, commoners: many people speak using literary speech. Therefore, even common speech is one of the layers of literature.
Comparisons in highly specialized literature
Even technical texts cannot do without comparisons. For example, in order not to repeat the process already described above in a recipe for cooking fried fish, for shortening, the author often writes: "Fish should be fried in the same way as cutlets."
Or in a manual for people mastering the basics of designing from plywood or wood, you can find the phrase: “Self-tapping screws are screwed in with a drill in the same way as they are unscrewed. Only before work should you set the desired mode on it. "
Comparisons are a necessary technique in the literature of various directions. The ability to use them correctly distinguishes a cultured person.
In life, we constantly resort to comparisons. This is what we do in the store, comparing products before making a choice. We compare the actions of people, their qualities, films, music, etc. And this is correct, because everything is learned in comparison. But what is comparison?
Term meanings
The term comparison is used in a wide variety of fields. In everyday life, comparison is the identification of qualities according to the principle of assimilation, finding out whether objects are equal to each other, which one is better. Comparison is often defined as a way of identifying the unity and diversity of things. In mathematics, it is a comparison of numbers for equality and inequality (more or less). Thus, the main meaning of the word "comparison" is the process of comparing the different properties of two objects, both qualitative and quantitative.
The term "comparison" is used in psychology, sociology, philosophy. In psychology, there are special comparison tests to identify the degree of development of thinking abilities. "Comparison" in philosophy is a cognitive operation with the help of which the characteristics of processes and phenomena are revealed.
Comparison in literature
But the most emotional we perceive literary comparisons. What is comparison in literature? This is an artistic technique (or trope) based on the comparison of the qualities of phenomena, objects or people, as well as the assimilation of one object (phenomenon) to another. The purpose of literary comparison is to more fully reveal the image through common features. In comparison, both objects being compared are always mentioned, although the common feature itself may be omitted.
Types of literary comparisons
- Simple comparisons are turns, expressed with the help of conjunctions: as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, directly, etc. (“Fast as a deer”).
Like a tiger, life tears the body with its claws,
And he took the mind and heart into chains of the firmament ...
(Baba Tahir).
- Unionless - by means of a compound nominal predicate.
So thin is my summer robe -
Cicada wings!
- Negative - one object is opposed to another. It is often used in folk expressions ("It is not the wind that tends the branch, It is not the oak tree that makes noise").
- Comparisons "instrumental" - using a noun in the instrumental case.
Joy creeps like a snail
Grief is running wildly ...
(V. Mayakovsky).
- Comparison using the adverb of the mode of action ("Shouted like an animal").
- Genitives - using a noun in the genitive case (“I ran with the speed of the wind”, as opposed to “I ran with the speed like the wind”).
So, you have learned what comparison is, examples of literary comparisons. But comparative turns are widely used not only in literature, but also in scientific, colloquial speech. Without comparison, our speech would be less imaginative and vivid.
B8
Funds artistic expression
| Possible difficulties | Good advice |
| The text may contain words that already exist in the Russian language, reinterpreted by the author and used in an unusual combination for them, for example: spring language. | Such words can be considered individually author's neologisms only if they acquire in this context some fundamentally new meaning, for example: water - "plumber", quartered - "give marks for a quarter." In the given example, the word spring means "clean, unclogged" and is an epithet. |
| Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between epithet and metaphor. The night was blooming with golden lights. | Metaphor is a pictorial technique based on transferring meaning by likeness, similarity, analogy, for example: The sea laughed. This girl is a beautiful flower. The epithet is special case metaphors expressed in artistic definition, for example: leaden clouds, wavy fog. The given example contains both a metaphor (the night bloomed with lights) and an epithet (golden). |
| Comparison as a pictorial device can be difficult to distinguish from the use of unions (particles) as if, as if with other purposes. This is definitely our street. People saw how he disappeared into the gateway. | To make sure there is a pictorial technique in the proposal comparison, you need to find what is compared with what. If the sentence does not contain two comparable objects, then there is no comparison in it. This is definitely our street. - there is no comparison, the positive particle is used exactly. People saw how he disappeared into the gateway. - there is no comparison, the union as adds an explanatory clause. The cloud swept across the sky like a huge kite. The kettle whistled like a badly tuned radio. - in these sentences comparison is used as a pictorial device. A cloud is like a kite, a kettle is like a radio. |
| The metaphor as a pictorial technique is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the linguistic metaphor reflected in the figurative meaning of the word. In physical education class, children learned to jump over a horse. | A linguistic metaphor is usually enshrined in explanatory dictionary as figurative meaning the words. In physical education class, children learned to jump over a horse. - In this sentence the horse metaphor is not used as a pictorial device, it is the usual figurative meaning of the word. The value of a metaphor as a pictorial device lies in its novelty and the unexpectedness of the similarity discovered by the author. And the fiery wig tears off autumn with rain paws. |
What is impersonation? Impersonation is the assignment of signs of living beings to the inanimate. For example: tired nature; the sun smiles; the voice of the wind; singing trees; Bullets sang, machine guns beat, the wind rested palms on the chest ...; More and more bleak, more and more clearly the wind tears the years by the shoulders.
Also in the task there are:
Antithesis is opposition.
Gradation is a stylistic figure that consists in such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent word contains an increasing or decreasing meaning.
Oxymoron is a combination of directly opposite words in order to show the inconsistency of the phenomenon.
Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration.
Litota is an artistic understatement.
A periphery is the replacement of the name of an object with a description of its essential features. For example: the king of beasts (instead of a lion).
Obsolete words as a pictorial device
Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary as a pictorial technique
Phraseologisms as a pictorial device
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical address
Lexical repetition
Syntactic parallelism
Incomplete sentences (ellipsis)
Dyakova K.V.,
4th year student of the Institute of Philology, TSU. G.R. Derzhavin.
Medieval comparison in the system of sound images of E.I. Zamyatin
(based on the book "Poetics of Old Russian Literature" by DS Likhachev)
D.S. Likhachev's contribution to the development of literary criticism is largely determined by the fact that he approached the chronicle not only as a historian, but also as a literary critic. He studied the growth and change of the very methods of chronicle writing, their dependence on the originality of the Russian historical process... In this, a deep interest in the problem of the artistic mastery of Old Russian literature, characteristic of all Likhachev's work, manifested itself, and he considers the style of literature as a manifestation of the artistic consciousness of the nation.
A generalization of DS Likhachev's observations of the artistic specificity of Old Russian literature was his article "On the Study of the Artistic Methods of Russian Literature in the 11th - 17th Centuries." (1964), and, of course, the book "Poetics of Old Russian Literature" (1967), awarded the USSR State Prize (1969). The monograph by D.S.Likhachev is distinguished by the breadth of the range of the phenomena under consideration and the harmony of the composition, which makes it possible to connect the seemingly most distant phenomena of artistic life - from the features of stylistic symmetry in the monuments of translated literature Kievan Rus to the problems of the poetics of the time in the works of Goncharov or Dostoevsky. This complex composition of the book is due to the concept of the unity of Russian literature, constantly developed by D. S. Likhachev; the principle of analyzing the phenomena of poetics in their development determines the construction of all sections of the monograph. Therefore, an attempt to analyze the modern artistic path from the standpoint of the Russian medieval poetic system is quite justified and easily fits into the context of Likhachev's entire scientific work.
Developing the poetics of Old Russian literature, D.S. Likhachev refers to comparison as one of the literary means especially significant for the Old Russian text. In the section "From the Author", which precedes the research, Likhachev defines the central task of the book: "to deepen the information about the changeability of literary phenomena." It designates a kind of research path: “in this book, the main attention is paid to those aspects of Russian literature that distinguish it from the new one. The differences make it possible to reveal the individuality of ancient literature. " Referring to the system of Old Russian comparisons, described by Likhachev in his monograph, and "passing" through this system the literary text of the writer of the "new" time (XX century), we can draw conclusions about the individuality of his author's writing and, at the same time, about the strength of continuity that in these texts, about the artist's gravitation to the roots of Russian culture.
Consideration of the work of E.I. Zamyatin through the prism of Old Russian literature, and in our case, the analysis of the typical features of comparisons (Russian medieval and belonging to the literature of modern times) used to construct sound images in a work - becomes possible, first of all, thanks to the writer's repeated appeal to the stylistic manner works of Old Russian literature ("About the holy sin of Zenitsa the virgin" (1916), "About how the monk Erasmus was healed" (1920)); secondly, due to the peculiarities of character, or rather the "inner essence" (Likhachev's term) of the Old Russian comparison and the image of sound based on comparison.
In the modern "Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts", comparison is defined as "a kind of path based on the assimilation of related phenomena." This is the nature of generalized comparisons, and it is undeniable. However, there is a centuries-old barrier between the Old Russian comparison and the comparison of the "new" time, which allows us to speak of different types of comparison developed at that time and the historical situation when these paths functioned. Likhachev emphasizes that "comparisons in ancient Russian literature differ sharply in their character and inner essence from comparisons in new literature."
It is important that the scientist is not trying to create a clear, complete system of differences, but gives a number of remarks that characterize the Old Russian comparison from the point of view of its individuality and originality.
Let's try to outline clear boundaries between the ancient Russian and modern types of comparisons, thus summarizing Likhachev's research. The fundamental difference, according to the scientist, lies in the multidirectional orientation of comparisons between ancient Russian and modern. So, comparison in the literature of modern times is maximally visualized, aimed at conveying visual similarities between objects, entities. It is thanks to this feature that the “joy of recognition” and the joy of immediate visualization “arising during reading become possible. This is the so-called impressionistic type of comparison, characteristic precisely of the "new" literature. The Old Russian comparison concerns mainly the "inner essence of the compared objects". Likhachev explains: "It seems strange to us to compare the Mother of God with the" delighted chamber. " The strangeness of this comparison is not only in the fact that the Mother of God is compared with an architectural structure - a stone house, but in the very epithet of this "chamber" - "delighted." This epithet clearly shows that the writer perceives the "chamber" not in a material sense, but as a pure symbol. The writer does not seek to concretely imagine the objects of comparison. He compares "essences" and therefore considers it possible to give a "spiritual" epithet to a material object, and vice versa. "
Thus, the existence of two different types of comparison is due, first of all, to the antithesis of appearance - visual similarity based on momentary sensations or the game of the author's fantasy - essence - the main feature that characterizes a certain inner essence of the compared.
With regard to Zamyatin's prose, two central questions arise: 1) Does the writer use comparisons built on medieval models with formal observance of literary etiquette in works stylized as an ancient Russian text? 2) can a formally modern comparison, i.e. which is stylistically neutral at the present time, be based on the principles that served as the basis for the Russian medieval comparison, namely, on the commonality of things, despite the destruction of external similarities?
Let us also recall that the material of our research is not any artistic image, but the image of sound. Under the image of sound (sound image) in the article we mean artistic images that capture the sound manifestations of human and natural life, which are organic elements of a single artistic whole.
The question arises: what is considered a comparison of the modern type, and what is a comparison of the Old Russian type in relation to the image of sound? In its own way, the modern, impressionistic type of comparison in this case will correspond to such a sound image, where sound is both the subject of comparison and (subject) of comparison. Comparison of new time, as a rule, is made up of two elements, conventionally located in the same plane - they are essentially equivalent to each other. So, the image is likened to the image - the object is described through the object. According to the same scheme and a sound image based on a comparison of the modern type, we will consider a sound image based on the "sound-sound" model. For clarity, we will give a few examples from the works of Zamyatin: “the clicker clicked wildly, and her mouth was closed, and it was as if an inhuman voice was clicking under the arches” (“Land surveyor”); "The old English clock in the tavern - it beats slowly, in a bass - exactly the cathedral bell of Kostroma" ("The Irregular"); “… She howled not in her own, woman’s, but in an animal voice” (“The Womb”). Let's comment on the last example. It is a classic negative comparison. At the heart of the image is a common essence - a voice. Therefore, the writer does not even repeat himself twice - "voice", but only changes the epithets. The sound is recreated in the reader's imagination through another sound - this corresponds to a modern, somewhat simplified type of comparison.
Another example: “It was quiet, only somewhere far away, like sentries, roosters were calling in the dark” (“The Scourge of God”) - the roosters are compared to sentries again by the nature of the sound they make. "Roll call" is the single essence that holds the image together. “Scream in the same voice as the shoemaker did about the Last Judgment” (“Flood”); “The water rustled around like thousands of yards of silk” (“Yola”); “Someone began to sing, slowly, hoarsely, howling like a dog on the dreary silver of the month” (“Alatyr”) - all these are sound-images-comparisons, built on a single principle, they are based on a common “sound-sound” model. Therefore, we classify them as a modern type of comparison based on direct similarities between objects or phenomena of the same kind.
The specificity of a sound image, its difference from any other artistic image is in its initially immaterial essence. Before us is not an object, not a character, but a sound, which the writer often recreates precisely by means of comparison with another object or concept. The realism of the image depends here on the accuracy of the image found for comparison. So, if in a medieval comparison the subject of comparison is most often a symbol that destroys visual similarity, as in the above example with the "Mother of God - the delighted chamber", then in the sound image the subject of comparison is often a symbol precisely because of the specificity of the material itself.
Let's turn to a specific example: “Andrey Ivanovich trembled with a thin, very sharp, tremor and heard it like a string, somewhere at the very end of the keyboard to the right, - everything rang and rang ...” (“On the kulichki”). As you know, tremors as a physical property of the human body are not sound and are not accompanied by sound. However, being "explained" by the described sound - "string, ... at the very end of the keyboard to the right", which is of secondary importance in relation to the tremor itself, involved precisely as an “auxiliary element” to explain the sound of the tremor, the tremor acquires the status of a sound image. The elements of this comparison are, therefore, completely different from each other: trembling is, in this case, a certain state, the ringing of a string is a sound. However, the author places them, as it were, on one plane, finds something in common, crossing the “generic” boundaries. This is common - the very "inner essence" that Likhachev spoke about in relation to comparison in ancient Russian literature. The destruction of the conditional external similarity, characteristic of the medieval type of comparison, occurs in order to reveal the similarity of the internal, "mental" meaning.
It should be noted that the “sounding tremor” is not an accidental, isolated image in Zamyatin's prose, but a repetitive one. In another, much later written work - the novel "We" (1921), the following words sound: "... listened to the music: my barely audible trembling." Trembling as a sound becomes a symbolic, to a certain extent a symbolic image in the writer's work.
Let us give another example of an image based on a comparison: “… almost unbent - like a wooden ruler - the voice of Yu” (“We”). Here the situation is largely the opposite: the sound itself is "explained" by comparison with the object - the voice and the wooden ruler at a certain threshold of meaning are equated to each other. Just as the ancient Russian writer gives the image of the chamber the epithet "delighted", Zamyatin is not afraid to define the initially immaterial "instance" - the voice with the help physical properties, inherent exclusively to a material object - "not bending", thereby ignoring and destroying any visual similarity.
The following use of the comparison is noteworthy: “In silence there is a distinct hum of wheels, like the noise of inflamed blood” (“We”). On the one hand, there is a sound-to-sound model on the face: the buzz is compared to the noise. On the other hand, the "murmur of inflamed blood" is certainly not sound in the literal sense. It is rather a feeling caused by a certain psychological, or physical condition... The “clear hum of wheels” in silence in a certain situation is associated with the hero, evokes the very feeling that he describes as “the noise of inflamed blood”. Consequently, this comparison is not self-evident; the unity of the inner essence again becomes the basis for it, which is characteristic of the ancient Russian type of comparison.
Finding in contemporary literature comparisons, which are based on the principle that is decisive for the Old Russian comparison, we in no way are trying to prove that the given modern comparisons are some tracing papers from the Old Russian comparisons, but we only state the fact that this principle, conventionally called the principle of inner essence and opposed to the principle of visual similarity, has not become obsolete, but only in slightly different variations is perceived by the literature of the new time, revised by it and preserved.
Let us now turn to the work of Zamyatin, directly stylistically oriented towards the Old Russian church legends. This, for example, is the story “How the Monk Erasmus was healed” (1920) from the “Miracles” cycle. Due to the general stylization of the work for the Old Russian source, it is most logical to look for sound images based on a comparison of the medieval type here. Let us give a number of examples of sound images-comparisons that can be found in the story: “all night long one could hear a light, as if from a tickle, laughter and some creak, and a terrible dew like black tar was dripping down”; "Blessed Pamva ... stopped in amazement, hearing heavy sighs and groans outside the window like a huge beast"; "He heard a light, as if from a bursting vessel, ringing"; "Laughter was heard at the height of the roofs, as if from tickling, and creak and whisper. All these images of sound are created according to one model: one sound is "explained" through another, uniting with the help of the union "as it were". Despite the stylistic prerequisite, there are no comparisons corresponding to the Old Russian type. From the Old Russian comparison in any of the examples given, only the outer shell is preserved: inversion turns, stringing homogeneous members with a connecting link between themselves, stylistically marked words ... The story contains sound-images-comparisons, in external design even more similar to the ancient Russian original, such as, for example, “the young monk had a voice of purity, like a mountain krin ringing from the heights”. However, there is also no comparison based on the unity of the inner essence.
The only comparison in the work, which looks like a truly Old Russian both formally and meaningfully, is found in the following sound image: "her voice pierced Erasmus's heart like some sweet sword." By such a comparison, the author seeks to reveal, as it were, the "inner qualities" of the voice. The epithet "sweet", used in this case in a figurative sense, and attached to a material object, emphasizes that for the writer the sword is only a symbol. Likhachev in the monograph "The Poetics of Old Russian Literature" writes about this: "In this kind of permutation of the epithet from one object of comparison to another, the concrete meaning of words is destroyed, the figurative meaning comes to the fore."
Zamyatin creates sound images in his works using comparisons of different types, both modern, impressionistic, and Russian medieval. Moreover, the principle of the inner essence of compared objects, which is decisive for Old Russian comparison, is often used by the writer in formally modern comparisons that are not stylistically marked. In the works, stylistically oriented to the Old Russian text, on the contrary, sound images-comparisons prevail, corresponding to the Old Russian samples only in their external form, but by no means in terms of their internal saturation.
Thus, the features of ancient Russian comparisons listed by Likhachev, in contrast to modern comparisons, often characterize the comparisons used by Zamyatin to create an image of sound, which gives rise to thinking about a deep, root, sometimes, maybe even unconscious, but nevertheless strong connection of the prose of the writer of the "new" time with the traditions of Ancient Russia.
Literature
1. Zamyatin E.I. Coll. cit .: in 5 volumes - M., 2004.
2. Zamyatin E.I. Selected works / foreword V.B. Shklovsky, introductory article. V.A. Keldysh. - M., 1989.
3. Zamyatin E.I. Selected works. - M., 1990.
4. Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. - L., 1971.
5. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts / ed. A.N. Nikolyukin. - M, 2003.