In the section on the question how did Turkey differ from Iran in the 19th and 20th centuries? given by the author Legal awareness the best answer is In the 19th century, the differences between Turkey (at the time the Ottoman Empire) and Iran (at the time Persia) were minor. Both powers were monarchies (the monarch in the Ottoman Empire was called the sultan, and in Persia, the shah). The difference was that the Ottoman possessions were much larger than those of present-day Turkey, while Persia was within the current borders. The main difference between them was that Persia was ruled in addition to the Persians and the Seljuk Turks, while the Persians did not rule in the Ottoman Empire.
In the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire lasted until 1922. On November 1, 1922, the Sultanate was abolished, and on November 17, 1922, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed VI, left the country. On October 29, 1923, the Turkish Grand National Assembly announced the establishment of the Turkish Republic. The caliphate was abolished on March 3, 1924.
And in Persia in 1935, the Shah demanded that foreign states begin to officially use the self-name of the state - Iran, instead of the name Persia used before. In 1979, as a result of the Islamic revolution, the monarchy was abolished, at a referendum on March 31, 98% of Iranian citizens spoke in favor of building an Islamic republic of the Shiite persuasion in Iran.
Nastya, read the stories of these two countries and see for yourself other differences between them.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Persia embarked on the path of modernization, which turned out to be very difficult for the country. In 1905-1911. Persia is engulfed in revolution. The revolutionaries tried to introduce a Constitution in the country and give power to the Mezhdlis (parliament). Formally, Iran has always remained independent. However, for influencing him for a long time Russia and England competed. In 1907, they divided Iran into spheres of influence. Russia dominated in the north, England in the south. Iran has actually turned into a semi-colony of these countries.
Although Iran tried to maintain neutrality in World War I, battles between the Turks and the Russians and the British unfolded in its western regions. After the October Revolution, as you know, Russia withdraws from the war. Russian troops are withdrawn and the British take their place. From northern Iran, the British tried to help the white armies and anti-Bolshevik movements in Transcaucasia and Central Asia (for example, the Kokand autonomy).
Figure: 1. One of the last shahs of the Qajar dynasty - Mozafferedin.
Figure: 2. Reza Shah Pahlavi.
As you know, the Bolsheviks tried to kindle world revolution not only in Europe, but also in the East. The Bolsheviks helped the Turk Ataturk, now they took over Iran. In 1920-1921. in northwestern Iran, there was the Soviet Gilan Republic, created with the help Soviet Russia... Mirza Kuchek Khan became the head of the republic. However, the experiment with communism in Iran naturally failed.
Iran is a multinational country. There are Persians here, just over half of the population. In the northwest, Kurds and Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis live here (Fig. 4). Kurds are a divided people living at the junction of Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Iranian Azerbaijanis have played a huge role in the history of Iran. Moreover, there are much more Azerbaijanis in Iran than in Azerbaijan itself. About a third of the population were nomads.
Change of the ruling dynasty
Iran has been ruled by the Qajar dynasty for over a hundred years (Fig. 1). She is Turkic in origin, but by the end she almost completely adopted the Persian language, culture, and customs. The Qajars, like the Ottomans, failed to adapt to the new realities and trends of the 20th century.
In 1921 General Reza Khan carried out a coup d'etat. After some time, he will become prime minister, and the last monarch of the Qajar dynasty will be expelled to Europe. And in 1925 the obedient mezhdlis proclaimed the former Cossack ataman shahinshah ("king of kings") of Persia (Fig. 2). The Qajar dynasty was deposed, Reza Shah founded a new dynasty - Pahlavi (from the Parthian language - "brave, noble"). This name emphasized its ancient, Iranian origin.
Reforms
Reza Shah Pahlavi began to carry out rather radical reforms. Under him, Persia experienced a broad national revival. The Shah visited Ankara on several occasions. He admired Ataturk's reforms and imitated him. He even considered the option of introducing a republic in order to become its president like Ataturk. Reza Shah began industrialization, large investments were made in industry. Tax incentives were created for private investors. Railways and highways, seaports and airfields were built. Oil in Iran was discovered at the beginning of the 20th century. Now the British were actively developing it. Replacing the Sharia courts, legal proceedings were introduced
Figure: 3. Persian Cossack brigade
european type. An Iranian army was created on the basis of the Cossack brigade. The authorities force the nomads to settle.
In 1935, Persia returned the ancient self-name "Iran" ("the land of the Aryans"). The pre-Islamic past was diligently revived. The cities were renamed, pre-Islamic monuments were restored. The calendar was transferred from the lunar Islamic calendar to the solar calendar, the names of the ancient Iranian months were introduced. The non-Islamic holiday Navruz was celebrated. Following the example of Ataturk, Reza ordered the Iranian academy to purge Arabisms. Later, however, it turned out that this would affect half of the vocabulary. There was a project to translate writing into Latin. Feudal titles have been withdrawn from use. Surnames and names are translated in the European manner.
Figure: 4.Iran and Afghanistan
A system of free, universal and compulsory primary and secondary education was created. Even the Boy Scouts arose. Secular schools and women's education appeared. A university was opened in Tehran.
Instead of Muslim clothing and hats, European ones are introduced. An attempt was made to emancipate women and equalize them in rights with men. Women could take off their chador. Women appeared in government offices. The parades of female athletes in sports uniforms have become amazing for the Islamic country. Novels and comedies appeared in literature. They began to write for the first time about female emancipation.
Results and consequences of reforms
The reforms turned out to be quite painful for the society. Reza Shah did not follow the example of the Turks in the sphere of religion, but, nevertheless, he forbade the Hajj and the holiday of ashura (ritual self-torture). The Islamic Shiite (Iran is the only Shiite country) clergy accused the Shah of disrespect for religion, servility to alien (Western) culture and called for boycotting secular courts and schools. In 1935, soldiers fired at a crowd in the holy city of Mashhad who protested the wearing of European clothing. The soldiers tore off the veil from the women, tearing it apart with bayonets. The clergy incited backward nomadic tribes against the "godless" government. In response, the authorities poison the wells of the nomads, dooming them to death. One mullah, who criticized Reza Shah, he beat during prayer, the other was kept in prison for years. In 1937, the Ayatollah, one of the country's spiritual leaders, was killed. After that, the clergy were afraid to argue with the Shah. Nevertheless, the protest potential was accumulating. After 40 years, the Islamic clergy became the main opposition to the Shah's regime.
Reza's reforms were not as radical and effective as in Turkey. The government did not have so much will to carry out reforms. And the Iranian people showed less understanding of reforms than ordinary Turks who lived next to Europe and experienced its influence for centuries. Iran lagged behind Turkey in reforms, although the Arab peoples lagged even more behind.
Iran in the first half of the 19th century Babid movements
Multiple devastating conquests, internecine wars + raids of nomads were the reason that by the beginning of the 19th century. Iran remained a backward country dominated by feudal and semi-feudal-semi-patriarchal relations. By this time Iran was not yet a colonial country or a country dependent on foreign powers: the positions of foreigners were limited to the demand for trade privileges. By the beginning of the 19th century. lagged behind Iran created favorable conditions for the penetration of European capital into the country.
Frontier XVIII - XIX centuries - Iran is at the center of the struggle of several Western states.
1783 g ... - Treatise of St. George. The beginning of infringement of the interests of Iran. Georgia joined Russia of its own free will.
1796 g .: french peoplearrived in Tehran and are trying to set up the shah to fight with Russia + with his help to attack India.
From 1800 to 1807 the French had the advantage, but in 1807 an English representative arrived in Tehran and forced the Shah to break off all relations with France.
1801 g .: englishrepresentative Malcolm signed an agreement with the Shah^ Russia and France (do not allow the French to enter Iran and withdraw their troops to Afghanistan if the FRs attack. India; England - trade benefits (free settlement in Iranian ports, no taxes, b / went import of english goods. And in case of war, England will supply weapons).
Transcaucasia: Iran^ Russia Þ russian-Iranian War (1804-13 biennium) England did not helpÞ May 4, 1807 at Napoleon's headquarters, an Iranian-French treaty was signed: the Shah declares war on England, forces Afghanistan to let the French troops into India and send Iranian troops with them, opens the ports of the Persian Gulf for d / fr ships. Napoleon: sends Iran weapons and instructors (military mission of gen.Gardana), makes Russia give up Georgia and Transcaucasia.
1804 g ... - the war over the Georgievsky treatise. England is a wait and see attitude. While Russia was at war with Iran, England was just watching. Then in 1807 Napoleon, taking advantage of the situation, concluded the Iranian-French treaty. Then England urgently begins to build relations with Iran.
July 7, 1807 - Peace of TilsitÞ Iran is again drawing closer to England (including expelling Gardan).
March 1809: Shah + English representative H.Jones - "precedes" the treaty: Iran severs relations with France and continues the war with RussiaÞ english money, weapons, instructors, but Iran¯ (battle at Aslsnduz in 1812.Þ
1812 g . - Gulistan peace, i.e. Iran's rejection of claims to Dagestan, Georgia and Azerbaijan + Russian navy in the Caspian Sea + free entry and trade for Russian merchants in Iran and Iranian merchants in Russia + 5% duty on imported goods. Iran and England are unhappyÞ
The Gulistan peace is a blow to the British plans to penetrate Iran.
November 14, 1814: Anglo-Iranian agreement confirming the terms of 1809. (termination of alliances by Iran^ England + assistance in the event of an Anglo-Afghan war for this - finance and military assistance if necessary).
1814 g ... - secret Anglo-Iranian treaty. The Shah must annul all alliances with states hostile to England. Must invite military instructors only from England. For this, they promised to help in revising the Gulistan peace.
1821‑23 biennium: Iran's successful war^ Turkey, but the Erzurum Treaty (1823) preservedstatus quo since n / a war with Russia (1826-28) with Turkey is better to be friends.
July 1826 - Shah's troops, suddenly attacking the Russians, began the second Russian-Iranian war (1826-1828).
Failure of Iran. October 1827 - Yerevan, Tibriz and other cities are occupied by the Russians.
February 1828 - Turkmanchay world. The exclusive right of Russia to have a navy in the Caspian. The border is along the river. Araks; Russia - East. Armenia + 20 million rubles + the right of extraterritoriality and other benefits for Russians. D / payment of indemnitytaxes Þ folk. discontent and pogrom of the Russian mission in Tehran in 1829 (death of Griboyedov; Iranian-Russian relations± did not deteriorate).
The signing of the peace \u003d aggravation of the Anglo-Russian contradictions.
February 1829 - The British provoked an attack by Iranian fanatics on the Russian mission. Griboyedov and all employees were torn to pieces. The Shah sent an apology to Nikolai to Petersburg. Nikolai did not know how to react.
The British took advantage of the situation and, having displaced one contender to the Shah's throne, they elevated Mohammed (1834-1848) to the throne.
1834 g .: English did not intervene in the struggle for the throne, helping with arms Mohammed, the son of Abbas Mirza (successfully).
At the same time, he received a gift - a consignment of weapons in connection with the "VOSHAKHANIE".
But paralyzing Russia's influence isn't easy.
Herat question ... 1837 - the shah undertook a campaign against Herat and laid siege to it.
1838 g ... - England unexpectedly breaks the dip. relations with Iran and threatens to forge an alliance with Herat. Shah lifts the siege from Herat. England restores relations (1841). At the same time - low duties on British goods imported into Iran.
1838 g .: English expedition to the Persian Gulf and military threats, demands to lift the siege from Herat and sign a trade agreement with England \u003d Turkmanchay with Russia.
1839 g .: the rupture of diplomatic relations between Angia and Iran.
1841 g .: restoration of relations, acceptance of the requirements of England (ie trade agreement).
1845 g .: the same privileges - France and many others.
1856 g .: an unequal "friendship and trade" agreement with the United States.Þ active penetration of foreign capital into the country.
Babid uprisings (1848‑52).
Prerequisites:
v capitulation regime in Iran
v unequal contracts
Þ penetration of foreign capitalÞ
Þ Iranian handicrafts and home industries went bankruptÞ
Þ path to the development of cap. manufactories in Iran closed
v at the same time - the crisis of the feudal-fief poll
v hunger, epidemics Þ discontent
K. 1840s: in Zanjan, Isfahan and other regions, under the influence of the Shiite sect of Babis, spontaneous uprisings became more frequent^ khans and shahs. The Babid sect. Founder - merchant Ali Mohammed... At first he was in the sheikhite sect (they were expecting the imminent arrival of the 12th Imam Mahdi).
1844 g ... - declared himself Bab ("Mediator" Mahdi)
1847 g ... - named himself Mahdi... Main provisions of the doctrine - in his book "Beyan" ("Revelation"), to-I dob become a new sacred book, because the provisions of the Quran are already out of date.
"Beyan": people are equal, and it is necessary to create a sacred state of Babids in critical areas Iran (Azerbaijan, Mazandaran, Ts. Iraq, Fars, Khorasan). Drive out foreigners and non-bids, divide their property + guarantee the rights of person and property. At the same time, there are specific requirements in the interests of traders (himself one of them): secrecy of trade correspondence, legalization of usury, payment of debts, etc. Benefits and benefits for merchants.
In 1846 Bab was arrested and imprisoned in a fortress (Maku, then Chekhrik), but his work lives on: Molla Mohammed Ali Barforushsky, preach tsaKorrat el-Ain et al developed his theoryÞ
Summer 1848 - meeting of the Babis in Bedasht (district of Shahrud): laws, taxes, etc. abolish, introduce common property and gender equality. The authorities dispersed them.
But in September 1848 - 1st Babid uprising in Mazandaran. Made^ authorities, settled on the river. Talar at the tomb of Sheikh Tabarsi and built a fortress.± 2000 people, mostly peasants and artisans, the leaders are the Mohammed Ali Barforushsky mall and the Hossein Bosruye mall. They canceled private property and declared equality of people (they ate from a common boiler).
May 1849 - the uprising was suppressed, the surrendered were killed.
May 1850 - 2nd uprising of the Babis in Zanjan, head - Molla Mohammed Ali Zanjan. Mainly local peasants + artisans and small traders; a lot of women. The slogans are the same, for suppression - shelling east. parts of the city where the Babis settled. Their influence in IranÞ in July 1850 women were shot in Tabriz. Did not help.
December 1850 - Babids were again persuaded to lay down their arms and killed.
June 1850, city of Neyriz (Fars province) - 3rd uprising of the Babidssuppressed for several daysÞ the sympathizers went to the mountains and fought back for a long time, and then they were executed for a long time. After that, a massive movement¯ , the region and crafts were distracted, the preachers went to the mountains.
August 1852 - staged an attempt on the life of Nasser al-Din-ShahÞ they were executed all over the country. Subsequently, 1 of Baba's students, Behaollah, spoke for the preservation of private property and social inequality, for obedience to the authorities and the refusal of violent actions and the struggle for national independenceÞ new teaching, bahaism.
VERDICT: against feudal oppression and enslavement by foreign powers. The main forces are artisans, peasants, small traders. Their demands are utopian. Features typical of medieval movements. Spontaneity, locality.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Iran turned into a semi-colony of world capitalist states. Despotism and colonial oppression further complicated the state of the people. The discontent of the people increased in the country.
Iranian despotic power relied on the feudal-bureaucratic layers, especially the regional authorities and the families of the khans. The land was owned by the owners who exploited the peasants. Peasants, as well as artisans and small traders living in cities, were also drawn into the networks of usurers.
Iranian landowners, traders and usurers demanded limitation of the Shah's power, the inviolability of their property, an end to the arbitrariness of governors and khans, and the equalization of the rights of Iranian investors with foreign investors.
England was in first place in terms of investments in Iran. In 1872, concessions were obtained for the use of Iranian oil mines, for the construction of cobblestone pavements and railways... In 1889, the British monopoly Reuters achieved the opening of the Shah Bank in Iran. As agreed, the bank received the right to issue paper money and free use of the country's subsoil. On the eve of World War I, Iran owed England £ 9.6 million.
Russia also participated in the enslavement of Iran. On the eve of World War I, Iran's debt to Russia amounted to 164 million rubles. Iran's economic dependence has increased its political dependence. The influence of the Russians in the Shah's palace was especially strong. The British chose a different path. They set the Bakhtiar tribes of the Persian region, the khans of Khuzistan, against the center, the shah's power.
Iranian revolution
Internal social contradictions, external economic and political pressure caused the beginning of the revolutionary movement in Iran in 1905. The population of the country demanded the expulsion from the territory of the country of all Russian-British investors, who dominated all industrial sectors.
A general strike took place in the country. The Shah's government cracked down on the strikers brutally. A popular movement began. The people adopt the tactics of passive confrontation, sitting peacefully in mosques and cemeteries. This was called the best, 'those who enjoyed the best (the right of asylum) could not be punished. Demonstrators came out with a demand to limit the power of the Shah, to abolish the domination of foreign capitalists (to form a "house of justice", expel "evil" officials).
Shah threw to suppression popular movement armed forces, but the troops refused to shoot at the people. As a result, on August 5, 1906, the shah was forced to issue a decree on the adoption of the constitution, which was not implemented. The people rebelled again. As a result, the first parliament, the Majlis, was formed in Tabriz for the first time in the history of Iran. The Majlis was under the influence of the Iranian Social Democrats. On September 9, under pressure from the people, the king issued a decree on holding elections to the Majlis. Kojars (that is, belonging to the Shah's family), priests, merchants, landowners and peasants, artisans - only 6 social strata - received the right to participate in elections.
In 1906, elections to the Majlis were held. Shah Muzaf-fariddin approved the first part of the constitution. According to her, the shah was given the right to approve all laws, adopt the budget, and control its use. The Majlis had the right to conclude economic agreements with foreigners.
Muzaffariddin died in 1907. Instead, Muhammad Alishah, a supporter of a despotic system, an opponent of innovation, sat on the throne. He planned to fight against revolutionary change. The new Shah was a categorical opponent of the Majlis, but the growth of the revolutionary movement forced him to maintain constitutional order in Iran. Thus ended the first stage of the Iranian revolution of 1905-1907.
Second stage of the revolution
The 1907-1911s are called the second stage of the Iranian revolution. The revolutionary movement was now directed against the colonialists. The urban poor also came out with their demands.
Special big influence had an organization of mujahideen. They came out with such demands as universal suffrage with secret ballot, the creation of societies, the observance of individual rights, the confiscation of the shah's lands, the limitation of working hours to 8 hours, the introduction of free compulsory education, etc.
Under the influence of the democratic movement, the king reduced the payment of benefits to aristocratic families, abolished the titles inherent in feudal times, and also issued decrees against bribery and corruption. The Shah agreed to approve and sign the most important, democratic articles of the constitution. Of particular importance were articles such as the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of person and property, the creation of civil societies, the holding of assemblies, the secular court (along with the religious court), the separation of legislative and executive bodies, etc.
At the same time, the shah was given great rights. For example, the shah was a person free from obligations, had the right to declare war as Commander-in-Chief, conclude a truce, appoint and dismiss ministers. The regulation determined the taking of the Shah's oath of allegiance to the constitution and laws. Five venerable religious confessors (ulamo) were appointed to monitor the compliance of the adopted laws with Sharia.
Anglo-Russian convention
The Anglo-Russian colonialists did not remain indifferent to the revolutionary changes in Iran. They pursued a violent policy towards Iran. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed. By agreement, Iran was divided into three parts. It was established that Northern Iran will be in the zone of influence of Russia, Southern Iran - in the zone of influence of England. The middle part of Iran has been declared a neutral zone. At the same time, the Shah in 1908, with the help of the British and Russians, carried out a counter-revolutionary coup d'etat. Russian Cossack troops fired at the Mejlis building from cannons. The Majlis was dissolved. The democratic press was banned.
After the collapse of the Majlis, the center of the revolutionary movement moved to Tabriz. Tsarist troops attacked Tabriz and blocked the city. Hunger began. The Tabriz uprising, cut off from the outside world, was defeated.
Politics of great states in Iran
Although the Tabriz uprising drowned, the movement against the Shah did not stop. In 1909, in Tehran, Mohammad Alishah was dethroned. Instead, his young son Ahmad was proclaimed shah. The constitution was restored. To improve the country's economy, the government was forced to take a loan from foreign countries. For example, a loan was taken from England in the amount of 1 million 250 thousand pounds. Internal counter-revolutionary forces with the help of Russia and England launched a counterattack on the revolutionary Majlis. In 1911, Russian troops took part in a counter-revolutionary coup d'état. Thus, the Iranian revolution was suppressed.
The revolution of 1905-1911 in Iran became a great social event, a transitional stage from a feudal-monarchical system to a constitutional monarchy.
On the eve of World War I, Iran's dependence on other states increased. In 1912, Iran was forced to recognize the 1907 Convention on the zones of influence of Russia and England. A loan was taken from Russia in the amount of 14 million rubles. Iran has become dependent on the great states in the economic and political spheres.
Best (Persian, best) - the right of refuge in the territories of some sacred and inviolable places (mosques, tombs). Concession (lat. Concessio - permission, concession) - an agreement for the commissioning of underground resources by state bodies, surface facilities on certain conditions.
Concession (lat.concessio - permission, assignment) - an agreement for the commissioning of underground resources by state bodies, surface facilities on certain conditions
Speaking about the modernization of Iran (Persia), it should be borne in mind that this state was geographically more remote from western countries (it was more "oriental" not only geographically, but also socio-culturally) and, unlike the Ottoman Empire, did not have numerous and bourgeois entrepreneurial Christian communities (with the exception of Armenians). Thus, the lack of numerous and well-established contacts with Western Europeans made it difficult to carry out modernization in this country.
Another important factor was the presence of a powerful influence on the power of the Shiite clergy, who had exceptional influence over the local population. On the other hand, Shiite Islam and the clergy, in potential, did not act as such an insurmountable obstacle to reforms in Iran. Shiism as a socially mobilizing factor in the country could play a key role depending on the course of reforms, the possibility of a compromise between the authorities and the clergy, either in the direction of their approval or categorical rejection. And this factor, as events showed, did not work in favor of the reformers.
IN early XIX in. Iran's rulers have become more favorable to European cultural influence and borrowing in the military-technical field. For influence on Iran, an acute rivalry unfolded between the British and French military-political missions, in which the victory remained with the British. Iran's military defeats and territorial losses in wars with Russia (1804-1813) and (1826-1828) pushed the country's leadership in the need for reforms. But the key role was played by an internal factor - the religious and social popular Babid uprising in 1848-1850.
In 1844, the seid Ali-Mohammed declared himself Bab, the “door” (or gate) through which the expected twelfth imam as the Messiah Mahdi was about to descend to earth. Subsequently, he declared himself this imam and proclaimed a new radical social doctrine with pronounced egalitarian ideas. Despite the brutal suppression of this uprising, the anti-government banner of the Babis was taken up by Hussein Ali, who called himself Behaullah. He declared himself a supporter of nonviolent actions and, having adopted many of the Western ideas, spoke out against wars, for tolerance, equality, and the redistribution of property into a kind of supranational world community. Despite the defeat, both Babism and Bahaism nevertheless prepared the ground for the necessary transformations.
Mirza Tagi Khan, better known as Amir Nizam, who was appointed the first vizier in 1848 and then the first minister, became a convinced reformer and ideologist of Iranian reforms. Having visited the Ottoman Empire and Russia, he managed to convince Shah Nasr ed-Din (1848-1896) of the need for reforms.
First of all, the army was reorganized, the most restrictive for the development of the state medieval order was eliminated. State manufactories appeared, founded high school Darol-Fonun (House of Sciences), where about 200 students studied. Young Iranians were sent abroad to study, and European teachers began to be invited to the country. Amir Nizam tried to limit the influence of the higher clergy on state affairs, and this brought on himself irreconcilable conservative opposition led by the leader of the Tehran clergy.
The conservative clergy, together with the princes of the Shah's house, were able to convince the Shah of the ruinous reforms of Amir Nizam. The latter at the end of 1851 was removed from all posts, exiled and soon executed. Nevertheless, Amir Nizam's reformist initiative did not disappear, he was picked up by Malkom Khan, who, being in the diplomatic service in France, even joined the Masonic lodge. Returning to his homeland, Malkom Khan created in 1860 an educational and religious organization resembling the form of the Faramushkhane Masonic lodge, in which there were many high-ranking officials, including the son of the Shah himself. This organization was engaged in propaganda under a religious cover (secular teaching in a religious society would not have been perceived at all) of the ideas and values \u200b\u200bof the French Revolution: freedom of personality and property, freedom of thought and religion, freedom of speech, press, assembly, equality of rights, etc. But the traditionalists and conservative clergy did not sleep, they were able this time to convince the shah of the destructiveness of the Islamic faith itself, the activities of this organization. As a result, in October 1861, Faramushkhane was disbanded, and Malkom Khan himself, very famous in the West, was exiled into honorary exile for diplomatic work.
The next attempt to reform the country was undertaken in 1870 by the Shah’s appointee, Prime Minister Hussein Khan. The shah himself issued a carte blanche to carry out reforms, who repeatedly visited Russia and Europe and personally became convinced of the need for reforms. An administrative reform was carried out. Secular schools appeared. But the reforms mainly consisted in the wide distribution of industrial and natural resources in the monopoly development of the English and Russian capitalists. The events themselves were very superficial and did not touch the foundations of the existing system. But even this time even such cautious reforms provoked sharp opposition from the conservatives, primarily the clergy, and in 1880, under their pressure, the shah dismissed Hussein Khan.
Reforms within the socio-political system had almost stopped, but the government was increasingly opening the way for foreign companies. At the end of the XIX century. the country was placed under almost complete control of British and Russian capital. The country was flooded with cheap foreign manufactured goods, competition with which undermined local handicrafts and hampered the creation of a national industry. There was no national industry proper; it was replaced by foreign, mainly British, industry. As a result, Iran has become a raw material appendage of European powers and a market for Western (including Russian) products. The British effectively controlled the oil-rich south of the country, Russia consolidated its influence in the north of Iran. Both powers: Russia and Great Britain actively competed with each other in Iran. In fact, the country was turned into a semi-colony of two powers. Over 80% of the entire trade turnover of Persia accounted for these two countries, and bilateral agreements provided for duty-free import or extremely low taxation of the goods of these two countries. In general, the colonialism of Great Britain and Russia accelerated the decomposition of traditional relations in Iran, led to the emergence of the educational movement of the Iranian intelligentsia and contributed to the awakening of national consciousness and the gradual formation of bourgeois ideology. The beginning of the disintegration of traditional social ties raised the question of the country's future, aroused interest in the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial progress in general and in the search for ways of further development of Iran, which had fallen into semi-colonial dependence. The enlightened Iranian elite increasingly realized that trying to avoid Western innovations was a road to nowhere. The problem was how to reconcile the dominant traditional Shiite worldview with the inevitability of the introduction of more secular (European) forms of life, so as not to finally turn into a colony? But this problem was never resolved.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the socio-political situation in Iran was very tense. In opposition to the ruling regime were broad strata of the population: workers, the national bourgeoisie, feudal lords and even part of the clergy. Dissatisfaction with the Shah's regime and the dominance of foreigners resulted in the revolution of 1905-1911. The influence of an external factor, the revolution in Russia, immediately showed itself. In addition, many migrant workers worked in Russia to earn money.
Under pressure from the revolutionary masses, the Shah signed a constitution and opened the Mejlis (parliament) in 1906. In 1907, the Majlis legislated the basic civil rights and freedoms and created secular courts. Local self-government bodies, political, religious and professional clubs and organizations began to appear everywhere. Britain and Russia, sensing a threat to their interests in Iran, sided with the reaction, providing serious military assistance to the Shah. When these measures did not help, in 1911 Russian troops in the north and British troops in the south entered Iran. In December 1911, a counter-revolutionary coup took place in the country, the Mejlis was dissolved, and all power again passed to the Shah. Nevertheless, the revolutionary turmoil with large episodes of the civil war was not in vain; it paved the way for the possible modernization of Iranian society.