During the Early New Age (XVI-XVII) in Western Europe, the features of the agrarian society were destroyed, the estate division of society was gradually eroded, and a new class division arose. Old medieval values \u200b\u200bwere inferior to some new ones. The medieval Catholic civilization was reborn into the Western civilization of the New Age.
Increasingly, in the center of large cities in the XVI-XVII centuries, it was possible to walk not along dusty, dirty and dark streets, but along cobblestone bridges, in some places illuminated by oil lamps. They began to remove the fetid heaps of garbage and debris. Immediately weakened in the Middle Ages, the plague and cholera epidemics terrible. Accelerated population growth.
Class division of society
The new economy and lifestyle brought together representatives of different classes and separated them not by rights and obligations, but by the presence or absence of capital, and the level of income. This division of society is usually called class.
Capitalist class (bourgeoisie, entrepreneurs) united by the fact that they were all private owners of capital, organizing production or trade for profit, and used the labor of wage workers.
Class of wage workers united people deprived of ownership of land, houses, tools, voluntarily hired by the capitalist and paid for their labor.
Capitalists (entrepreneurs)
In those countries of Europe where trade and capitalist relations (England, the Netherlands, parts of France, Italy, Germany) quickly developed, a new type of people appeared - entrepreneurscapable of any business, enterprise to achieve personal success. The merchant left the guild to become a shareholder of the joint-stock company. A craftsman left his fellow workers so that they would not prohibit him from using lathes in the new manufactory. The peasant, who made a fortune by selling milk and wool, threw the rural community so as not to pay the rent of the feudalu along with everyone for a small allotment. Instead, he took from the feudal lord in rent(temporary use for a fee) a large plot of land and built a farm there - a house with a barn, cowshed, poultry house. All these entrepreneurs are a shareholder, a manufacturer, farmer -hired wage laborers, competed in the market, made up capital. So a new layer of society appeared - the capitalists (bourgeoisie, entrepreneurs).
The wealthy entrepreneurs from the third estate put on the clothes of the nobility of silk and fur, put on gold chains, order carved armchairs and beds, start building houses from stone and brick.
Wage workers (proletarians)
However, for many, there was no place in the new life. Thousands of new people began to be added to the beggars usual for the Middle Ages - cripples, orphans, fire victims - every year. Craftsmen ravaged by manufactories and deprived of workshops and housing for debts. Small traders who could not stand the competition with large companies. Peasants driven out of their lands by successful entrepreneurs. Crowds of ragged poor people filled the streets of European cities. Some of them united in gangs of thieves and robbers. Part of the authorities was imprisoned for begging. But for some of the ruinous people, there was work at manufactories or at farms of farmers. So another layer of the New Age society was born - wage workers - proletarians (in Latin - “have-nots”).
Noble knights
If the representatives of the third estate are wealthy, then for many feudal knights hard times have come. Prices rose, and feudal wages from the peasants did not allow to increase the old customs and peasant riots. Trade was considered an occupation unworthy of a noble knight. But even in military affairs, kings replaced knightly militias regular mercenary armies. The famous warlords received permission from the king and money to recruit troops and were declared generals. They picked up officers and they hired soldier (from the Italian "soldo" - "coin"). Well done mercenaries were dressed in uniforms, armed, trained to fight in a single formation, to execute commands. The knights now sought to enter the service and receive an officer rank in the cavalry regiment, the company of the front sights, the artillery battery. From noble single warriors, they turned into people dependent on the king and his court. Therefore, in modern times, the descendants of medieval knights are usually called the palace-us, or knights nobles. Material from the site
New nobility
Many noble, but dodgy and competent citizens quickly realized that high-profile titles and land holdings can now be earned in the service of the king in the army, and even better - in the bureaucracy. The kings raised the distinguished servants to a knightly (noble) rank. The wealthy capitalists even bought it from the kings. Newly made nobles took brides from knightly, but impoverished families, and gradually accustomed their new relatives to doing business. So it arose "New nobility", which, unlike the "old" in spirit, was close to entrepreneurs.
Society and State
In the Early New Age period, absolute monarchies took shape in Western Europe, the self-awareness of nations and new ideas about the life of society and the state were formed.
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“Russia and Europe in the 17th century”
Socio-economic and political development of Europe:
Beginning in November 1640, the English bourgeois revolution had a decisive influence on the fate of a large region, significantly influenced the whole subsequent world history. Despite the fact that the capitalist formation appeared in the sixteenth century during the victorious completion of the Dutch revolution, it was the revolution in England that turned it from a local phenomenon into one that had European and world significance. Therefore, the historical era that replaced the Middle Ages - a new time - is usually dated from the English Revolution. The historical era is a worldwide phenomenon. In the middle of the XVII century, a new time came not only in England, but throughout the world. In a world that remains formally heterogeneous, new leading trends are emerging. There is a shift in social landmarks. Countries; those remaining feudal turn out to be lagging behind in historical development compared to those that have reached a different social level.
In most countries of Western and Central Europe, the process of decomposition of the feudal system took place and capitalist relations arose. Feudalism gradually lost its specific features: closed subsistence farming, personal serfdom, and the monopoly of workshops in industrial production. New economic forms are emerging: rental relations in the countryside, the development of non-shop industry and its subordination to the buyer, differentiation within the shops themselves, etc. The main events in the socio-economic sphere of this period were: the process of initial accumulation of capital associated with the mass expropriation of direct producers, especially the peasantry, and the emergence of the world colonial system; the process of the emergence and development of progressive capitalist forms of production, exchange and distribution — capitalist manufactory in industry, bourgeois farming in the countryside, capitalist-type trading and banking companies. Qualitative changes that took place in the economy were accompanied by a breakdown of the social structure of feudal society, an aggravation of socio-political conflicts covering all areas of public life.
Not all European countries have equally experienced these processes. In some of them, capitalist development did not have noticeable successes, and the growth of commodity-money relations and foreign trade relations mainly used the nobility to enrich themselves by returning to the most rude forms of feudal exploitation of the peasantry - corvée and serfdom (Hungary, Germany after the defeat of the Peasant War 1525 g., Czech Republic after the failure of the liberation movement). In Italy, XVI-XVII centuries. early capitalist relations gradually fell into decline due to changes in the structure of the external market, entrenched political and economic fragmentation of the country, which became the object of the aggressive policy of large absolutist monarchies. In Spain and Portugal, carried out in the XVI century. large colonial seizures, the process of initial accumulation took place and capitalist manufactories began to appear in some industries. However, further progressive economic development of these countries was suppressed by a triumphant feudal reaction.
Otherwise, the development of such states as England, the Netherlands, France. In these countries there was a decomposition of feudal production relations, the process of initial accumulation, the emergence of a capitalist structure, developed. In the social sphere, two new classes arose - the bourgeoisie and the forerunner of the proletariat - the pre-proletariat.
The emergence of the capitalist system was due to the development of productive forces. Production is constantly in a state of change, in the first place undergo changes in the tool. In this regard, in the XVII century. A number of major successes were achieved. In the field of mining during the XVII century. The persistent search for the use of coal for iron smelting continued. The greatest success was achieved in this regard in England by Lord Dadley, who took in 1621 a patent for “smelting of iron ore and the production of iron castings from it using coal.” Great progress has been made in resolving the problem of using water power. In the second half of the XVII century. successful attempts were made in France and England to install steam pumps (Denis Papin's invention of an atmospheric steam engine in 1690). This invention, based on knowledge of the laws of physics, was one of the immediate predecessors of the invention of the steam engine in the 18th century. 80
During the XVI-XVII centuries. further advances have been made in the field of blast furnace metal production. The development of military equipment had a great influence on the development of metallurgy. The transition to firearms (muskets, guns, etc.) required a large amount of metal. Quantitatively, artillery was already in the XVI-XVII centuries. It was a mass weapon. The cannons were widely used by both parties in the Thirty Years War of 1618-1648, during the civil war in England in the middle of the XVII century.
In the XVII century, shipbuilding and maritime navigation achieved great success. In addition to increasing the tonnage of ships (compared to the sixteenth century, the average tonnage of the ship increased by 500 tons), the ships received high speed. The latter was achieved by the development of the sailing system. At the beginning of the XVII century. the ship's deck began to be covered with metal sheets. In addition to the compass and astrolabe, which determined the distance traveled by the ship in the sun, the sailors of the 17th century. widely used telescope, chronometer, sextant. Sea charts have become a necessary part of the ship’s crew.
At the end of the XVI-XVII centuries. In Europe, watchmaking has become increasingly common. Watchmaking centers were in different countries: in France - Paris; in the Netherlands - Amsterdam and Antwerp; in Switzerland, Geneva and Neuchâtel. In the middle of the XVII century. In Holland, a wall or tower clock with a pendulum was invented. The clock was the first known automatic machine during the transition from the Middle Ages to the new time. With the development of tools, machinery and production technology, the skills and classification of the manufacturers themselves improved. Significantly increased the social division of labor.
In the context of the changing mode of production, the transition from feudalism to capitalism, the bourgeoisie was forming, turning into an influential social class. Instead of the townspeople of individual cities possessing various political privileges, a class of the urban bourgeoisie was created on a national scale, with common class interests and the same political rights. Along with the formation of this class, new forms of ideology developed, reflecting the needs of the "third estate". A major role in the struggle against the prevailing feudal ideology was played by humanism and the Renaissance. The Reformation Movement - the demand for reform of the Catholic Church - was directly clothed in the ideological form of religious teachings - Lutheranism, Zwinglianism and Calvinism. The first two movements gave ideological weapons to the broad social movement of the progressive layers in the German Empire and Switzerland in the 16th century. Calvinism, in which the bourgeois character of the Reformation came to the fore, became the ideology of the most daring part of the then bourgeoisie, the banner of the Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries of England.
In the process of registration of the bourgeois nations of different countries of Europe at the turn of the XVII century. the bourgeoisie played a leading role, concentrating production and exchange, expanding and strengthening economic ties in their country, and playing an increasingly important role in politics and culture. At the same time, in general, in the XVII century. in most countries of Europe feudal lords dominated. The state’s form was the noble monarchy, in which the king was none other than the “first nobleman” of his state, who headed the privileged noble estate and stood guard over his estate interests.
In the XVII century. the bourgeoisie was closely connected with the strengthened royal power. The union of the bourgeoisie with the royal power was prepared historically, for many centuries of the Middle Ages, when the royal power and the cities had a common enemy - large feudal lords. The enrichment of the bourgeoisie, its transformation into a class of capitalists, was supposed to further strengthen its attention from the royal authority. A number of new forms of linking the centralized feudal state with the class of the bourgeoisie have been outlined - in the form of state loans, a repayable tax system, protectionist policies, etc. The decomposition of feudalism and the interest of a significant part of the nobility in the development of market relations, on the one hand, and the growth and folding of the bourgeoisie into a new, influential class, on the other, led to the establishment of the last form of the feudal state - absolutism, in the form of unlimited power of the king, noble in its class essence, but developed under the conditions of nascent capitalism and forced to reckon with the growing bourgeoisie.
The main pillar of royal absolutism was the small and medium nobles, which constituted the core of his army. In a number of countries, the absolute monarchy has achieved the destruction of the independence of the church, increasing its power and at the same time having the opportunity to dispose of part or all of the church lands. The absolute monarchy was based on the bourgeoisie in the struggle against the feudal aristocracy, for the unification of the country and the destruction of feudal unrest. She used the development of manufacture, especially in the sectors that served the needs of the army, to strengthen the armed forces of the feudal state.
The growth of finances of absolutism was also promoted by significant additional income, which he derived through taxation from the development of industry and trade. The system of permanent taxes collected without the help of estate-representative institutions strengthened the position of absolutism. All this, on the whole, made absolutism a very effective form of superstructure, which used bourgeois development in its own interests, to maintain the position of the ruling class of feudal lords. An important tool in the hands of absolutism and at the same time an instrument for using the bourgeoisie as a counterweight to the nobility was the bureaucracy, which was composed mainly of representatives of the bourgeoisie and was closely associated with it.
The absolute monarchy could use the bourgeoisie for their own purposes, because the bourgeoisie itself needed at the stage of its formation the support of a strong state and was ready to serve it. In her political struggle with the nobility, she still did not pursue the goal of overthrowing the feudal system, but sought separate concessions that contributed to her exaltation and enrichment: tax cuts, taxation of the nobility and clergy, suppression of feudal reaction and feudal separatism. The bourgeoisie supported royal absolutism, because it used the apparatus of violence to carry out the expropriation of producers, passed laws against the expropriated, and gave it the opportunity to profit from government loans, tax payments, and protectionism.
In its classical form, absolutism took shape in France and England. In Spain, Sweden and other countries, both the structure of the absolute monarchy and the politics of absolutism were distinguished by their originality. In some European countries, the turn of the XVI-XVI1 centuries. a feudal reaction regime was established. This was reflected in the economic sphere - the return to serfdom - and the political sphere - the weakening of state centralization and royal power, in the triumph of feudal fragmentation and anarchy. Such a line of economic and political development triumphed in Poland, the German Empire, and the countries of Central and Southeast Europe. However, in some countries of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie already in the XVI century. came into conflict with the feudal state. The English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century (1640-1660) paved the way for the transition of humanity from pre-industrial to industrial society.
The development of science and culture:
In connection with the birth of capitalist forms of economy and the development of more sophisticated technology in Western Europe, great interest in natural science is awakening. In this regard, the XVII century. It was not only the era of the rise of the humanities and the visual arts, but also the beginning of the brilliant development of the exact mathematical and natural sciences. Why the boundary of the XVI-XVII centuries. became a time of revolution in the development of natural science? The onset of a new era in the study of nature by man was primarily directly related to the development of productive forces and material culture in general. The development of production contributed to scientific progress, as it provided an enormous supply of new facts for observation and made obvious the possibility of solving some theoretical problems. At the same time, the rise of material production armed scientists with new tools and means for conducting scientific work. The improvement of craft technology prepared the inventions of the 17th century: a microscope, telescope, hydrometer, thermometer, mercury barometer, etc. appear.
The second reason for the revolution in the field of natural sciences lay in the field of social. The bourgeoisie forming in Western Europe was interested in resolving the practical issues of production and technology, in studying nature.
The new Renaissance culture was further developed. Representatives of this culture - humanists - fought persistently against medieval scholasticism and its inherent vices: with the habit brought up from school, relying not on our own strengths and observations, but on authority, not subject to critical verification by reason, with a lack of understanding of the significance of experience, and the desire to reconcile science with theology.
In the XVII century. Astronomy has achieved new successes. The work of the great scientists - Nicolaus Copernicus, who created a new doctrine on the structure of the universe - the heliocentric system, and Giordano Bruno - was continued by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who finally proved the correctness of the new astronomical theory. In the first half of the XVII century. there was a complete revolution in the development of physics, associated with the activities of Galileo, who resolutely took the path of creating a science based on experience and the use of exact mathematical methods in the analysis and generalization of experimental data. The French scientist Rene Descartes, who formulated, in particular, the law of inertia in a more general form (1644), also contributed to the work begun by the Italian scientist to clarify the true laws of the motion of material bodies.
In addition to mechanics, other branches of physics begin to develop rapidly. French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) formulated a law on the transfer of pressure in liquids. The English scientist Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and the Frenchman Marriott (1620-1684) discovered independently from each other the law on the ratio of the gas volume to the pressure exerted on it. Of great importance to discoveries in mechanical physics was the discovery by the Dutch scientist Christian Huygens (1629-1695) of the law on the motion of a pendulum.
A major achievement of the XVII century. in the field of medicine was the discovery of blood circulation (1628) by the English physician William Harvey.
XVII century is the time of the rapid development of mathematics. Descartes and the French mathematician Fermat created analytic geometry by establishing the relationship between algebra and geometry using the coordinate method. Mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century Descartes, Fermat, Cavalieri, Pascal, Kepler and others developed separate questions of the analysis of infinitesimal quantities, paving the way for the creation of differential and integral calculus in the second half of the century (I. Newton and G. Leibniz).
XVII century became an important frontier of the Renaissance culture. A great contribution to the development of world fine art was made by Spanish and Flemish artists. Spain has given the world painters such as B. Murillo (1617-1682) ID. Velazquez (1599-1660). Brushes Murillo belongs to several classic madonnas, competing in their artistry with the madonnas of Rafael. Velazquez was a master of ceremonial portraiture, painted large paintings on labor themes, battle subjects. Of these, the most famous are “Forge of the Volcano”, “Strands”, “Capture of the city of Breda”. Two names are especially characteristic of Flemish art: N. Rubens (1577-1640) and his student A. Van Dyck (1599-1641) .Rubens - a wonderful master of the image of the human body and landscape. Van Dyck was primarily a first-class portrait painter. The world-famous Dutch school brought the great Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669). His paintings are especially famous: “Anatomy Lesson”, “Portrait of Saskia”, “Night Watch”, “The Return of the Prodigal Son”.
In the XVII century. further developed literary work. Works of two outstanding playwrights of Spain - Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and Pedro Calderona (1600-1681) received worldwide fame. At the beginning of the century in Spain, two parts of the famous novel The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha (Don Quixote) by the genius Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) were published. XVII century gave the world French classic writers such as Cornell (1606-1684), Moliere (1622-1673), Lafontaine (1621-1695), Racine (1639-1699).
Along with the development of science and culture, a new philosophy was created, which was based on the results of experimental natural sciences. She sought to explain the world, proceeding from himself, and not resorting to the help of religion. She proclaimed experience the sole criterion of truth. Philosophical materialism, once achieved remarkable development in the ancient world and rejected in the Middle Ages, has now revived again, but on a different, broader and more solid basis of exact science. The most important role was played by the works of the English scientist F. Bacon (1561-1626), the French philosopher and mathematician Descartes (1596-1650) and the Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza (1632-1677).
Political map of Europe and international relations:
By the beginning of the XVII century. on the basis of growing economic ties, the gradual formation of a capitalist structure, most of the countries of Western Europe are united territorially, a common language for each country, a common culture is formed, which creates conditions for the emergence of nations. The strengthening of centralized states contributed to this process. The coincidence in time of the process of national consolidation and political centralization in countries such as France and England led to the formation of states there in which the vast majority of the population belonged to one nation, and representatives of other nations or nationalities did not constitute any significant groups.
The situation was different in Eastern Europe. Here capitalism either did not develop at all, or its rudimentary forms existed, and the historical living conditions of the peoples inhabiting these territories led to the creation of centralized states inhabited by several nationalities. So, for example, in the Austrian Habsburg Empire of the XVI-XVII centuries. the newly formed Austrian nation at that time claimed a dominant role, oppressed other peoples (Czechs, Hungarians) and impeded their progressive development. Defined already in the XVI century. contradictions between the national states that developed in Europe and the universalist monarchies opposing them at the beginning of the 17th century. manifested very sharply. Like the Turkish empire, the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs remained even more so in the first decades of the 17th century. formidable force hostile to the nation-states consolidating in Europe. This was precisely the main source of the Thirty Years' War that broke out in Europe (1618-1648).
Despite the rivalry between the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs in Italy and southern Germany, the threat of their joint actions seemed real already at the beginning of the XVII century. The Habsburgs counted on the support of the reactionary forces of several European countries. To strengthen their position, they sought to use the reaction in Germany after the defeat of the Great Peasant War, the counter-reformation and the influence of the Jesuit Order, which penetrated everywhere. Various dynastic combinations were developed to completely merge the branches of the Habsburg house. The Spanish government hoped that, thanks to the victory of the Catholic reaction in Germany, favorable conditions would be created for the return of the bourgeois republic of the United Provinces (Holland) to Spain.
The emerging threat of joint Spanish-Austrian action on the Rhine caused great concern for France. The Catholic rulers of this state, supporting the German Protestant princes, strove to ensure that in Germany the internal struggle between the pro-Testan and Catholic princes did not stop. The strengthening of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs and the victory of the Catholic reaction in Germany were not in the interests of Catholic France. France could not reconcile with the established since the middle of the XVI century. the domination of Spain in Northern Italy, which was the link between the possessions of the Astrian and Ispanic Habsburgs. Attempts by the Habsburgs to subordinate their control of land along the Lower Rhine were also alarming in England, whose government sought to maintain and strengthen its position on the northern sea trade routes. But the British government wanted to prevent the complete victory of the Habsburg opponents on the continent, as England was rivaling France on the Mediterranean routes leading east. The decisive opponents of the Habsburgs in northern Europe were Denmark and Sweden. Denmark sought to take the place of the Hansa in intermediary trade between the countries of the North and Baltic Seas and prevent the Habsburgs from reaching the coast of the North Sea. Sweden also did not want this, pursuing an active predatory policy in the Baltic basin. So, all states, to one degree or another, were drawn into the emerging conflict, which was to take on a pan-European character.
The position of Russia, which acted as a major force in eastern Europe, was of considerable importance for each of the two camps. The Russian government considered the main objective of its foreign policy to eliminate the consequences of the Polish intervention. Since Poland was seen by the Habsburgs as an outpost in eastern Europe, the victory of the Spanish-Austrian aggression would prompt Poland to further aggressive actions against the Russian lands. Another goal of Russian foreign policy - the struggle against Sweden for the Baltic states - receded into the background compared to the task of eliminating the threat of Austro-Polish aggression. Therefore, in the Thirty Years War, Russia will side with the anti-Habsburg coalition.
The European war lasted thirty years. Its outcome was the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which significantly influenced the international situation. What was the political map of Europe by the middle of the 17th century? By this time, Europe consisted of many large and small feudal states and principalities. Several small trading city-republics in Italy and Northern Germany were lost among the large absolutist states. In the West, a large, but already beginning to decline, power was Spain, which owned Central and a significant part of South America, the Greater Antilles, strongholds off the coast of North-West Africa, the Philippine archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. The small Portuguese kingdom owned Brazil and other colonies, but had no serious influence on the political situation in Europe. The backwardness of feudal Spain, the underdevelopment of cities and urban crafts and the unproductive spending of looted wealth by the nobility during the conquest of America led to the fact that these wealth gradually passed into the hands of Dutch, English and French merchants who sold their goods to Spain. Nevertheless, in the first half of the 17th century, Spain was still a powerful military and naval power.
The Westphalian world of 1648 permanently consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany, where the Austrian Habsburgs held the strongest position. Italy consisted of backward feudal monarchies, including the Papal Region with Rome, which played the role of the world center of the Catholic Church. The trade republics of Genoa and Venice were gradually heading towards their complete decline, cramped in the Mediterranean markets by strong neighboring states and the vast Ottoman Empire. In the south-east of Europe, the conquest of the Turks reached from the XVII century. giant sizes. In addition to Asia Minor (Anatolia), the borders of the Ottoman Empire and its vassals included the Arab East, the Balkan countries, Hungary, as well as the northern and eastern Black Sea coasts, transformed from the 16th century into a Turkish lake, closed to international trade. The threat of further Ottoman conquests had a huge impact on the situation in Europe, but from the middle of the century began the decline and decay of the empire.
IN economicallycountries of Northern Europe, even the most developed Denmark and Sweden, at the end of the XV- in the first half of the XVII centuries. lagged behind the advanced powers of the continent. Up to 90% of the region’s population was employed in agriculture. In Sweden in the 1570s townspeople made up only 7.5% of the total population, but they often engaged in agricultural work and kept cattle inside the city walls and on the outskirts. Norway could not provide itself with bread. A significant place in the economy of Northern Europe, especially in Norway and Iceland, was occupied by fishing and marine fisheries. This was the main occupation of the population in the coastal areas of Sweden and Finland, especially in the north. In the years 1530-1531. among the natural taxes of Northern Sweden, up to 60% was fish. In some areas of the Scandinavian North, the population was engaged in fur trade. The agrarian development was negatively affected by long years of decline and stagnation due to the plague (from the end of the 13th to the end of the 16th century), wars between Denmark and Sweden, civil strife (Count's feud 1534-1536), Northern Seven Years War 1563-1570, the southern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula were devastated, the villages were depopulated. In the middle of the XVI century. taxes accounted for 53% of all revenues of the Danish state, 81% of the total amount of direct taxes was levied by peasants, the clergy after the reformation paid 17%, the townspeople 2%, the nobles were completely exempted from them.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. s / x begins to survive the rise. This was facilitated by population growth, internal colonization, and rising prices for agricultural products from the 1540s. due to the price revolution in Europe. In Denmark in the 1560s the measure of the price of rye and barley exceeded 2.3 times, and in the 1620s 4.3 and 3.5 times the price of the beginning of the 16th century. Only in the 1630s did a gradual decline in grain prices begin. Demand for agricultural products led to the development of previously abandoned lands, the restoration of peasant farms, the development of new areas for grain crops. Gos. authorities encouraged the cultivation of abandoned lands, but in Sweden, a conflict broke out over the royal forests that had been captured by the peasants, the “forest looters”. Legislative measures have been ineffective. Therefore, the royal forests were cleared of new settlements and farms by punitive troops. A large place in the economy of Scandinavia was occupied by cattle breeding. Although the prices of meat, butter, cheese rose more slowly than grain prices, one of the main sources of livelihood of peasants was raising cattle, including for export. Butter was highly regarded. But milk yields are low, home. Cattle are small, non-pedigree, cattle breeding was extensive. In the system of extensive cattle breeding, a special place was occupied by pig breeding. Herds of pigs grazed in the oak forests of Denmark, Southeast Sweden. For export was pork, lard. In 1642, 3,000 pigs and over 250 tons of pork were exported from Denmark.
Danish land tenure was characterized by an increase in the share of state and landowner lands. This process took place especially rapidly after the reformation, when church lands, which made up 30-35% of all cultivated lands, became state property. The state owned ½ of all cultivated land, the nobles at the beginning of the XVI century. belonged to 25-30%, in the middle of the XVI century. - 44% of the land area. Due to the expansion of the feudal lords' power and the growth of their holdings, the share of land of free peasant owners decreased from 15-20% at the beginning of the 16th century up to 6% in the middle of the 16th century
Legally danish peasants divided into owners and tenants, formally they all had personal freedom. The peasants who owned the inheritance yards were obliged to duties to the state: they paid direct taxes, carried import duties and some other duties. Local peasant tenants paid quitrents (most often mixed), carried corvée. Peasants of some regions were forced to serve corvee weekly in the first half of the 16th century. - 2-3 days a week. Particularly severe was corvée on the islands of Funen, Langeland, Zealand, where there were more domains than in other places. In Denmark in 1650, 18% of peasants carried a weekly corvee.
In Sweden, peasants were personally free, although to one degree or another - feudally dependent. At the beginning of the XVI century. they were divided into 4 categories - tax (scatt), crown, church, landlord (rail). Taxable peasants are the owners of their lands, their main duty is state. taxes, advantage - the right to transfer his allotment by inheritance. King Gustav I Waza (1523-1560) declared all Swedish lands with their bowels and water, except for rail (noble) territories, the property of the crown. Taxable peasants in the 1560s accounted for about 50% of all peasants in Sweden and Finland.
All other categories of Swedish peasants were holders or tenants of land. Crowned (state) peasants sat on state-owned land. The economic situation was similar to that of the Scatt peasants: rental payments were approximately equal to the tax-pay. But the social situation was excellent, the crown peasants did not have formal inheritance rights to the yard. In the reign of Johan III (1569-1592), they were given the opportunity to acquire this right for a certain amount. At the beginning of the XVI century. the proportion of crown peasants was small: 5.6% in Sweden, 3.9% in Finland, by 1560 they were 26.5%.
Before the reformation in 1527, peasant holders on church and monastery lands stood out as a special group. In Sweden, they accounted for 20% of all peasant farms. After the reformation, these categories of peasants basically merged with the crown peasants.
Field peasants rented land belonging to the feudal lords, did not have the right to inherit the yard. Their situation was more unstable than that of the crown peasants, since there was a constant real threat of their driving away from the yard.
In Norway, peasants were also personally free and were divided into owners and tenants (holders). At the beginning of the XVII century. there were 11,000 peasant owners and 25,000 tenants. Almost half of the latter lived in the possession of the crown, the rest on the lands of nobles, burghers and wealthy peasants.
Ore reserves and mining traditions have led to the development mining, especially in Sweden, where he was employed at the end of the XVI century. 4% of the population. Iron was mined here, and Swedish iron castings were in great demand in the European market. The production of bar iron was developing; invited from Germany and South RV succeeded in this. specialists and owners of capital.
In the XVII century. in Sweden in the steel industry dominated by manufactories, brooks. In the XVI century. they were owned by the state, in the XVII century. private individuals. Copper was mined in the Stura region of Kopparberget in the province of Dalarna: until the middle of the 16th century. - 90 t; in the second half of the 16th century - its production increased by 17 times.
In Sweden and Denmark, silver mining was of great importance, which in Sweden was especially high in 1538-1548. (on average up to 3420 kg per year). But the deposits were poor, were soon depleted, in 1668 1000 kg of silver was mined.
In the 20s. XVI century began to extract iron and copper in Norway, in Oslo, Akara, Skien, Temmark, later the region of Rerus in eastern Norway. Manufactories in Scandinavia were in mining, metallurgy, and blacksmithing. The first place in Sweden was taken by arms manufacturing factories. In the XVII century. this industry was concentrated in the hands of Louis de Geer (immigrant from RV). In the years 1624-1633. he sold for the Swedish army over 34,000 muskets, a certain number of shells, swords, spears, cores.
The development of textile manufactories was slower. The first of them were founded in the 1620s. in Sweden, did not last long. In Denmark in the second half of the XVI century. the first small textile manufactories and gunpowder enterprises were founded. Their creation was encouraged by Christian IV (1588-1648).
The royal authority encouraged relocation to Denmark from R.V. craftsmen and workers; visiting specialists were exempted from all taxes and the right to freedom of religion.
The leading role in manufacturing for the domestic market was played by artisans. For the main professions of artisans were drawn up shop charters, in the XVI century. there was a unification of the shop system in large cities. The mercantilist policies of the Swedish, Danish kings were expressed in their special attention to foreign trade, to export. Sweden's export goods were iron, copper. Iron export - from 1559 to 1650 - increased from 28.7 to 73.6% of the total export; the proportion of copper is from 5.5 to 29.8%. In the XVII century. ¼ The total export was cattle breeding products - butter, meat, hides, furs (in 1559 - 22.2%), wood, shipbuilding materials, resins, tar. As part of imports - the first place was occupied by fabrics - linen, cloth, silk (30-40; total import). In the second half of the XVI century. second place was occupied by salt, spices and other colonial goods. Exports from Denmark - grain, oil, meat, skins, the composition of imports is similar to Swedish. Among Norwegian exports, fish (herring) and timber played a special role.
The main line of trade policy of the Danish and Swedish kings was the elimination of the Hanseatic dominance in foreign trade. Already in 1520 in Denmark, it was decided to create a large trade association led by Danish large merchants. His task was the domination of Denmark in Scandinavian trade. This association was to be built on the principle of a joint-stock company with offices in Copenhagen, Stockholm, Antwerp, and Finland for trade with Russia. The termination of the Kalmar Union prevented this plan. In the fight against Denmark, Lubeck supported Sweden, for which Lubeck was entitled to duty free trade in 4 Swedish cities of Stockholm, Söderköping, Kalmar, Turku (Abo). These privileges were revoked by Gustav I Vase in 1533.
There were trade relations with France, England, R.V. In the development of western trade, cities in the estuary of the river acquired special significance. Goethe, on the coast of the North Sea: in the 16th century - Elvsborg fortress, Nyuledez, in the XVII century. - Gothenburg. Many wealthy foreign merchants also moved to this new trading city, which contributed to the reorientation of Swedish trade westward, bypassing the Danish Straits. France's role as a trading partner has grown, especially in the salt trade. In the 1540s, 34-44% of the salt brought to Stockholm was delivered from France without intermediaries. Of particular importance in the trade of French salt was the city of Nyuledez, in the XVII century. - Gothenburg. In 1635, an English trading company was established in Gothenburg, had a warehouse.
There were trade relations with Russia, since 1617, Russian merchants were granted the right to travel with all goods throughout Swedish territory; with a signed letter of 1618, Swedish merchants were allowed to trade in Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, without the right of transit to the East. In 1626, regular Russian trade trips to Stockholm began. Since the middle of the XVI century. established permanent trade relations between Norway and Russia. Their center became the city of Varde.
Companies began to be created, in 1625 the Danish West Indies company, in 1636 - the African company.
Navigation through the straits, in particular through Öresund (Sund). All merchants had to pay a fee to the Danish king - 1/13 share in kind or from the cost of goods (1/30).
The development of domestic trade was closely associated with the growth of industrial production and crafts, as well as with an increase in the urban population. The struggle against trading activity outside the cities was very acute. The only place where peasants were free to sell their goods to any customers was considered the city market. There were trading places subordinate to the city; they were allowed to have their own shops only to the merchants of this city. In the same places, merchants bought goods from peasants. In the XVII century. most of the food and other agricultural products were delivered to the city market not by peasants, but by townspeople. Foreign merchants were forbidden to conduct retail trade: they had the right to trade only with local merchants. The exception was free fairs, where visiting merchants traded freely. The largest of them - the annual fair in Copenhagen lasted 14 days. Starting from Janova Day (June 24).
An important factor in the economic development of the Scandinavian countries in the XVII century. became the process of capital accumulation. Its main source remained trade in the Baltic Sea and the role of foreigners, especially the Walloons from South RV. and the Germans.
The economic potential of the Nordic countries has increased. A feature of the economic development of Scandinavia was that it combined vestiges of the feudal reaction (following the example of Eastern Europe) and the active genesis of capitalism (as in Western Europe).
Main content political strugglein Northern Europe at the beginning of the 16th century there was the fate of the Kalmar Union (1397-1523), according to which Denmark, Sweden, Norway (Sweden as part of Finland, Norway as part of Iceland) were ruled by the Danish monarch. Problems rooted in affirming union. In Sweden there were governors from the end of the XV century. from the Sture family. In 1483 the union was confirmed, but in 1497 the Danish king again had to conquer Sweden. 11.11.was crowned (after the battle at the "Red Bridge"), but Sten Sture received the post of state gofmeister, then the rebellion was lifted by the Ditmarsh peasants against the king, which Stura took advantage of. Since 1502, Svante Sture became Regent (appointed). At the beginning of the XVI century. again it is necessary to confirm (restore) the union. So, to confirm the union in 1505 in Kalmar, King Hans (Johan) arrived, accompanied by 60 ships and 3,000 troops. In the Copenhagen Peace of 1509, the Swedes recognized King Hans' formal right to the Swedish throne, but freed themselves from his rule, committing themselves to annually pay the royal family 13,000 marks.
After the death of King Hans I in 1513, members of the Danish State. Council attempted to restore the previous position of the aristocracy, having made a restoration: they condemned the introduction of new taxes without the consent of the State. council, interference with the appointment of church dignitaries. Representatives of the nobility demanded a monopoly on land ownership for the nobility.
The new king Christian II (1513-1523) was forced to make significant concessions to Danish nobles: he promised them new flax possessions; empowerment council authorized by the supreme court; freed church courts from royal control. Christian II decided to strengthen absolute power. The king, relying on burghers and peasants, issued a series of new laws. Trade Act 1521 concentrated trade in cities in the hands of Danish merchants. The city law of 1521 expanded the circle of burghers who participated in city government. The post of the city vogt was canceled, the post of the king appointed by the king of Skultus, the head of the police and judicial authorities was introduced. Land law condemned and abolished serfdom. The power of the church was limited. Christian II continued the policy of his predecessors towards Sweden and Norway.
In Sweden, the struggle against the restoration of the union was intertwined with the aggravation of contradictions between the various layers of feudal society. Supporters of the country's independence — burghers, petty nobles, miners, partly peasants — united around the regent, Sten Sture, Jr. (1513); adherents of the union - part of the feudal aristocracy, the highest dignitaries of the church - relied on the State. advice. The war began. In 1518, the troops of German and Danish Landsknechts landed near Stockholm, but were defeated. In January 1520, the Danish king again invaded Sweden and defeated the Swedish army in a battle on the ice of Lake Osund. Gos. The Council of Sweden proclaimed Christian II King of Sweden. 5 months besieged Stockholm, surrendered. In 1520, Christian II received the Swedish crown.
At the end of 1520, according to legend, the freedom-loving peasants and miners of the Dalarna region found Vazu (1496-1560) who had escaped from captivity, Gustav (1496-1560) (the Vaz family served on the state council. After the Battle of Brankirk (1518), Gustav was taken to Denmark captured in North Jutland, fled to Lübeck in 1519. VAZ had a sheaf in their coat of arms) and elected him their leader. In August 1521, Gustav Vasa was elected ruler of Sweden and turned for help to the old enemy of Denmark - Lubeck. In August 1522, Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund began the war against Denmark. 06/06/1523 Gustav Vasa was elected king of Sweden.
In 1524, while Christian II sailed for help in R.V. against his rebellious feudal lords, Copenhagen capitulated, even before the fall of the city, the king of Denmark was Frederick I (1523-1533), who recognized the dissolution of the Union of Kalmar, the legality of the election of Gustav Waz. Now in the region there are two states: Denmark with Norway and Iceland and Sweden with Finland.
Denmark. Denmark occupied an important position among the Scandinavian states. Possessed of southern Sweden, the fertile provinces of Schönen, Bleking, Galand, was connected by a personal union with Norway, which retained the internal Swedish provinces of Jemtland and Gerjedalen. Denmark owned all the straits from the Baltic to the German Sea. The kings of Denmark were simultaneously the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein (in 1544 Christian III divided Schleswig-Holstein between themselves and two brothers Johan (north - Haderhleben) and Adolf (south - Gottorp), his center was), his successor Frederick II (1559 -1588) subdued the Ditmarsh).
Frederick carried out a series of reforms that strengthened the position of the state. In 1533, after the death of Frederick II, for a year power was in the hands of a narrow circle of nobles: Denmark turned into an aristocratic republic. The burghers of Copenhagen and Malmö, dissatisfied with the rise of the nobility, called on the mercenary troops of Lübeck. This internecine war was called the “Count of feuds” (1533-1536), in which peasants and burghers participated in addition to the nobility. The popular movement took place under the slogans of religious reformation. At the head of the uprising were the burgomaster of Copenhagen and Malmö. The inhabitants of besieged Copenhagen for a long time resisted the royal troops and surrendered only under the threat of hunger.
Suppressing the uprising, Christian III carried out the Royal Lutheran Reformation in 1536. The Reformation Movement in Denmark began under Frederick I (according to Luther). By 1527, permission was given for the free preaching of new teachings, the marriage of clergy, bishops had to obey the king, Lutheran communities began to appear. When Christian III (1533-1559) ascended, an attempt was made to restore Catholicism in Denmark, but the Protestant king arrested all bishops in August 1536 and imposed a ban on church property. Gathered in October (30) the Sejm of 1536, where there were citizens and peasants, at which it was decided that the episcopal possessions and 1/3 of the tithes were granted to the crown; a new oath formula was adopted, expanding the rights of the nobility (this was a concession on the part of the king so that his son Frederick was recognized as the heir). In 1537, John Bugenhagen, a friend of Luther, established Lutheran orders. The bishops were left with the title, but not power, at the head of the church - the king, the nobility could participate in the management of church affairs; those. the clergy and monasteries were deprived of land, which mainly went to the king. As a result of the royal reformation in Denmark, the position of the aristocracy was strengthened.
The decision of the Riksdag (1536) in Copenhagen was a compromise between the king and the nobility: the council retained its former position (Denmark was ruled not by the king, but by the State Council, consisting of archbishops, bishops and nobles. The king had to agree with the majority of the votes of this institution. The State Council tried all nobles whom the king accused, had oversight the rights and privileges of the nobility, only some nobles could have flax estates and hold public office, no taxes were levied on their own estates. Copenhagen and Malmö were important from the cities), the king’s power was fictitious, vassals secured the establishment of iratelnoy monarchy; nobles - their privileges, burghers and peasants were deprived of the right to buy noble lands. By decision of the Riksdag of 1536, State. the council controlled state. management, argued important laws of the king. Without the consent of the Council, the king did not have the right to declare war and conclude peace. The lever in the hands of the nobility was the election of the king (until 1660) and the decisive word here was the State. advice. Although hereditary succession was taken into account when electing a new king, the new king had to sign a letter of merit. In 1536, Norway lost the status of a state, becoming a province of Denmark.
In the second half of the XVI-beginning of the XVII centuries. sharp conflicts between the royal power and the nobility did not arise. Although King Frederick II (1559-1588) fought against Sweden in the Northern Seven Years War, which led to the impoverishment of the state. treasury and devastation of the Danish provinces on the Scandinavian Peninsula. His successor Christian IV (1588-1648) took an active part in the conduct of state. affairs. He concentrated executive power in the hands of the chancellor and the clerk and, with their help, tried to reconcile various groups of the nobility, raising its status as an estate.
Nobles were forbidden to marry women of other classes. Legislation appears against luxury in the lifestyle of the nobility in order to strengthen its economic position. In 1614, Christian IV created the national armed forces. The new army was to have 4,000 soldiers recruited from the peasant proprietors of Jutland, Skane, and the peninsula. Chancellor Friis Kragerup tried to carry out reforms in the interests of the state in defense of the nobility. The ownership right of the peasant holders of state estates on Fr. Zealand to erect buildings within the leased farms. But the project to replace the corvee state. money was rejected by the peasants, since the State opposed it. advice.
In 1619, the City Law was adopted, according to which new members of city magistrates - ratmans - were appointed to the post by the king or his representatives. In addition to merchants, skippers and craftsmen could become rattans, then city merchant ships were created, which weakened the power of magistrates in the life of cities in favor of the central government.
In the first third of the XVII century. royal power is being strengthened. It is believed that the period of the reign of Christian IV accounts for the period of power of Denmark. XVII century wars Denmark is a trade war for retaining dominance in the Baltic Sea, as the possession of both banks of the Zund gave the Danish crown a permanent income in the form of customs duties - the “gold mine” of the Danish kingdom.
The situation in Denmark began to change due to its defeat in the XXX and Swedish-Danish (1643-1645 gg.) Wars, and the economic development of the country in the first half of the XVII century. This led to the fact that Denmark ceded hegemony in the Baltic Sweden.
Sweden. In 1523 (in summer), the Swedish estate Riksdag declared Christian deposed, the union with Denmark dissolved, 06/06/1523 Gustav Vasa was elected king of Sweden. Frederick I recognized the termination of the Kalmar Union and the legitimacy of the election of Gustav Vasa.
Gustav Vasa I (1523-1560) continued the policy of regents aimed at strengthening the central government. But the creation of a new state. apparatus, strengthening the army, the payment of a large state. Lubeck’s debt for help in the fight against Denmark was demanded funds, so new direct and indirect taxes were introduced. This led to an uprising of peasants, especially in the province of Dalarna, which political opponents of the new king wanted to take advantage of among the Swedish nobility, but on the Riksdag of 1524, Gustav Vasa managed to get support from the estate, the uprising was crushed. A new uprising broke out in 1527.
In this critical situation, the king convened a riksdag in Westeros and proposed to secularize church property (in order to break the power of the clergy and aristocracy and free the country from the Hansa). 2/3 of the land in Sweden belonged to the church. The reformation was carried out by Lorenz Anderson, Chancellor, Olaf and Lorenz Peterson, who were specially trained in Wittenberg and adhered to the teachings of Luther. True, there was an overthrow of the icons in Stockholm, but this movement was stopped (with difficulty), and a certain desire for anabaptism was noticed. The Reformation was prepared gradually. At the Sejm in Vodsten and Stockholm (January and July 1526), \u200b\u200bthe king received permission to use 1/10 and 8/9 of the total annual income of the church, but he had to take into account the stubbornness of the clergy. Therefore, in the Riksdag in Westeros (1527), where representatives of 4 estates were gathered - clergy, nobility, citizens, peasants, the king pointed to the unsuitability of the existing division of land, the damage that the state suffers from the superiority of foreigners in trade, and the inability to govern the state with general disobedience, he asked the estates to discuss reforms and find sources for replenishing the treasury's income; otherwise, the king threatened to lay down his crown. There were no suggestions, then the king said: "in this case, I do not want to remain your king," left the room. They persuaded 3 days, on the 4th day he lost, but on condition that the estates fulfill all his requirements (06/21/1527).
The Treaty of Westeros gave the government the right to confiscate the castles of bishops, determine the income of these castles, their canons, and establish monasteries at their discretion: nobles were allowed to take away the land they had given to the church from 1454; it was allowed to freely preach the word of God + addition: the so-called the Westrosky order, according to which the appointment to church posts was made with the consent of the king; in secular affairs, the clergy was subject to secular court; evangelical dogma was introduced in schools. Then the uprising was crushed in Smoland, Westgotland, Dalekarli.
Church reformation is a Lutheran creed, clergy are allowed to marry, but the episcopal system was preserved (but the bishops were subordinate to the king and depended on the consistory (1529). The reformation strengthened the position of central authority, feudal church ownership in Sweden no longer existed. Lutheranism did not immediately exist adopted the peasantry, there were uprisings in 1529, 1531-1533, the whole movement of social protest was suppressed.
In the years 1538-1543. Gustav Vasa also reformed the central administration, in particular, the State was reorganized. advice (riksrod); from the organ of the aristocracy, whose members met occasionally, the council became a permanent and effective institution. Appointment to the State. advice was received by the Swedish nobles who became state. officials, German officials led by the chancellor.
Finance has been changed. The main financial management - the camera began to play an important role in the central administration, its staff was increased, local authorities were subordinated to its control. In order to strengthen his influence on the local administration, Gustav Vasa began to appoint Vogtov instead of holders of crown flax. officials dependent on the king. A permanent mercenary army was created (15,000). The activities of German officials caused discontent of the Swedes. Violence by officials in the collection of taxes and the implementation of royal orders led to uprisings of peasants. After the suppression of the next uprising (1542-1543), the king, removing most of the officials from his posts, began to personally govern the state.
In 1544, the risk-dag recognized the royal power in Sweden as hereditary (before that, as far back as 1540, state officials recognized the legal heirs of both sons of Vasa). The heir is Crown Prince Eric. All community pastures, forests, mines, and waters were considered crown regalia. Trade made it possible to maintain an army and build a fleet. Freedom of trade for the Hansa was destroyed, all imported goods were subject to 5% duty. In 1542, the king also banned trade with the Hansa, but could not solve it completely. With RV, England, France, trade agreements were concluded, with Russia too, relations with which were to be conducted through the recently founded in Finland Helsingfors. The king took an active part in trade personally, sending in 1545 two of his own ships to Holland and Lisbon. In 1550, the Swedish merchant fleet totaled 62 ships and 3,150 flipper ships, + coastal. He took care of mining and iron production. He founded a special society for the development of mines, wrote out German miners, technicians, etc.
Gustav Vasa - an impressive figure, eloquent, charming. The yard is a meeting place for the nobility, ladies, society, which he valued. But he was faithful to his wives (married three times). Died September 29, 1560
In 1560, a new stage in the internal political struggle began in Sweden. After the death of Gustav Vasa in 1560, his son Eric XIV (1560-1569) became the king (smart, handsome, well-versed in mathematics, astronomy, painting, poet, singer, but proud, arrogant, partisan, then crazy). By the last will of the father, the younger brothers were endowed with independent principalities and were subject to the sovereignty of the king. Johan received Finland, Charles (IX) - Südermanland, Magnus - East Scotland (he soon died of madness). Which created some concern for the king.
In the Riksdag in 1561, the estates supported the king and accepted the so-called Arbug articles defining relations between the king and his dukes (brothers), articles greatly reduced the rights and privileges of the dukes. The articles stated that the orders of the king are also valid for the duchies, the subjects of the dukes are also subjects of the king and must pay taxes to him. Without the permission of the king, the dukes do not have the right to engage in foreign policy; they must assist the king in wars under his command.
Eric XIV created a lush courtyard. He demanded from the nobles to participate in military training. Then came the conflict of Eric XIV with his brother Johan, who was inspired by the favorite of the king Geran Person, who (the procurator of his royal highness) indicated that Johan, as the husband of Catherine, daughter of Sigismund (Poland), is inclined to Catholicism and is in relations with Poland. Johan was called up by Eric, but refused to appear, was captured in Abo (08/12/1563) and, together with his wife, was locked in Gripsholm Castle, on Lake. Melaren. Then Eric married Karina Monnsdotter - the daughter of a simple burgher in Stockholm, which the Swedish nobility did not like. At the insistence of Karina (who knew how to reassure Eric during his insanity (depression), Eric reconciled with his brother. He was released from prison (1567), deprived of Finland. In 1566 he crowned Karina and recognized her children the right to inherit the crown, which caused discontent of his brothers, a rebellion began, Stockholm was besieged.Erik, in indecision, executed Geran Persona. 09/29/1568 Stockholm fell into the hands of Johan III (1569-1592). several years was poisoned (1577), died in Orvitus, p buried in Västerås.
Johan III's accession to the Swedish throne signified a new strengthening of the feudal nobility. The king pledged not to appoint the highest state. positions of people of low origin. The letter granted to the Swedish nobility in July 1569, among other privileges, proclaimed the release of the noble peasants from participation in the construction and repair of royal castles, from recruitment packages and horse-drawn duty. The principle of class legal proceedings was enforced, the military duties of the nobles were reduced, and their right to sell products of their possessions was recognized. Counts got even more privileges. Conflicts were also caused by Catholics from the environment of the Queen, the Polish princess.
Johan III decided to restore the Catholic Church and a new form of worship, close to the Catholic Mass (the so-called "Red Book"), expressed his readiness to convert to Catholicism if the pope allowed the mass in Swedish, and the priests would get the right to marry. Then the Jesuits appeared at the court. In 1578, Anthony Posevino appeared, who became the confessor of the king. The Jesuits occupied almost all the departments at the university, transferred from Uppsala to Stockholm. Johan’s ties with Poland, a penchant for Catholicism and the hope of ending the Jagiellonian dynasty led Sweden to make peace with Poland and Denmark (Stettin, 1570), in which Sweden abandoned Livonia, from claims to Danish possessions in southern Sweden, and Denmark renounced its rights to the Swedish crown.
The domestic political struggle in Sweden was complicated in the 80s. XVI century. When the heir to the Swedish throne Sigismund was elected king of Poland in 1587, in 1592 after the death of his father he became king of Sweden. In 1593, even before Sigismund arrived in Sweden, the Uppsala church church canceled the pro-Catholic innovations of Johan III. The Augsburg Confession was officially adopted. Three political groups formed in the country: the king with his officials and the prelates of the Catholic Church; Swedish higher nobility with the state. advice; the opposition - petty nobility, burghers, Lutheran priests, peasants, the head was the brother of Eric and Johan - the duke Karl of Südermanland, the youngest son of Gustav Vasa, who defeated. In 1600, Karl was elected ruler, and in 1604 he became King Charles IX (1599 (1604) -1611). The Sejm in Nordköping confirmed that the throne should belong to his family, women were not excluded from the succession to the throne, but it was stated that only a Lutheran can be a king, cannot wear a foreign crown at the same time as the Swedish one. In the state. advice was introduced by the petty nobility. In 1604, the Riksdag restricted the rights of the holders of the crown lands, depriving them of the right to sell the land and pledge it; these lands were inherited only in a direct male line, the right to them was confirmed by each new monarch.
After the death of Charles IX in 1611, his son was elected king GustavII Adolf (1611-1632). Under him, Swedish absolutism took shape and Sweden turned into a leading power in Northern Europe. Gustav II Adolf - the eldest son of Charles IX and his wife, Princess Christina Holstein-Gottorp. Gustavus Adolf was born in 1594, was enthroned at the age of 17, not formally coming of age; according to the custom of the country, an heir at least 18 years old had the right to ascend the throne, and then with “half power”, he could get full power with the crown only at 24 years old. An exception for the young heir to the throne was made by decision of the aristocratic State. Council - Riksroda, who not only granted the throne to a minor overlord, but also vested him with complete power. Therefore, in the traditional constitutional manifesto, when he was enthroned in 1611, privileged in 1612, the coronation oath of 1617 made a promise to the nobility: he was obliged to observe “ancient freedoms”, rights and privileges, including property rights (including awards - a hint on the undesirability of reduction), without the consent of the Riksrod not to impose new taxes and taxes, could declare war and conclude peace, judge and rule according to law and justice.
The tasks of the Vaz dynasty are maximum consolidation of the state while strengthening central authority; external aggression as a factor of national cohesion and a way to solve pressing political problems. Foreign policy - the “great eastern program” - was initiated by Gustav I, but was formulated in 1580 (under Johan III). The plan of seizures in the east - including at the expense of Russia - of the entire Russian coast of the Gulf of Finland and the entire territory of the former Novgorod state; which led to wars with Russia. Sweden took control of Korela with the county and strengthened on the northern shore of the Gulf of Finland. In 1609-1610 Sweden developed claims to the Russian throne. In 1611, Novgorod even recognized himself as a vassal of Sweden and agreed to propose the Russian throne to the youngest son of Charles IX - Karl Philip.
In 1600, Sweden began a war with Poland over Lithuania. The conquest of Sweden by the southern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula belonging to Denmark - Skane, Bleking, Halland, from the northern coast - Zunda.
To carry out these plans, we need reform. In the economic sphere: in 1621, Gustav Adolf introduced a universal shop charter, requiring all city masters to join the shops, and rural craftsmen to relocate to the cities. He announced the complete monopoly of urban artisans on the production and marketing of their products. The normative dates of apprenticeship and apprentice service were also recorded. He paid attention to trade.
Control. When Charles IX was allocated 5 major state. the posts are Chancellor, Marshal, Admiral, Darts and Treasurer. Now each of them headed the corresponding body - the college: all the posts in the collegiums were held by educated nobles, sometimes the burghers also served. This was drawn up in 1612 and finally completed with a decree on the office of 1626. In 1611, administrative and financial reforms were carried out. Power from the governors - Fogds in lands passed to the governors subordinate to the king. The country was divided into 11 oblasts - Lenas, which corresponded to the former historical regions - lands. At the head were the governors (nobles, they controlled the counties - herad, into which each flax was divided, and at the head of which were the administrators and state tax collectors.
Financial - in 1618 the camera (financial department) was replaced by a commercial college. The first leader was Juhan Schütte, at the head of the commercial board was the chief treasurer - scattmestare, was in charge of state finances. Consisted of financial advice.
Reorganized judicial system. In 1614, the Supreme Court of Sweden (Stockholm) appeared, the president - state. drots. In order to help the High Court, a certain higher judicial council was attached, which included 4 members of the Riksrod, 5 representatives of the nobility, 4 representatives from the taxable estate. The Judicial Council inspected the actions of local, county, city courts.
Gos. the Chancellery (kamslekleglegiet) (1626) was engaged in domestic and foreign policy issues of the life of the country, divided into 2 departments. 2 colleges were in charge of military affairs - military (army) and VM (fleet). The supreme admiral was the king's brother Karl Gyllenhelm. But the king himself occupied the position of marshal.
Church administration reform - the Augsburg religion of faith was strictly enforced in the country. Church affairs were controlled by the council - the Consistory General, under the supervision of the king and his chancellor. Since 1623, the Chancellor introduced the Supreme Council for Church Affairs, consisting of 6 nobles and 6 church leaders, under the leadership of the drots.
The classroom assembly is the Riksdag and the State. advice is ricksrod. The role of the riksroda is high. The meetings became continuous, which required an almost inseparable stay of its members in Stockholm. When the king was not in the country, he was replaced by a riksrod, becoming the ruling body. Gos. officials were appointed to collegium posts. Gustav Adolf introduced himself to the riksrod, so after his death there was no problem with succession to the throne - his daughter Christina, who was 6 years old, became the queen, and with her (1632-1644) the Regency Council.
Riskdag - appeared in the 30s. XV century - consisted of representatives of two classes - Frels (secular and spiritual gentlemen) and Ufrels (taxable peasants, burghers, mountain people). In 1617, the “Order of the Riksdag” was published, according to which the Riksdag began to consist of 4 classes - the nobility, Lutheran clergy, burghers (+ mountain entrepreneurs) and scatta peasants. Each delegate must have a mandate - a certificate of credentials given to him by the electors. After the grand opening of the Riksdag, the king sent him his conditions and proposals, to which each class group of delegates then gave their own answer. Disagreements were removed at a joint meeting, in case of further disagreements, the king made the decisive word. Riksdag delegates are people from the upper strata of each estate, usually the head of family clans. Burgers - selected from the "fathers of the city", they were headed in the Riksdag - one of the 4 mayors of Stockholm; clergy - archbishops; peasants - the top of counties. Nobles - the aristocracy was represented, especially after the “Knights' decree” (1626), when the Swedish nobility was divided into 3 groups (tribal status and criterion for division) - gentlemen - counts and other titled nobles; knights - families that were traditionally represented in the state. advice; Svens - the bulk of the nobility (previously - this term meant nobles who formally did not receive the title of knight). In the estate assembly, 2/3 of the votes belonged to the nobility. In addition, there were monotonous gatherings of noblemen, clergy, burghers throughout the country, Lena, county, peasant local community meetings.
Gos. the apparatus needed officials. In 1620, gymnasiums appeared, a university appeared in Uppsala, where they taught physics, astronomy, and watered. To doctrines, jurisprudence. Officials must be educated, know languages, be able to own a pen.
Army - military manufactories, workshops, including state ones, appeared. Certain settlements on the lands of the crown, traditionally occupied with crafts, paid prod. a quitrent of semi-finished weapons - wood and metal products (poles, peak tips, bullets, rough cloth, etc.), built small tonnage vessels. A homogeneous national Swedish army appears, for this the country was divided into 9 districts (with Karelia - 10) military, which, in turn, were divided into "field" territories. Each of them had to set up a territorial regiment for the king, which was then divided into smaller military units - field regiments. The territorial regiment was formed due to the then introduced universal military service for peasants, who were obliged to give the army of every tenth man of combat age. Shelves were housed in places of their creation, or moved to other districts. The household maintenance of the regiments was entrusted to the peasants and the local population in general, including partly the clergy, in the form of a complex of duties: standing (accommodation), food allowance, fodder. Regiment commanders from the nobles of the same districts either invited foreigners whose number was declining. A small part of the officers were the sons of the burghers. Officers received remuneration for their service, including land awards, more often in their military districts, subsistence allowance, etc. This led to the formation of a special officer mentality, the morale of the army grew. They worked hard with the soldiers - they studied weapons, combat techniques, tactics, etc. There was a military disciplinary charter. 3 independent branches of the army were created - infantry, cavalry, artillery; tactical innovations were introduced - the number and depth of infantry construction, the linear formation of infantry and the tactics of loose combat, and the interaction of the combat arms were reduced. Hence the victory of the Swedes. The war with Denmark 1611-1613 - “Kalmar” - the Danes seized the port of Kalmar, the Swedes lost it. The Danes returned the squid and allowed the Swedish ships to pass the Sund duty free. But they voiced a rejection of the Swedish claims on Finmarken and received a huge fine (10 barrels of gold), which was secured by the Elvsborg fortress (the mouth of the Goethe river). In 1619, Gustav Adolf returned Elvsborg, but the “Danish” issue was not resolved.
1617 - Stolbovsky Peace, Sweden returned Novgorod, Pskov, but retained Ladoga, with the mouth of the Neva, the Karelian Isthmus, Southeast Finland. The war with R.P. - (1617-1629 gg.) - was successful, the Swedes took Riga, Livonia, Kurland, entered East Prussia. By truce, Sweden left Livonia and Danzig.
In the XXX war - 1630-1632 (1635). - Leipzig, occupied all of Germany, May 1623 Munich, but in November 1632, Gustav Adolf died in a battle near Lutsen (fell, avoiding positions from a shot by a German colonel) (Svanidze A.A. King Gustav II Adolf, reformer and commander against the background of Sweden and the Vaza dynasty // Man of the XVII century. M., 2005. Part 1. S. 19-43).
Under the six-year-old Queen Christine, a guardian government was formed from representatives of the highest state. institutions. The all-powerful ruler of Sweden was Chancellor Axel Oksensherna (died 1634), whose policies in the interests of the nobility were continued by his successors and then Queen Christina (1644-1654). Distribution of crown and state. (tax) land, increased taxes, worsening the situation of the peasantry, the oppression of burghers and the small nobility, as well as the critical state of state. Finance caused in the middle of the XVII century. deep socio-political crisis.
As in the Middle Ages, in the XVI-XVII centuries. the type of dwelling depended on the geographical and climatic features of the area, as well as on the occupation and welfare of its owners. In northern Europe, peasants lived in wooden houses or dwellings made in the technique of "fachwerk" - bulk plastered walls were erected on an oak frame. In the south, where forests had previously been destroyed, houses were built of stone. The roof in the south was flat, and in the north it was pointed. Sometimes it was covered with reeds, but more often with straw, which was fed to cattle during the hungry years, and when replaced with a new one, they were used to fertilize the soil. Often, only a partition separated the living space from the place in which the cattle were kept.
Usually the whole family lived in one large room, heated by a fireplace for cooking. There was not much furniture. There were benches around the table, which at night were pushed to the walls, covered with straw-covered mattresses or feather-beds and turned into a bed.
Clothes and other household belongings were stored in a large chest. Kitchen utensils were also modest: a cast-iron pot, pans and pots, jugs and jugs, tubs and buckets. They ate and drank from wooden or clay bowls and cups, and often they were not enough and they had to use common dishes.
In the cities, many low clay and wooden shacks, covered with straw or shingles, remained. In them, as well as in the basements or in the attics of multi-storey buildings, the urban poor lived. Part of the poor people did not have a permanent roof over their heads. Frequent fires forced citizens to proceed to the construction of stone dwellings. For the same purpose since the XVII century. Roofs began to be tiled, but it was expensive and not everyone could afford. The houses of traders and craftsmen on the ground floor housed a shop or workshop, as well as a kitchen. On the second - the owner's family lived, there were a living room and bedrooms. The third floor was occupied by apprentices, students and servants. The attic served as a warehouse.
Much more attention began to be paid to the interior decoration of the home. The floors everywhere, even in poor houses, were covered with ceramic or stone tiles. Parquet was occasionally found in palaces of the nobility; fashion for him began only with the XVIII century. In all sections of the population, from the ordinary peasant to the powerful monarch, the old custom has been preserved of covering the floor with straw in winter, and in summer with fragrant herbs and flowers. They were replaced by straw mats, as well as carpets, which were laid not only on the floor, but also on tables, chests and even cabinets.
The plank floor of the upper floor served as the ceiling for the lower. His until the XVIII century. not plastered, but covered with fabric or painted with patterns. Upholstery fabrics well-off people also covered the walls. Cheap paper wallpapers (they were called “dominoes”) were first in demand only among the poor and only in time gained wide popularity. In the XVI century. learned to make a truly transparent glass. There were more windows with it both in cities and in villages, however, oiled paper and glass glass could not completely displace.
When choosing furniture, its convenience and appearance were especially taken into account. The range of furniture has become wider, and she herself - more practical and beautiful. The furniture was polished, decorated with carvings, art paintings and gilding. Widely used cabinets of various types and purposes: in some they kept clothes, in others - dishes and cutlery, in the third - books. Italian furniture makers enjoyed the fame of Europe’s most skilled furniture makers and legislators.
XVI century Letter about the house of German banker Raimund Fugger.What a luxury in the house of Raimund Fugger! Its arches support marrake columns. It has spacious and beautiful rooms and halls, and the most beautiful of them is the office of the owner himself, with a gilded ceiling and an extraordinarily luxuriously furnished bed. Adjacent to it is the chapel of St. Sebastian, with chairs made of precious wood of very skillful work. But his main adornment is beautiful paintings. We were amazed at the collection of ancient monuments that we saw on the top floor of the house ... In one room there were coins and bronze statues, in the other - stone statues, some of them were of enormous size. We were told that all these attractions were brought here at great cost from different countries, mainly from Greece and Sicily. The owner himself is an educated and noble person.
Furniture for seating - chairs and armchairs - was made with high backs and bent armrests; they were fitted with fabric or leather. Tables were made rectangular and oval, with legs of the most diverse shapes. The bed was with a high headboard and a carved wooden canopy raised on columns: it was supposed to protect sleeping from insects. Bed linen was used very rarely, bed covered with cloth and silk blankets. The rooms were decorated with mirrors in exquisite frames, candlesticks, clocks on coasters, decorative vases, curtains and curtains.
Meanwhile, genuine comfort did not exist even in the homes of the nobility. A separate bathroom was considered there as a big luxury, as well, by the way, and a toilet with a water drain, invented in the XVI century. the British. The level of hygiene, compared with the Middle Ages, decreased: the fear of disease forced to close the city baths. A complete body wash was treated like a medical procedure and arranged it in the best case once a year. Instead of washing, they wiped their face and hands with wet cloth in the morning. Heating and lighting remained a serious problem. The house was heated by a fireplace, fireplaces and stoves. Only rich people could afford fireplaces, stoves were more affordable. Braziers were used in the south. Heating was expensive, so often only one bedroom was heated. The source of artificial lighting was torches, candles, and a kitchen hearth. Material from the site
XVI century The story of an Italian traveler about the home life of the inhabitants of the city of Zurich. In all the houses here, immediately after the morning prayer of the maidservant, and where there are none, the housewives themselves begin to clean the rooms, sweep the corridors and the porch, and wash and clean the benches and other utensils. The rooms are furnished very simply, often the whole decoration is clean and tidy. The most luxurious part of the chambers are the wooden panels with which the walls are sheathed. Each panel is carved from walnut or a portrait, or garland. Such wall cladding protects against winter cold, but the dark color of the walnut tree and the varnish that the pine panels are covered with makes the rooms gloomy. Narrow and low windows and low floor heights also contribute to this. In winter, the rooms are heated with large stoves. There are few utensils, and they are not rich. Long benches were set up along the wall and around the large table. Guests in rich homes are given wooden chairs upholstered in a velvet tom and sheathed in gold or silver fringe. Poor people instead of velvet use cloth or leather, and on top lay pillows embroidered by women of the family. The same embroidered carpets are covered on holidays and tables. This vigorous and strong people gives chairs only to old and sick. Expensive utensils are used only on holidays. Everyday tableware was clay and wooden, while the rich had tin.
Questions about this material:
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There are 2 types of agrarian revolution: Western European and Eastern European.
Western: ① dominance of seigneur, ез insignificant role of the arable land and corvee, ③ peasant pays money rent (chin) and was personally free,
In countries of Eastern Europe: ① prevailing corvée and serfdom, ф the feudal lord has his own arable land and there is a personal dependence of the peasants.
In the 13-14 centuries in the countries of Western Europe, serfdom practically disappeared. But at the end of the 14th century, Europe was struck by global misfortunes: epidemics, the consequences of a hundred-year war, and crop failure. And from the middle of the 15th century Engels introduced the term "secondary enslavement of peasants." In the 16-17th century, the emphasis changed from the identity of the peasant to the land occupied by him (the corvee was replaced by a money changer). \\\\ In the East, the personal dependence of the peasants begins to intensify. From 1520-1620 there was a price revolution in Europe (a sharp increase in prices for bread and other manufactured goods, 4-6 times). The price revolution was generated by the rapid development of capitalism in Western Europe, the intensive development of sheep breeding. Eastern Europe focuses on the supply of bread, strengthening corvée and serfdom.
16) The state system of Russia 16 in the writings of Russian historians
Discussions about the nature of the Moscow state in the 16-17th centuries.
1 point of view: the Moscow state from the very beginning of its existence was monarchical with unlimited power of the tsar. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev - adhered to the ideas of enlightenment. He is sure that Russia has a vast territory and poorly protected borders \u003d a monarchy is the best option for Russia. The monarchy arises as a result of the agreement of the people with the monarch. Captivity by nature. The successor to Tatishchev is Karamzin. For him, the 15-16th century is a period of unlimited monarchy. Its creator was Ivan the Third. He calls Ivan 3 a World Hero. Soloviev also adheres to this concept. But he differentiates the monarchical form of government. For him, the old Russian state - the princes were not autocrats, but members of the same clan, jointly managing the country. The period of the Moscow State is the emergence of statehood in Russia in general. Solovyov’s main reason for establishing the monarchy is geogr. conditions, climate and Russian national character. Statisticians (Kaverin and Chicherin) - Supporters of an unlimited monarchy in Moscow Russia. Zemsky Sobors arose on the initiative of the supreme authority, and not as a public initiative. In this they saw the fundamental difference between Russia and the West. Zemsky Sobors act as an addition to the central state. apparatus. Following the statists are fixed Klyuchevsky and Zagoskin and his "Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia". The Tsar and the Duma are not an alternative, but adherents of a unified rule of law. The differences between them are dynastic. Zemsky Sobors, in fact, an expanded composition of the boyar Duma, and not a new body of estate representation. The Zemsky Soborvs arose as a result of the administrative needs of the state, and not as representative institutions generated by the development of the estates and their struggle. Victor Ivanovich Sergievich. Zemsky Sobors are a continuation of the veche meetings of ancient Russia, bodies of people's power, and not a new generation of the 16th century. Vladimirsky-Budanov. Society of the 15-16th centuries was classless and wordless and even without national conflicts. Polit. The system is based on a popular principle, as in the old Russian state. The Tsar and the Duma conducted joint legislative activities, and the Duma served as the body through which the Kings exercised their power. IN early 20th century Attention to the state-polit. state device. In most cases, this was journalism. Academician Dyakonov determined that Zemsky Sobor is the first degree in the history of representative institutions and an element of supreme power.
2 point of view: in the 16th century, an estate-representative monarchy took shape; the Zemsky Sobors of Russia are identical to the estate institutions of Europe and they limit the power of the tsar. Absolutism has been forming since the second half of the 17th century. Pavlov-Selvansky "Feudalism in Ancient Russia." Classical feudalism is identical to the period of watered. fragmentation, and the reign of Ivan 4 marked a new state. order.
In Soviet historiography attention to polit. the Russian system was attracted to the late 40s. Discussions of 1946, 1949, 1950 in the journal "Questions of History."
1 point of view: 15-16 century - unlimited autocracy. Bazilevich emphasized that the scope of activity of the cathedrals was narrow. They gathered at the initiative of the king and in the state system. the system did not enter. It is Bazilevich who introduces the term "class monarchy" when the estates serve as a means to strengthen the monarchy and centralize the state. system. 2 point of view: I period (15th first half of the 16th century - the monarchy + boyar’s thought + boyar aristocracy), 2 period (the second half of the 16th century — the first half of the 17th century — the estate will be represented by the monarchy (tsarist power is weakening and the tsar cannot do without zemsky cathedrals and the boyar’s Duma and these bodies limited its power)), 3 period (second half of the 17th century - the formation of absolutism). Cherepnin, Pashuta, Halperin, Yushkov. Point of view Svetlana Rotenberg: Boyar Duma - an old institution, the remainder of feudal fragmentation. The monarchy is a new form of government, which arose for the first time in the late 15th century.
In the mid 50s of the 20th century, a multivolume work was published, essays And the USSR, the Russian state was a military feudal monarchy, therefore, orders were born and grew earlier than others, mainly with military functions. | 1968-1971 in the journal "History of the USSR" a discussion about absolutism. Problems of discussion: the role of estates in zemsky cathedrals, the identity of statehood in Russian and Western Europe. During this discussion, orders and zemsky cathedrals underwent a detailed study. Surnames of researchers: Tikhomirov, Zimin, Cherepnin, Schmidt, Skrynnikov. In the mid-90s, the discussion moved to the Rodina magazine, and the following people took part in this discussion: Volodikhin, Krom, Khoroshkevich, Smirnov and Usenko.
Such a system could exist only in conditions of constant war of conquest. 3) The Russian aristocracy existed, it was the elite of society, the majority of landowners - several tens of thousands of people (urban and boyar children, who were directly dependent on the central government).
The creatures are also a local militia - a powerful military pillar of the monarchy. With the formation of the command system, a noble bureaucracy appears. The monarchy of Moscow is in support of the aristocracy, and of the entire feudal estate as a whole. The formula worked: the prince of Moscow + the boyar aristocracy + boyar thought.
17) political views and the main directions of activity of Vasily 3
Relations with Lithuania. Vasily 3 is trying to take the Russian lands from the Lithuanians, continues his father’s policy. 1512-1513 - Vasily 3 unsuccessfully besieged twice Smolensk. 1514 - A new attempt at the siege of Smolensk. Before the battle, secret negotiations are held with the Russian inhabitants of Smolensk, the idea of \u200b\u200bnegotiations was M. Glinsky, he still helped. The siege was successful. Smolensk returns to Russia. Vasily 3 approved the text of the letter of award Smolensk: the boyars were given their estates and privileges, and the tax paid by the inhabitants of Smolensk to the Lithuanian treasury was canceled. Vasily 3 promised Glinsky to transfer Smolensk to his estate, but did not fulfill his promise. Glinsky is now entering into negotiations with Sigismund, but Glinsky was shackled. The diploma of Smolensk was erased from history; the boyars were repressed.
Joining Pskov.The traditional relations between the Moscow monarch and the republic of Pskov are losing their foundation, Pskov helps Moscow to conquer Novgorod, it follows that in Pskov a kind of dual power became - Pskov Veche, the prince sent from Moscow. To destroy this dual power, Vasily 3 decided to create a conflict and sent his ambassador Repnya Obolensky to Pskov for negotiations, who managed to provoke the conflict. Basil 3 is preparing for the conquest of Pskov. In the fall of 1509, Vasily 3 arrives in Novgorod with an army, the Pskovites send a posadnik and noblemen and boyars with gifts. Vasily 3 promised protection for Pskov. Increasing the number of complainants in Pskov. All complainants were divided into 2 categories. “The best people were arrested, the young were left in ignorance, they were all rewritten and sent to the Mokov landowners and Novgorod boyars.” The Pskovites decided not to resist. When Vasily 3 controls the situation, he promises the nobles to keep the property, but the veche bell was introduced. In January 1510, Pskov’s independence was liquidated. 300 boyar families of the Pskovites are sent to the local distribution and resettle them in Moscow. 1000 landowners are resettled on the liberated land.
Relations with CrimeaKrymsky Khan Muhammad Giray was negatively inclined towards the Russians, the Horde became active. In 1519, the Horde defeated the army of German Ostrovsky. In 1520 the situation became more complicated. Crimea and Poland agree on a military offensive against the Russians. Shigolii occupies the Kazan throne. Spring of 1521 - a coup takes place and the local nobility overthrows Shigoley and gives power to the Crimean kettlebells. Moscow governor robbed, kicked out of Kazan. Crimean Khan crept to Moscow. Vasily 3 entrusted the defense of Moscow to the Tatar prince Peter, and he himself moved to Volokolamsk. There he expected help from Novgorod and Pskov. Vasily 3 begins negotiations. The Crimean Khan accepts all gifts and requires tributary letters, the letter was sent. The situation is heating up. Reason: local dispute governor. Muhammad Giray goes to Ryazan, for several days he traded prisoners. When it was all over, he demanded food from the Ryazan prince. But the Ryazan governor demanded evidence in the form of tribute, and when the khan brought it to the governor, he tore it up. In August 1529, the Horde left on the steppes. As a result, Muhammad Giray was killed by the Nogai. His successor demanded 1,000 rubles, but received nothing.
Joining Ryazan. Since the mid-15th century, the principality was under the influence of Moscow. But the Ryazan principality is trying to free itself from Moscow's influence with the help of the Horde. Vasily 3 blamed the Ryazan prince for contacts with the Crimean khan and matchmaking to the daughter of the khan. Already in 1529 he was arrested, lured to Moscow, but he managed to escape to Lithuania and soon dies. In 1521, it was annexed to the possessions of the Moscow Crown.
Relations Vasily 3 to the specific prince. Succession Policy. Repressions against the specific princes and confiscation of their rich lands (possessions of the Uglich princes, Novgorod-Seversky, Vorotynsky, Bilsky and Glinsky). Problem: were all segments of the population interested in the formation of RCH? Answer: the boyars and the specific princes were against it. The rest of all segments of the population were behind the formation of the RCH, but the boyars were interested in what role they would play in the political system of the state.
V. Kobrin -You can not oppose politicians and candidates, because the differences between them were insignificant and consisted only in conventionality. Moreover, the local system was used to provide land for growing boyar families. Richard Kramin - He sees the differences between Russia and the West - in the West, aristocrats were independent of the monarchs and saw him as the first among equals. It follows from this that they opposed an increase in its influence. Natalie colman. He believes that the Russian boyars possessed arable land latifundia, but at the same time did not constitute a powerful social class. And if in England there were powerful parties and parliament, in Russia there are personal connections and acquaintances. And the group is formed on the principle of kinship and friendship. The aristocracy did not have power like a corporate estate. Edward Kinnan. Family is the main factor in Moscow political life, as political groups were related, and polit. history was formed through consent, not conflict. Richard Halley. An aristocracy existed in Moscow, but it was overcome by the principle of compulsory service, and the nobility had no voice at all as a political corporation. Richard Pipes. The introduction of compulsory service from the land meant the abolition of private land ownership. R. G. Skrynnikov.1) The fiefdom fund is extensive. 2) The Moscow autocracy did not have sufficient power to force the nobility to force the principle of compulsory service, it could only interest them. During the development of the local system, a social contract was concluded - the treasury pledged to provide for the local nobles and their descendants, and the nobles agreed to life-long military service.
18) boyar rule 1520-1540In history, the debatable question is the beginning of boyar rule: 1) 1533-1547. - Boyar rule according to Skrynnikov, 2) 1538-1547.
According to the Pskov and Novgorod annals, when dying, Vasily 3 leaves with the young Ivan 4 - the board of trustees (Seventh Commission: Brother Andrei, Mikhail Glinsky, Tuchkov-Morozov, Vasily Shuisky, etc.). This fact is also confirmed in the story of the death of Vasily 3. According to this document, Elena Glinsky was assigned the oprich. Immediately after the death of Vasily 3, disagreements begin in the boyar Duma and the Board of Trustees. Dmitry becomes the main contender for the throne. Ultimately, the power in the boyar’s Duma is seized by the favorite of Elena Glinsky - Ovchin Obolensky - Teleknev. He became the head of the Boyar Duma and in 1534 Glinsky was arrested and killed in prison.
Reforms of Elena Glinsky: ① Serious land distribution to all immigrants from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. ② Tried to unify the system of measures, weights and lengths. ③ Carries out the first monetary reform. The basis of the monetary unit is the Moscow kopek, which was cast at the nominal value of the Novgorod saber. An attempt to strengthen Moscow and from 1534-1538 the construction of China-city fortifications.
In 1537, Glinskaya fell ill, and Andrei Staritsky began to lay claim to the throne. He tried to take refuge in Staritsa, the regiments were sent there, then he flees to Rozhok (in theory he was supposed to flee to Lithuania), but turns to Novgorod. Sheepskin sends the embassy to Novgorod, and then they arrest Staretsky and die in prison. In April 1538, Elena Glinskaya dies, taking advantage of the situation, members of the Board of Trustees decided to revive the system of boyar guardianship. Sheepskin chained and killed. At the head of the Board of Trustees are Vasily and Ivan Shuisky. Having come to power, the Shuiskys decided not to revive the Board of Trustees. (Exiled, killed other members). Suddenly, Vasily Shuisky dies during the height of the struggle for power. Ivan is passive. And the boyar Duma led by Belsky wins the fight. Ivan raises a rebellion in Vladimir, moved with troops to Moscow. Belsky will be sent to White Lake. In May 1542, Ivan Shuisky dies. Andrei Shuisky becomes the head of the Shuysky clan. But by order of Ivan 4 at the end of 1544 he was executed. Reforms of the boyars in this period of time. Дмит Dmitrovskoye and Staretskoe principalities were liquidated, зем serious land distributions to the Shuiskys, ③ reforms of local self-government,
Local government under Ivan, Vasily 3 and Ivan 4.
Ivana 3 / Vasily 3 Ivan 4
Counties (governors) Lip reform (1538/39)
Volosts (volosteli)
Mills
Thirds (Thousands)
Quarters (Hundreds)
Lip reform - cases of robbers and thieves were seized from court by governors and volosts and transferred to elected labial elders from the nobility. Thus, boyar rule did not stop the process of forming a single centralized state.
19) Judicial Code of 1550(Judge Ivan 4 \\ Tsarist Judicial)
The general tendency towards the centralization of the country and the state apparatus led to the publication of a new collection of laws - the Code of Laws of 1550. Based on the Code of Laws of Ivan III, the drafters of the new Code of Laws introduced changes to it related to the strengthening of central authority. The codebook of 1550 is a collection of laws of the period of the estate monarchy in Russia, a monument of Russian law of the 16th century, the first legal act in Russian history, proclaimed the only source of law. Adopted at the first Zemsky Sobor in Russia in 1549 with the participation of the Boyar Duma. In 1551, the Code of Law was approved by the Stoglav Cathedral, convened at the initiative of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. It contains one hundred articles. The Ivan IV casebook has a general pro-state orientation, eliminates the judicial privileges of the princes and strengthens the role of the central state judicial authorities. In this way, the Code of Laws of 1550 develops the tendencies of state administration and legal proceedings laid down in the Code of Laws of 1497. ① liquid liquid of monasteries privileges for non-payment of taxes ервые for the first time ñ penalties for non-payment of taxes переход confirmed the transfer of peasants to St. George’s Day размер increased size of the old tax ⑤ introduced the lord’s liability for crimes of peasants ⑥ limitation of the power of governors and volosts
Local authority restrictions.
The power of governors and volostelites was limited: the cases of “guided robbers” were transferred to the jurisdiction of the labial elders. Thus, the scope of the lip reform, which previously covered only the northern counties, was expanded, and she herself received legal justification. Viceroys, volostelites, and all other rulers appointed by the sovereign in cities and volosts, could not be judged without the participation of elected people: the court, elders and the best people of the local peasant community. “And the boyars and the boyar’s children, for whom they are sucked by the boyar’s court, are judged by them, and in court they have the life of a courtier and elder and better people.” Each community had to have not only its elected people and elders at the trial, but also its zemstvo clerk, who would conduct court cases of volost people. The lawsuit requires that several “best people” be selected and sworn in for communities to be present at the trial. "And in which volosts before this there were no elders and kissers; and now in those volosts there are elders and kissers."
Social changes. In order to strengthen the social base of the central government, the rights of the service class were expanded. In particular, the passage of servants into bonded servility was prohibited, the relationship between feudal lords and dependent peasants was regulated in more detail, and Yuryev Day was legally established (Article 88).
To a certain extent, the government tried to expand the rights of the peasantry and its participation in public affairs. Elected representatives of peasant communities were to participate in the investigation and legal proceedings. Viceroys, neither in court nor in court, could take into custody a peasant without the consent of the communal elected chiefs, elders and kissers.
The law provided the peasant communities with the right to self-government, distribution of taxes and supervision of order.
The Code of Law also confirmed the right of free passage of peasants. The article on the peasant transition explicitly states that, in addition to the payment for the "elderly" and for the "cart", there are no other duties. Those. for the free passage of the peasant, no settlements with the lord are required, except for two duties; the lord has no right to withhold the peasant who has paid these two duties. “And elderly courtyards pay two altyns per ruble for a yard, and in forests where ten miles to a mansion (timber) forest, two altyns for a half yard. And the elderly imati from the gate, and two carts for the imati cart from the yard; but there is no charge on him. ”
The judicial code prevented the forcible conversion of the peasants to slaves and allowed the peasant transition, even if the master paid the debts of the peasant.
Stratification system of fines
The lawyer defended the honor of any member of society, but the fines for dishonor varied. For the dishonesty of the city merchant, the offender paid a fine of 50 rubles, for the dishonesty of a posad man - 5 rubles, the peasant - 1 ruble.
Legal proceedings and evidence. Before the adoption of the Code of Laws, complicated cases, the solution of which was at an impasse, could be resolved through a duel between the disputing parties - the “field”. The winner of the battle was considered the winner of the case. Judicial limited the holding of such hordes. A “fighter with a non-fighter” could not be carried out (for example, if it is a sick, old, or very young man), unless the “fighter” himself desires this. Or, instead of yourself, you could put a "hirelings." The judge allowed the "field" not only to determine the winner in the case, but also to determine the reliability of the testimony of witnesses (rumors).
20) reforms of the mid 16th century1) It was required to bring the central and local governments in line with the centralized state. 2) It was necessary to rebuild the military service hierarchy in accordance with the formation of the state-local system. 3) The need to improve the judicial system, because the nobles were not satisfied with the boyar system of the court. 4) Transformations in the army were to occur. 5) It was necessary to resolve the issue of the status of the church in the RCH. 6) The need to reform the tax system.
Reform Initiators.Elected Council: Ivan 4 + Andrey Kurbsky (boyar), Alexey Adashev (poor nobleman), Curly-Vorotynsky, Zakharyin, Diak Ivan Viskovaty (head of the embassy order), Sylvester (confessor), Makarii (metropolitan). + Ivan Peresvetov (not from glad) sent petitions. Reform progress :
①Central management: 1) Vasily3 / Ivan3 –– the Great Prince of Moscow and the Sovereign of All Russia ↔ In the winter of 1547 - Ivan 4 is married to the kingdom. In summer, wooden Moscow burns down, so the peak of the struggle between the Glinsky and Vorotynsky takes place. 2) Vasily3 / Ivan3 - The Boyar Duma had a legislative and supervisory function. The Boyar Duma consisted of boyars and okolnichniki ↔ Ivan4 - The Boyar Duma has the same functions, and the composition is increasing: duma boyars and Duma dyaks are added. 3) Vasily3 / Ivan3 - Departmental orders: the Palace and the Treasury. ↔ Ivan4 - A system of orders is being formed. Orders become departmental and territorial. + Zemsky Sobor - elements of the estate-representative monarchy with the functions of legislative. The composition of the Zemsky Sobor: the entire boyar’s Duma, the illuminated Cathedral, representatives of the nobility, clergy, merchants, and even black-nosed peasants. 1549 - The First Zemsky Cathedral of Reconciliation. The last fully composed Zemsky Sobor in 1653 on reunions with left-bank Ukraine. ②Local self-government under Ivan4: 1) 1556 - Zemstvo reform (continuation of the Lab reform). The reform will end in the 1570s. Petty criminal cases and family litigations, as well as tax collection, are transferred to elected zemstvo elders from small local noblemen or black-faced peasants. And in the cities, “favorite heads” or their assistants “kissers” selected from Posad. 1556 year - Elimination or restriction of feedings. 2) In the border counties, the post of governor is introduced, who concentrate all power in their hands. ③ Legal reform- a new code of laws has been enacted - Ivan Sudebnik4 (1550) ④ Church reform- Stoglavy Cathedral (1551): unification of the rites of the Russian Orthodox Church, canonization of new saints, tightening discipline among the clergy ⑤ Military reform: the creation of the Streltsy army (1550), the introduction of the Code of Service (1556), an attempt to form the “Chosen Thousand”
Summary: Election Rada reforms had a big impact on the development of the RCH. The status of the king was strengthened due to his important role in the state. But the role of the database is also ost. Order system increased. About all the most important serfdom testify to the introduction of taxes and heavy labor transitions in St. George's Day. On the significance of military reforms, the testimony gave the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, the place of the church in the state began to move down to 2 place. The king himself began to play an all-important role in church affairs. The introduction of taxes on the church of the earth is also indicative of a decline in church status, which was not previously.
21) oprichnina
In pre-revolutionary historiography, there were two views on the oprichnina and its creator. Some were convinced that Ivan the Terrible was a tyrant. The second point of view was called "moral orientation", testified that Ivan was a great statesman, equal in value with Peter I. Karamzin, Klyuchevsky, Soloviev. The source was Spanish. annals, embassy books of the 18th century. Platonov believed that the oprichnina was recognized to break the patrimonial land tenure of the service princes. Following Platonov, Sadikov concludes that the oprichnina is the homework of Moscow life and its sovereign. Pokrovsky during the period of revolutions and civil war determined that the royal dictatorship (oprichnina) is a form of domination of the nobility and the merchants. Wipper was looking for analogies between Ivan 4 and the Communists, he was sure that in the 16th century there was a democratic monarchy in Russia, there were no estates and serfdom. Wipper’s test case is an explosion of revenge against traitors. Moreover, he considers the oprichnina to be a continuation of the military reforms of the mid-16th century.
Chosen One Thousand. \\\\ By the end of the 20s of the XX century, the memories of the guardsmen were published. The mid 30s - the scientific cemetery of the pre-revolutionaries, the only one who spoke about the oprichnina was Smirnov. Against the backdrop of the struggle against the kulaks, the question arose about the role of the struggle against class contradictions. At the level of 37 years, the works of Platonov begin to be reprinted. But in 1937, new installation political formulations were introduced: the entry of the people into tsarist Russia promised less evil than independence; The ultimate goal of centralization of the state could be realized by various means; The Livonian War was defensive against the aggression of the Livonian Order. In the mid-30s - the oprichnina - a progressive policy of establishing state order in specific disorder and cruelty was justified. In 1939, Bakhrushin's new high school textbook appeared: the oprichnina continued the activities of the elected Rada to combat the remnants of feudal fragmentation, and Ivan 4 the genius. Against this background, purely scientific research continued. Sadikov returned to science and realized that it was necessary to consider in more detail the consequences of the oprichnina. Bibikov looked at the social composition of the guardsmen. Veselovsky was not afraid of the consequences and restored the list of victims of Ivan the Terrible and their biography. Oprichnina was for him - the confrontation of Ivan 4 with his court and, accordingly, was guilty of everything. In the years of the Second World War, the cult of Ivan the Terrible was strongly strengthened and the only caveat was that he was a great man, but not consistent. Bakhrushin summed up a peculiar result. \\\\\\\\ In 1949-1951, a discussion on the dates of statehood took place on the pages of magazines. Veselovsky continued his research. The Oprichnina achieved the goal, strengthened the autocracy, strengthened the nobility, but at the same time increased the ruin of the country. \\\\\\\\\\ Zimin, Cherepnin and Schmidt - the oprichnina is progressive, was of a noble nature and was directly connected with foreign policy. 1955 - essays on the history of the USSR. \\\\\\\\\\\\ In 60-80 years - the heyday of Soviet science. Kobrin, Zimin continued his work. Oprichnina is directed against the inheritances, independence of Novgorod and the Church. Alshets estimates oprichnina as a mechanism of suppression of estate-representative institutions. Alshets also distributed the oprichnina until 1917. Anna Khoroshkevich believed that the oprichnina was introduced to continue the Livonian war, unpopular in Russia. \\\\\\\\\\\\ 90s of the XX century. Pavlov was engaged in land relocations during the years of the oprichnina. Mary Perry, the subject of her research was the identity of Ivan the Terrible in Russian folklore. Melnikov studied the liquidation of the yard. Victor Kobrin wrote the monograph Ivan the Terrible. Skrynnikov made his contribution ("John the Terrible").
The essence of the oprichnina. Reasons: 1) The desire to eliminate contenders for the throne. 2) The desire to eliminate the elements of the estate-representative monarchy. 3) Destroy the remains of the specific system. 4) Disagreement about the political system of the Russian state. 5) Disagreement in the choice of foreign policy directions. 6) The desire to stop the unrest by force. 7) The desire to stabilize the state treasury. 8) Determining the place of the church in the state. 9) The personal qualities of Ivan the Terrible.
Oprichnina is a counter-reform recognized to eliminate elements of an estate-representative monarchy, as well as a system of measures aimed at strengthening autocratic tendencies against the opening of positions of the boyars, nobles and the Church, to suppress popular uprisings and enrich the state treasury.
Activities of the oprichnina: 1) Creation of the oprichnina army (a kind of knightly order based on unquestioning submission to the tsar) .2) Division of the state into zemstvo and oprichnina. 3) The presence of their own governing bodies in the zemstvo and oprichnina. The zemstvos have the Boyar Duma, the oprichnins have Ivan the Terrible and the newly elected boyar Duma. 4) The introduction of tax zemstvo on the maintenance of the oprichnina.
22) Ivan4 as a person and statesman in the works of historiansPre-Revolutionary:
Klyuchevsky: for himself became a saint. Shcherbakov: the hero of virtue and the wise gosudarstvo in the first half of his reign and tyrant and despot in the second. Soloviev: the activity of Yves Gr was, for all the cruelties, a step forward, towards the victory of the "state" began. But do not forget about morality: the historian will not utter the word of justification to such a person. Platonov: Yves Gr fought against the boyars as against the brakes on the road to centralization.
In the 30s and 20s, the person Iv4 impressed To Stalin. Since the 40s, Grozn has considered it an issue of a state husband and patriot.
Veselovsky: denied to gr. Zimin: the book “Oprichnina Yves Gr” - broke from the concept of the struggle of the boyars and the court, on which holding the end of the progressiveness of the oprichnina. Skrymnikov: the influence of the personality of Yves Gr on the events of his time was uneven in different periods. Being a man unbalanced, easily under suggestion, the king is constantly subject to the influence of the favorites. No matter how much Tsar Gr is subject to the influence of the temporary, he eventually mercilessly destroyed them. The character trait of Eve was a penchant for foolishness and repentance.
23) Livonian war (1558-1583)
Reasons for the war: the desire of the Moscow state to take possession of convenient harbors on the Baltic Sea and establish direct bargaining ties with Western Europe. Reason for war: The reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the failure to pay the Order of "St. George's tribute" (the tax that the Derpt (Yuryev) bishopric pledged to pay Moscow under the Russian-Livonian treaty of 1554). Stages of war: I Period (1558-1561)
In the spring and summer of 1558, Russians take hold of fortresses from Estonia to Zemgale. However, in May 1559, at the initiative of A.F. Adashev, the leader of the anti-Crimean party at the court, Moscow entered into a truce with the Order to direct forces against the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey. Taking advantage of the respite, the Grand Master of the Order G. Ketler signed an agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and Polish king Sigismund II Augustus on the recognition of his protectorate over Livonia. In October 1559 hostilities resumed: the knights defeated the Russians near Derpt, but could not take the fortress. Adashev in disgrace. The policy of Ivan 4 is changing: the conclusion of peace with Crimea and the concentration of forces against Livonia. In the hands of Ivan was the entire eastern part of Estonia and Livonia. Amid the military defeats of the Order, Denmark and Sweden intervened in the struggle for Livonia. Lake Ezel surrenders to Denmark. Revel - Sweden. Almost the entire territory of the Order goes to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (under vassalism and duchy). In February 1562, Riga was declared a free city. The Livonian Order ceased to exist. II Period (Fighting Lithuania)
In 1562, the Lithuanian detachments raided Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of that year, the situation on the southern borders of the Moscow state escalated, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia in the fall. The route to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, to take this The Russian army, which included "almost all the armed forces of the country," came out of the Velikiye Luki border fortress. In early February, the Russian army launched a siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered. After the capture of Polotsk, Russia’s successes in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in 1564 the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader who actually commanded Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, sided with Lithuania, he betrayed tsarist agents to the king in the Baltic states and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki. Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and the unwillingness of eminent boyars to fight Lithuania. Repressions against the boyars were introduced in 1565. In 1565, the Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. time, the Zemsky Sobor supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to wage a fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga. III Period.
The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569 into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again worsened, and in the south (the Turkish army’s campaign near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with Crimea, during which Devlet I Giray’s army burned Moscow in 1571 and ruined the South Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Nations of a long “bezrokolevya”, the creation of a vassal “kingdom” Magnus in Livonia, which at first would attract strength in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the Devlet Giray army was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars (Battle of Molody) was eliminated. In 1573 the Russians stormed the Weisenstein fortress (Paide). Spring Moscow troops commanded by Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) converged near the Lode castle in western Estonia with two thousandth Swedish army. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and convoys. In 1575, the Saga fortress surrendered to the Russians, and Pernov (now Pärnu in Estonia) surrendered to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia seized the entire coast except Riga and Kolyvan. However, the unfavorable international situation, distribution lands in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, pushing away the local peasants from Russia, serious internal difficulties (economic ruin approaching the country) negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia. In order to interrupt the growing trade under Russian control of Narva, Poland, followed by Sweden, began active privateer activities in the Baltic Sea. In 1570, measures were taken to protect Russian trade in the Baltic Sea. Ivan the Terrible issued a “royal letter” (privateer patent) to the Danish Carsten Rode. Despite a short period of activity, Rode’s actions were quite effective, reduced Swedish and Polish trade in the Baltic, forced Sweden and Poland to equip special squadrons to capture Rode.
Summary: In January 1582, in the Pit-Zapolny (near Pskov), a 10-year truce was concluded by the Commonwealth (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky Peace). Russia abandoned Livonia and Belorussian lands, but some border lands were returned to it. In May 1583, a 3-year-old Plyus armistice was concluded with Sweden, which ceded Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod, Narva and the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. Rus state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, and the districts were depopulated. + It should be noted that the Crimean raids influenced the course of the war and its outcome: only for 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no raids. The failure of the Liv warriors was the result of the economics of Russia's backwardness, which could not successfully withstand the long struggle with strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the years of the oprichnina only aggravated the matter.
24) the entry of the Volga region into the Republic of Ingushetia and its historical significanceThe consolidation of autocratic power in the Russian state and the creation of a more powerful military organization created the conditions for intensifying foreign policy. The primary task in this regard was the elimination of the constant threat of invasion by the Kazan Khanate. Goals: eliminate the remnants of the Evil Horde, annex the Volga, an important bargaining path, an increase in territory. \\\\\\\\ Already in the mid-40s of the XVI century. Chuvashs and Maris, who became part of the Russian state, were freed from the power of the Kazan Khanate.
Preparing for a trip to Kazan.The construction of the Sviyazhsky fortress in 1551. From a miniature from the front annalistic vault of the XVI century. By the middle of the XVI century. Against the Russian state, there was a strong coalition of Muslim sovereigns that arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde and united by influence and support from the Sultan of Turkey. The fight against external danger once again emerged as a primary, most important task, on the solution of which the existence and development of the recently emerged united Russian state depended. The entire second half of the 40s was spent in diplomatic and military attempts to eliminate the hotbed of aggression in Kazan either by restoring its vassal dependence, which could be achieved by confirming a supporter of Moscow in Kazan, or by conquering Kazan. But these attempts were unsuccessful. Shah-ali, a Moscow protege, could not stay in Kazan, and two campaigns of Russian troops in 1547-1548 and 1549-1950 were unsuccessful. At the turn of the 50s, preparations began for a decisive strike on Kazan. The preference for military defeat over diplomatic ways to solve this problem was connected with the need for land for the nobles. The Kazan Khanate with its “Podrajsky zemlyatse” (expression of Peresvetov) attracted service people. The mastery of Kazan was also important for the development of trade - it opened the way along the Volga to the countries of the East, which so attracted Europeans in the sixteenth century with their wealth.
The capture of Kazan. In the spring of 1551, on the right bank of the Volga, opposite Kazan, a wooden fortress Sviyazhsk, which had been felled and lowered along the river, was put in advance, which became a stronghold for conducting military operations against Kazan. The Russian offensive on Kazan alarmed the Turkish-Tatar coalition. By order of the Sultan, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey struck from the south, intending to invade the central regions of Russia and thereby thwart the Russian offensive on Kazan. But in Moscow they foresaw the possibility of such an attack and in the area of \u200b\u200bKashira-Kolomna, troops were stationed at the ancient Oka border. Crimean Khan went back. In the second half of 1552, the fifty-thousandth Russian army, led by Ivan IV, princes A. M. Kurbsky, M. I. Vorotynsky and others, besieged Kazan. To destroy the walls of the Kazan Kremlin, according to the plan of Ivan Vyrodkov, mine digs and siege devices were built. As a result of the assault on October 2, 1552, Kazan was taken.
Mastery of the Volga way.Then followed the accession of Bashkiria to Russia. In 1556, Astrakhan was taken. In 1557, Murza Ismail, the head of the Great Nogai Horde, swore allegiance to the Russian state. His opponents migrated with part of the legs to the Kuban and became vassals of the Crimean Khan. Value. The entire Volga has now become Russian. It was a huge success for the Russian state. In addition to eliminating the dangerous hotbeds of aggression in the East, the victory over Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of developing new lands and developing trade with the countries of the East. This victory was a major event for contemporaries; she inspired the creation of a masterpiece of Russian and world architecture - the famous Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, known as “St. Basil the Blessed” (architects Barma and Postnik Yakovlev), the icon “The Church is Militant” was painted
25) relations between Russia and the peoples of the North Caucasus in the 16-17th centuries
Zakreposhch → shoots of peasants → emergence of the Cossacks. Tue Paul 16c - the first Russian fortress in the North Caucasus. 1566 - son-in-law of Iv4 kabardin. Prince Temryuk Idarov asks to build a Russian fortress for protection → dissatisfaction with the Ottoman Ports and the Khanate Crimea → their campaigns. Rus fortress was demolished.
1588-1589- Terskaya crepe was rebuilt again (it is connected with the friendship relations of Russia, the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia). Mr. Treki was also erected. By the beginning of the 17th century, it had become an important center for the political and economic relations of Russia with the people of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia.
The reasons for the rapprochement between Kabarda and Russia:constant raids of the Crimea and the Ports forced to search for Circassians for help from Russia. 1552 - 1 (according to the annals) embassy from Adyghe peoples arrived in Moscow. 1557- new embassy- voluntarily joined by Kabarda and Russia. 1561- Yves Gr wives to the daughter of Temryuk Idarov- Maria Temryukovna.
The beginning of the 17th century worsened the position of Russia. Her weakened allowed the Iranian shahs to begin the struggle for the seizure of Dagestan, and in the northwestern Caucasus began the aggression of the Ports and Crimea. But despite being watered against Russia, the North Caucasus expanded its ties with Russia.
Kabard Princes in Russian service.1614 - 1615 - Tsar Mikh Fed was sworn by the Western Circassians. 1645 - sworn abazins.
Dagestan-rus rel 16-17 centuries. He began to aggravate relations between Dag and Kabarda → aggravate relations between Dag and Russia. But then friendship relations, but the shamkhal opposed. 1604-1605 - Butorlin's campaigns in Dag. There were no obstacles. Beginning of the 40s 17th century- accepted Citizenship by all feudal lords of Dag.
The participation of the North Caucasus in the Crimean-Turkish policy of Russia 1678-1681. 17c- expansion of ties between the people of the North Caucasus and Russia → the discontent of the Crimea and their raids. They took part in the Chigir campaigns, in the Rus-tour war. \\\\\\\\\\ Trade and economic ties between Russia and the North Caucasus are supported through the Caspian Sea and by road (Astrakhan-Terki-Endelet-Tarki-Derbent). In the Thursday, 17th century Terskaya crepe camp was a large bargaining center.
From Dagestan: red kumachi, scarves, rugs, carpets, morocco, knives, sabers, oil, walnut nuts, dried apricots. From Kabarda: felt and leather products, horse harness and saddles, weapons, helmets, shells, cloaks, C / X products.
Highlanders and Rus settlers exerted mutual influence on each other.