The modern education system is increasingly concentrating the functions of socialization of the individual, including young people with disabilities. Today, there is an acute need to help people with disabilities fully integrate into the life of society, which implies the realization of the right to education, the improvement and creation of specialized educational structures and learning technologies. In European countries, the receipt of higher education by disabled persons is guaranteed. Not a single institution of higher education in developed countries of the world has the right to refuse admission to an applicant with disabilities. At the same time, the problematic point is the availability of training for students with special needs. In this regard, it becomes necessary to consider the systems of higher education abroad (USA, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Spain, Italy, Sweden), the peculiarities of organizing vocational training for young people in higher educational institutions. Features and specifics of higher education for persons with disabilities of the above-named states were analyzed within the framework of the European Tempus-Tacis project "Center for Higher Education for Disabled Persons" (trips, seminars, trainings, conferences), as well as during a research trip to the United States within the framework of the "Secondary Education in the USA: a project for one state ”. There are different classifications of disability in the countries under consideration. Thus, in Belgium, there are 8 types of disability: 1) mild mental retardation; 2) severe mental retardation; 3) emotional disorders; 4) limited physical capabilities; 5) congenital diseases; 6) hearing impairment; 7) visual impairment; 8) dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysphasia. In the UK, according to the Guidelines for Provision of Students with Disabilities to Higher Education, there are six groups of students with disabilities: with dyslexia; with latent diseases (diabetes, epilepsy, asthma); with mental disorders; with hearing impairment; with visual impairment; with disorders of the musculoskeletal system. The USA and Sweden distinguish five types of disabilities: visual impairment; hearing impairment; disorders of the musculoskeletal system; mental disorders and learning difficulties. In Germany, four types of disability are defined: physical disabilities, mental disorders, mental retardation, the combination of several types of diseases. The specificity of the Italian definition of types of disability is the complete lack of classification. The concept of "disability" includes the presence of various disorders in a person in more than 66%. This is established by the health authorities. This approach is also typical for Spain - more than 33% of people with disabilities are considered disabled. Thus, a distinctive feature of the typology of disability in European countries, the United States, is the absence of disability groups (as in Russia, Ukraine), the presence of a greater number of types and types of disabled people. Also characteristic is the obligatory identification of such a type as disabled people with learning difficulties (dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysphasia). An important factor in the availability of higher education is the payment for educational services. It is regulated by the legislation of foreign countries, in which the essential principle is that there is no free education for any category of students - there is compensation for it. Allowances, scholarships are paid, grants are provided, loans are issued. These costs are financed by organizations, foundations, centers, services, local governments. Students, turning to the university service, receive information about which funds, organizations to ask for financial assistance, or they are looking for a source of funding on their own. For example, in the UK, inpatient students with disabilities receive a major government grant. In addition to full-time disabled people, part-time students and post-graduate students are also entitled to benefits. There are funds at universities, funds from which can also be paid to students with disabilities. Part-time students with disabilities and graduate students at a British university receive student benefits, which are divided into three groups: 1) benefits for special equipment - computer, scanner, specialized software, digital voice recorder, electronic dictionary, Oxford dictionary, pocket organizer, colored bookmarks , insurance and of course, ongoing equipment support, in accordance with individual needs; 2) non-medical auxiliary aids - additional classes, exercises, but not the main course of the discipline; 3) the main student manual - copying, recording tape for lectures, colored paper, additional books. The amount of the allowance depends on how many hours a student with a disability is studying per day, even with distance learning. Tax payment is characteristic of tuition fees in the Italian higher education system. However, if a student has a disability of more than 66%, he or she is eligible for full exemption from university tuition fees. It is necessary to present at the beginning of the school year a disabled person's certificate issued by the health authorities. Also, local authorities establish additional payments for various expenses (transport, household help). In Spain, universities provide a preferential payment if the disability is 33% or more. Compensation for the rest of the money comes from scholarships, benefits, for which you must submit documents and write an application. Germany provides student loans to persons with disabilities. The United States provides free education for people with disabilities under the Developmental and Health Disabilities Education Act (1997). It is beneficial for American higher education institutions to have students with disabilities. the state allocates funds for the organization of support and support for students of this category. Students with disabilities are eligible to apply for scholarships to various funds, organizations, centers. Tuition fees in the UK are similar to those in the United States. In accordance with the Law on Discrimination of Persons with Disabilities in Education (1999), the state provides grants, loans or other payments to the Education and Training Councils to organize appropriate support for students with disabilities. A prerequisite is the submission of public reports on the spending of funds by universities. In the context of the study, it is important to analyze the presence of units that ensure the receipt of high-quality higher education by people with disabilities in universities in the United States and European Union countries. Table 1 presents a list of centers, departments, services for working with students with disabilities in the analyzed foreign universities. Each higher educational institution in foreign countries has its own service or support center for students with disabilities, which is a distinctive feature from Russian universities. Table 1 Structural Units Providing Support and Accompanying Students with Disabilities in Foreign Universities No. Country Leading Universities Unit Name 1. United States Sam Houston State University Disability Consulting Center Tulane University Disability Service Management University of Minnesota Disability Support Center Northern University Carolines in Acheville Directorate of Services for the Disabled 2. Belgium Free University of Brussels Center for Research and Training for Disabled Persons Catholic University of Leuven Center for the Study of Disabled People University of Ghent Disabled Student Services 3. Great Britain Queen's University Belfast Disability Support Center University of Edinburgh Disability Service Open University Yorkshire Service Service for Disabled Students, Persons with Disabilities and Additional Needs 4. Germany University of Wuppertal Service for Disabled and Chronically Ill Students University of Heidelberg Service for disabled and chronically ill students Berlin Technical University Service for students with disabilities and chronic diseases Technical University Dortmund Dormundt Center for Disability Research 5. Spain National University distance learning Service for the Integration of Students with Physical or Sensory Disabilities University of Barcelona Service for the Integration of Persons with Disabilities University of Valencia Service for the Integration of Persons with Disabilities 6. Italy University of Padua Service for the Support of Social Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities University of Milan Office for the Disabled University of Pisa Student Integration Service- People with Disabilities University of Florence Service for Students with Disabilities 7. Sweden Stockholm University Student Service for Disabled People Karolinska Medical University Center for Students with Disabilities Swedish Agricultural University Center for Students with Disabilities Uppsala University Center for Disabled People As shown by the analysis of the practical material of the activity services and centers presented in Table 1, in some countries, the centers are becoming more than just a teaching and rehabilitation unit dealing with social educational and pedagogical support of students with disabilities, but also research. An example is Belgium (Center for Research and Training for Disabled Persons, Center for Disabled Research); Germany (Dormundt Center for Disability Research); Sweden (Center for Persons with Disabilities). In the context of our research, it is important to note that one of the important characteristics of the higher education system for students with disabilities is the presence of a responsible (coordinator) for disabled people at each faculty, institute, department of the university. There are such specialists in every university in the USA and European countries. Such a system of coordination of efforts and responsibility for the result in the training of persons with disabilities has not yet been introduced in domestic higher educational institutions. In addition, in universities in a number of countries (USA, Great Britain, Spain, Sweden), a prerequisite for the successful education of disabled people is the presence of an ombudsman position, a specialist who checks the observance and implementation of all rights of students with disabilities, and especially during the educational process. In Russia, there is also an ombudsman position, but only at the national level. However, none of the domestic universities have ombudsmen. At the same time, their presence would contribute to the development of recommendations and guidelines for the implementation of the rights of persons with disabilities in accordance with international standards. The analysis of foreign experience showed significant differences from the domestic one in the field of organizing the accessibility of education for students with disabilities, namely: the introduction of the position of a coordinator (responsible) at the faculty (institute) for working with disabled students; the presence in the university of specialists accompanying students with disabilities in the educational process (mentors, tutors, coachi, support assistants); development of international exchange programs for students with disabilities. It should be noted that the above distinctive features for domestic universities are a promising direction in providing high-quality higher education for persons with disabilities. This study was carried out within the framework of the state assignment of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation "Development and implementation of a rehabilitation system for students with disabilities in an inclusive educational environment of the Republic of Crimea" (No. 115052150078).
The general socio-economic and demographic situation in the republic has recently led to an aggravation of the problems of the availability of quality education and subsequent employment of young people living in rural areas.
They say and write a lot about the rural school. The content of both scientific papers and pseudo-scientific research of the network of rural secondary schools is far from unambiguous. However, events in our republic are inexorably developing in the direction of reducing schools. The economy must be economical, and the costs of maintaining rural schools are recognized as ineffective.
Optimization of rural schools in order to develop rural education and create conditions for ensuring accessibility and high quality rural education - one of the priority directions of modernization of PMR education. From the analytical reports of heads of rural schools it follows that, thanks to the opening of specialized classes, over the past two years, the quality of education of graduates has improved, the percentage of admission to higher and secondary vocational educational institutions has increased. But, as school directors note, the vast majority of rural school graduates who entered universities do not return to their native village. Therefore, paradoxical as it may seem, more accessible higher education contributes to the fact that the village is left without an influx of young personnel.
The main problem of the rural society: the lack of life prospects
for the majority of the villagers. Depression, the burden of collapsing economic problems, isolates the family, leaving it alone with its troubles. There is a sharp decline in the living standards of many families, a deterioration in the social well-being of adolescents and youth, parents with minor children. The consequence is the disintegration of spiritual values, manifested in the loss of ideals, confusion, pessimism, a crisis of self-realization, lack of trust in relation to the older generations and official state structures, which gives rise to legal nihilism. But at the same time, the only stable functioning social institution in the countryside was the school: “The very presence of a teacher in the countryside, a rural intellectual, who sets the cultural level for the environment, is very important for us. Remove the teacher from the village and you get a degrading environment. The rural school, without a doubt, is a means of cultivating the environment, social stability of the rural society. "
The rural teacher is also in the same environment of a spiritless vacuum. Today there is a need to include the Transnistrian State Institute the development of education is the most effective of the many ways to preserve the teacher's culture in the countryside, namely the system of professional development of teachers on a cumulative basis. Such a system of activity includes:
System seminars with visits to individual organizations general education;
work as part of a pedagogical asset, ensuring the involvement of rural teachers in the organizational and technological support of seminars at the republican level on an equal basis with representatives of urban organizations of general education, organizations of primary and secondary vocational education (conferences, exhibitions, presentations, etc.).
A society under conditions of general modernization requires the adolescent to be able to quickly adapt to new conditions of existence. Before a teacher working in a village, a problem arises: how in conditions of tough market competition, the shift of the value vector of the individual from high ideals to the ideals of material prosperity, profit to preserve the moral qualities of a growing person.
During the school period, children, adolescents, adolescents are not consistently included in the scope of society, do not participate in the discussion of the problems that adults live - labor, economic, environmental, socio-political, etc. And this leads to infantilism, egoism, spiritual emptiness , to an acute internal conflict and an artificial delay in the personal development of young people, deprives them of the opportunity to take an active social position. The pedagogical collective considers the special forms of school self-government to be the most effective means of forming and developing an active social position of the growing residents of the village. The specificity of these forms is that they combine, on the one hand, the active participation of students in the traditional events for our territory (for example, in the days of school self-government), on the other hand, they include them in the social life of their native village. Among the non-traditional means of forming an active life position of the growing villagers are the functioning of the Children's Service taking part in village gatherings, work organizing creative exhibitions of joint family work of students and their parents, and much more.
The problem of a different plan is the failure to take into account the sex, age, individual and other characteristics of students. Not all types of activities organized by a rural school contribute to the development of spiritual culture in children and adolescents. Often the emphasis is on the quality of knowledge, rather than on the mental and spiritual development of schoolchildren. However, teachers of rural educational organizations who initiate modernization processes note a number of important aspects:
- · The school, being in most cases the only cultural center of the village, has a significant impact on its development; it is important to establish close interaction between the school and the social environment in order to use its potential in educational work;
- Limited opportunities for self-education of rural schoolchildren,
- The lack of institutions of additional education, cultural and leisure establishments necessitate the organization of cognitive activities of students during extracurricular hours on the basis of the school and the expediency of using for this associations of a circle, club type, which includes schoolchildren of different ages, teachers, parents, social partners (representatives of the village administration) depending on their interests and abilities;
- · In a rural school, favorable conditions are formed for the use of the surrounding nature in educational work, traditions preserved in the countryside, folk art, and rich spiritual potential;
- · Labor activity occupies a significant place in the life of a rural schoolchild, which, given the irrational organization of a change in the types of activities of a teenager, affects the decrease in the importance of education in general in the village.
Rural teachers admit that the work of the school with the family is being conducted at an insufficient level, which largely determines the civic passivity of parents in relation to the fate of their children. Unfortunately, at this stage, in most rural general education organizations, work with parents has the character of one-off actions. The effectiveness of these measures is indisputable, but their systemic effectiveness in shaping the civic engagement of parents is not possible to assess.
It is also problematic that parents, teachers and educators consider health to be the leading values, and in real life in the countryside, studies note an increase in drug trafficking, smoking, and drunkenness. It seems interesting in terms of the formation of a value attitude to the health of future defenders of the Fatherland, which implies the organization of the work of the field camp in the summer. The idea of \u200b\u200bparamilitary camps is certainly not innovative. However, this approach to the conditions, factors, details of the implementation of this idea makes it really effective. For the head of the camp, educators, leaders of initial military training, each shift in such a camp is a carefully modeled business game. Boys in a militarized environment learn to act in emergencies, learn the basics of first aid, learn interesting information about the latest in military technology. Feeling the elbow of a comrade, realizing their responsibility for his life in an emergency, adolescents acquire a different outlook on their own life and health.
Unfortunately, the overwhelming majority of teachers from rural educational organizations consider the transfer of knowledge, skills, and abilities to students as their main business. However, the question of the effective application in life of the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired at school remains for independent decision by graduates and their parents.
One of the most important factors for success in modern life is access to up-to-date information. It's no secret that the inhabitants of many rural settlements are deprived of the ability to connect to information networks. This fact brings the greatest damage to that part rural populationwho is capable and ready to carry out self-education. It becomes impossible to implement distance learning.
Exiting the education crisis in the context of socio-economic changes, we understand that this is possible only on the basis of a detailed strategy that takes into account both the real situation in the field of education, the trends and attitudes in it, and the individual affairs of each school.
In our time, the educational opportunities of the rural society have decreased.
The school is becoming the only means of spiritual revival of the village. Of course, one school cannot solve all crisis situations, but a rural school can help a growing person to implement the principle of free civil choice, ready for a reasonable choice of life positions. Such a graduate will be successful in life and work.
Problems of accessibility of general education in modern Russia
Almost the entire Russian society is concerned about the problems of access to education. These problems are discussed not only by scientists and officials from the education system, but also by teachers and parents. The reason is that education is increasingly viewed by both the population and the governments of most countries of the world as an important economic resource that ensures successful self-realization, social mobility and material well-being of the individual in modern world... At the same time, the requirements that were and are imposed on those wishing to get an education are not always the same, which creates a problem of inequality, primarily associated with the availability of education and its quality for people of different socio-economic status, nationality, gender, physical abilities, etc. equality of opportunity in education is about giving everyone, regardless of background, the opportunity to reach the level that best suits their potential. The lack of equal access to education actually means the perpetuation of economic, social and cultural inequalities, blocking the way for children from the lower strata to the upper ones. There are several concepts of unequal access to education. This is legal inequality, which is considered as inequality of rights enshrined in law and socio-economic inequality due to the socio-economic characteristics of different groups of the population.
The right to education (along with the right to vote) is one of the freedoms for which all peoples of the world have fought throughout their history. The right to education is enshrined in the International Convention on the Rights of the Child. In European countries, the right to education is part of the value system of a modern democratic state. Mass public school education has become a fundamental condition for ensuring social justice, national prosperity, economic and social progress in society.
According to Russian legislation (Article 43 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation), the state guarantees to citizens the availability and free of charge of primary general, basic general, as well as secondary (complete) general education in state and municipal educational institutions within the limits of state educational standards. Formally, these guarantees are respected. According to the 2002 All-Russian Population Census, the proportion of children aged 10-14 years enrolled in general education institutions in cities and urban-type settlements was 97.4%, and in rural areas - 97.9%. The share of the illiterate population aged 10 years or more in 2002 was 0.5%. These indicators indicate a fairly high degree of accessibility of education in the Russian Federation. For comparison: in India, the enrollment rate of children of the age in question is 65%, in China - 80.7%, in Canada - 97.2%, in the UK - 98.9%, in the USA - 99.8%, in France and in Australia - 100%. Structural changes in political and economic life Russia of the 1990s. touched upon all spheres of state activity, not leaving aside the sphere of education. The transformation of the structure of the country's economy has led to a change in the structure of demand for educational services. In recent years, the demand for higher education services has grown significantly, which was accompanied by a response growth in supply. Both according to opinion polls and statistics, the volume of educational services provided is expanding. The number of universities increased by 108%: from 514 in 1990 to 1068 in 2005 (of which 615 are state institutions and 413 are non-state institutions). The number and enrollment of students increased by 150% over the same period. These tendencies are typical for both state and non-state universities, and non-state universities have developed even more actively. The number of students studying on a paid basis at universities of various forms of ownership is increasing. In the 2004/2005 academic year, more than half (56%) of students studied on a paid basis (in the 1995/1996 academic year this figure was only 13%). Based on the above, one could make an optimistic conclusion that education in Russia has become more accessible and in demand in recent years. In terms of the share of people with higher and postgraduate professional education in the economically active population, Russia is in third place after Norway and the United States, in Russia this indicator is 22.3, in Norway and the United States - 27.9.
For Russia, experts note the discrepancy between the proclaimed goals and real facts that indicate the inability of the education system to meet these goals. The emergence of the economy of the new Russia was accompanied by a sharp and significant reduction in government spending on education. This led to the degradation of institutions at all levels of education. The deterioration of the material and technical base and human potential negatively affected the availability and quality of education.
The Russian education system does not provide social mobility of the population, there are no conditions of “equal start”, quality education today is virtually inaccessible without connections and / or money, there is no system of social (grant) support for students from low-income families. The introduction of market relations into the sphere of education leads to a growing degree of inequality among educational institutions, primarily higher. Political and social changes, the development of democracy create favorable conditions for reforms, including in the field of education, but these same changes cause an increase in corruption, crime and other negative consequences.
The development of the non-state sector in the field of education and the official provision of paid educational services (including the use of paid forms of education in state educational institutions) in the context of ensuring equality and accessibility is ambiguous. Paid educational services in 2006 were rendered to the population by 189.6 billion rubles, or 10.4% more than in 2005. On the one hand, the development of the system of paid educational services expands access to vocational education through the introduction of paid vocational education, which has brought Russia to one of the leading places in the world in terms of the relative number of students in higher educational institutions. But on the other hand, paying for education reduces its accessibility for the poor.
In the context of the constant underfunding of the education system and the growth of its payment, income and available resources of parents are a significant factor affecting the availability of education for children from different social strata of the population. The subjective side of the problem of accessibility is that almost all social groups are sure that education has become paid. Consequently, in public opinion, we have lost one of the most important gains - access to quality free education for trained and capable guys. Recently, in the public consciousness, the problems associated with obtaining education have become aggravated - people increasingly believe that this important socio-economic resource is becoming less and less accessible. According to VTsIOM polls conducted in 2007, half of Russians cannot afford paid education, 40% cannot afford paid medicine. In case of emergency, paid medical services can be used by 42% of our fellow citizens, educational - 27%. Only 16-17% of Russians are systematically able to pay for such services.
The problem of its availability in modern Russia ceases to be an exclusively problem of socially vulnerable segments of the population; it affects almost the entire population. The social differentiation of modern Russian society creates unequal conditions for the social mobility of young people. The growth of differences in income and material security is inevitable during the transition to a market economy and plays the role of an incentive for labor and business activity, but in Russia it turned out to be excessive, provoking an increase in social tension in society. The gap between the narrow rich minority and the poor majority increased from 4.5 times in 1990 to 14.5 times in 2003. Due to this factor, youth crime in the country has significantly increased. Young people who saw no other way to take a place in the sun joined the ranks of criminals. The availability of educational services should alleviate the problem of poverty. The orientation towards equal access to education in the development of the modern Russian education system has not yet been implemented in practice despite the general growth in the educational level of the population.
We can say that in fact the public education system is developing in such a way that it ensures the reproduction and even the strengthening of social imbalances in society. This inequality arises at the level of preschool education and subsequently persists and intensifies at all further stages of education.
In the course of monitoring the economy of education in the Russian Federation, estimates were obtained of the population's funds entering the system of general and vocational education. Analysis of household expenditures, which also include officially unreported costs, makes it possible to assess the processes leading to inefficient use of resources in the education system. Research results demonstrate how social inequality manifests itself in school, and then in vocational education. This is most clearly manifested in the higher education system, as the most competitive area, which accumulates in itself all the shortcomings and problems of the previous educational stages, and further leads to a deepening of social differentiation and creates the preconditions for its reproduction.
Constitutional guarantees for the provision of free general education to all children in our country are mainly implemented in practice. However, parents who have a strongly expressed attitude towards their children getting higher professional education and further social growth, prefer from the first grade to assign a child not to any, but only to a good school, which gives a high level of socialization, that is, the amount of knowledge, skills and target settings.
Unfortunately, schools of this kind are a scarce resource (the demand for high quality general education services on the part of the population exceeds the supply of these services by general education institutions). Therefore, children are admitted to them mainly on a competitive basis. The competition is a special filter at the transition stage " kindergarten – elementary School”And is ideally designed to provide access to quality education for the most gifted children. In reality, the competition for access to a scarce resource involves not only the child's abilities, but also the "dignity" of his parents - their high position in society or a high level of material well-being, combined with a willingness to use one or the other for the benefit of the school or its administration. This circumstance has an objective economic basis. A shortage of goods in the market due to the fact that the official price for it is below the equilibrium market price always leads to the emergence of a parallel existing "shadow" market for the goods in question and the formation of a "shadow" price in this market, higher than the officially established one.
Thus, given the formal availability of general education in Russia, there is an inequality of opportunities in obtaining high-quality school education, due to the socio-economic stratification of society. The main danger of this phenomenon is that, arising at the stage of the preschool filter, it can be preserved and further reproduced at all further stages of education.
To estimate the expenses of Russian households related to preparing a child for school and his enrollment in school, we use data from a representative survey by the Public Opinion Foundation conducted in 2004. As mentioned above, this kind of costs is borne by about 25% of families with preschool children of the corresponding age. At the same time, approximately 21% of households purchase books, office supplies and other supplies necessary for school. The expenses of Muscovites in this case are 3,200 rubles per year, the expenses of a non-Moscow family - 1,300 rubles per year. Another 2.4% of families spend money on passing the necessary medical examination of the child (1,900 and 300 rubles, respectively); 0.3% of respondents pay for testing or an entrance exam to school (1,500 and 500 rubles, respectively).
As the child grows up, parents begin to seriously think about which school to send him to. Let us consider some of the results of a sociological survey of parents of preschoolers, conducted in 2003 in 4 pilot regions. Characteristically, if for children under 3 years old, about 30% of the parents surveyed say something definite about the characteristics of the school, then for children over 5 years old, almost 100% of parents express their preferences. At the same time, if for parents of younger children, only such characteristics of a school as a convenient location and good teachers are important, for parents of children of an older age category, the opportunity to enter a good university after this school begins to acquire almost the same importance.
The territorial factor influencing the availability of quality education plays an important role. Existing economic differentiation between major cities (primarily by Moscow) and regions, with limited mobility, leads to inequality in access to education. Many Moscow families begin to build educational strategies for their children from a very early age. 17% of Moscow residents invest in the educational preparation of their children for school. Of these, 12% pay official fees to various educational institutions (an average of 5,500 rubles per year) and 5% pay for the services of private teachers (an average of 9,400 rubles a year). In other regions of Russia, only 8.2% of respondents make similar investments. Of these, 6.7% pay official fees to various educational institutions (an average of 2,200 rubles a year) and 1.5% pay for the services of private teachers (an average of 3,200 rubles a year). Analyzing this segment of the educational services market, it should be noted that in the capital there is no longer only demand for the services in question. In comparison with other regions, their offer is also more significant and diverse.
As it turned out in the course of the survey, some part of parents (3.4% in Moscow and 1.2% in Russia) pay an official entrance fee when their child enters school. In the regions it is quite insignificant - 400 rubles, in Moscow it is much higher - 12,300 rubles. As before, the practice of bribes and gifts for admitting a child to a good school persists, since such schools are becoming an increasingly scarce resource. According to indirect estimates and, bribes for admitting a child to a school educational institution in the academic year were given by 8.7% of Moscow families and 1.7% of other Russians. The average bribe for Muscovites was 24,500 rubles, and for residents of other regions - 6,600 rubles. Almost half of families (45%) are aware of the practice of informal payments for a child's admission to a good school. Most of those who are familiar with this practice are in Moscow and St. Petersburg (67%). In small towns the share of such families is 40%, and in villages - 27%. Between 40 and 50 percent of families are ready to pay for the child's admission to a good school, while the proportion of those who are "more likely ready" in settlements of different types is practically the same, and the proportion of those who are "definitely ready" in Moscow and St. Petersburg is twice higher than in villages (30% versus 15%, respectively)
In Russian general education institutions in 2003 the number of students per 1 personal computer was 46. And for 1 personal computer with Internet access, there were 400-440 schoolchildren. The results of PISA, which are unpleasant for our national self-consciousness, are explained, in particular, by this lag in the field of modern educational technologies.
In 2003, in the course of a sociological survey of teachers in 4 "pilot" regions, the degree of provision of the teaching staff with the subjects necessary for work was studied. As follows from the answers of the teachers, the provision of the educational process in general education institutions with the means necessary for normal work is insufficient. The most scarce resource is free Internet access: on average 16% of the surveyed teachers are provided with it. Only 30% of respondents receive computer diskettes and stationery (notebooks, pens, etc.) at their place of work. Pens are required every day for teachers to check student homework and assign grades. Only half of the teachers are provided with computers and professional literature at their place of work; 40% of the teachers surveyed were not provided with textbooks.
Teachers from Moscow schools are best provided with the subjects necessary for work. In other regions, no significant differences are observed. Attention is drawn to the fact that for most positions the level of provision in rural schools is higher than the average for all types of schools. Apparently, this is due to the fact that the total number of teachers in rural schools is much less than in urban ones. Therefore, each rural teacher accounts for a larger number of textbooks, stationery and professional literature provided by the institution.
Only 20% of the teachers surveyed did not buy things necessary for work with their own money. The percentage of purchases of computer equipment and related products (floppy disks, CDs, Internet cards) is very insignificant - from 2 to 13%. In combination with an insufficient level of provision of information resources at the workplace, this is an alarming symptom, signaling that at least half of the teaching staff are not ready to teach schoolchildren in accordance with the requirements of modern information technologies. The reasons for this are the lack of computer literacy among many teachers (especially older ones), as well as the lack of funds for schools and teachers themselves to buy modern office equipment (computers, printers), the cost of which is incomparable with the average earnings of a school teacher. Most often, school teachers purchase stationery, professional literature and textbooks, spending almost 2/3 of their salary at their main place of work.
We have already spoken about the current tendency towards a decline in the quality of general education in Russia. One of the reasons explaining this trend is the low level of wages. Although in recent years (year) there has been a significant increase in the wages of school employees, it still remains quite low.
Low wages force teachers to look for additional sources of income. For the majority, this is either work in another institution, or tutoring, or an increase in the load, sometimes due to the combination of subjects. Then what kind of high-quality preparation of schoolchildren for life in society, about the development of professional educational programs can we talk about if most of the teaching staff increases their income by increasing working hours?
Consequently, today there is a tendency of transformation of a school teacher into a teacher of a technical school, since he is increasingly becoming only a translator of a certain set of knowledge, gradually losing the educational function necessary for primary and primary schools. Finally, more than 40% of the part-time teachers give private lessons. Tutoring is another way to increase the income of school teachers.
According to the results of a sociological survey of teachers in 6 pilot regions, conducted in 2004, the average salary of a school teacher at the main place of work is almost 9300 rubles a month in Moscow, about 3900 rubles - in the regions, about 3700 rubles - in incomplete and rural schools. Thus, in 2004, teachers' salaries increased in comparison with 2003. 36% of teachers work part-time, most often it is private tutoring. This additional job makes it possible to earn about 6800 rubles a month in Moscow and 2200 rubles in the regions. Employees of rural schools are the least likely (10%) and least of all (600 rubles a month) to have additional earnings.
Non-competitive income levels lead to an aging teaching staff. According to sociological surveys in the pilot regions, the average age of teachers is 41-43 years. According to state statistics, in 2003, 15.7% of 5th grade teachers were people over working age. Among teachers in grades 1-4, teachers over working age accounted for 10%. In the system of general educational institutions, there are practically no young recruits. The school is supported by teachers of middle and retirement age, as a result of which there is a certain conservatism in the knowledge of schoolchildren. Young professionals do not go to work at school. In the labor market in the field of education, there is a steady trend towards the outflow of workers from the industry.
The low level of income of employees of educational institutions gives rise to the practice of unofficial payments and gifts. Corrupt attitudes in the school system distort signals in the educational market. An analysis of the monitoring results showed that about every 30th family in Russia (except for Moscow) and about every 20th family in Moscow unofficially paid at school for special treatment of their child. Underfunding of school teachers, their low motivation lead to the fact that there is no one to deal with the moral and ethical education of the younger generation.
The deterioration in the quality of the material and technical base and the staff of the general education system is largely a consequence of the inadequacy of its budgetary funding. Budgetary expenditures per student in the general education system in 2004 amounted to 16.65 thousand rubles.
Budgetary funds received by general education institutions account for approximately 50% of all budget expenditures for the educational system. At the same time, general education is almost entirely financed from the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local budgets. Expenditures on educational institutions from the consolidated budget amounted to 1.8% of the country's gross domestic product in 2004 and 1.5% of GDP in 2000. The share of budget expenditures on general education in the total volume of RF budget expenditures in 2004 was 6.4% against 6% in 2003. But speaking of budget expenditures, it should be said that the visible growth is not a qualitative indicator of an improvement in the situation with the financing of the general education system, since in real terms the volume of invested funds has hardly changed. During the period under review, the Russian economy has been experiencing fairly high inflation rates.
In addition, the amount of public funds entering the general education system is not always used effectively. For example, the computerization and Internet connection of rural schools will not be used properly without appropriate qualified service. It is clear that each such school will require an increase in staff, and therefore a significant increase in costs. To attract qualified specialists to rural schools, it is necessary not only to pay high wages, but also to provide housing and other guarantees of social well-being. And at the current moment, the budget does not allow properly operating modern equipment.
A considerable part of the budget funds is directed to the implementation of programs in the senior classes, the goals of which are not being achieved. The heavy workload required to complete curriculum in high school practically becomes a burden for students. As a result, they ignore courses that are not related to their chosen training profile. Consequently, public finances are spent for other purposes. It would be better to increase the efficiency of the use of budget funds by creating specialized directions in the senior classes and a corresponding redistribution of finances.
Today, in the face of extreme property stratification, Russians are not equal, including in the possibility of realizing the fundamental rights proclaimed by the Constitution, equal for all - to education or medical care.
Thus, the school education market needs regulation - both by the state, and by the professional community, and by consumers. The school system lays the foundation for the overall formation of future qualifications. And here, from the point of view of the needs of the economy, several general tasks are seen. One of the tasks of the school system is the availability of high-quality teaching, which in turn must meet the realities of life, modern technology and social needs and which depends on the prestige and status of teaching work, its remuneration, conditions, and the level of training of the teachers themselves. An independent quality control of the services provided is required.
Creating a competitive level of wages for workers in this sphere of education, increasing the authority of teaching work, organizing quality control of services, redistributing resources allocated to the general education system by households and the state will reduce losses to society. If the school continues to develop by inertia, then by 2010 school graduates will receive "pseudo-education", which will contribute to the further development of corruption. In this case, it will be difficult to talk about how to ensure equal access to education based on ability rather than financial ability.
Literature:
1. Education in Russian Federation... Statistical Yearbook. - M .: GU-HSE, 200s.
2. federal Service state statistics, 2006
http: // www. / scripts / db_inet / dbinet. cgi
3. Monitoring the economics of education. "Social differentiation and educational strategies of students and schoolchildren." Newsletter No. 6, 2007
4. Economics of education in the mirror of statistics. Information bulletin, №№ / Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, SU-HSE. - M.,.
5. Monitoring the economics of education. "Economic strategies of families in the education of children." Newsletter No. 4, 2007
UDC 378.013.2
ACCESSIBILITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AS THE INSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF A MODERN SOCIETY
E.A. Anikina, Yu.S. Nekhoroshev
Tomsk Polytechnic University E-mail: [email protected]
Analyzed the relationship between the availability of higher education, fees and credit. A classification of forms of education accessibility is given, which helps to determine the priorities for the development of the education system as a whole. The analysis of the possibility of the development of the Russian system of higher professional education along the way of increasing individual costs is carried out, as well as an assessment of the ways to overcome the financial constraints of families in obtaining higher education. The conclusion is made about the need to create optimal educational lending programs.
Keywords:
The system of higher professional education, the availability of higher education, universality, mass character, financing of education.
System of higher education, higher education accessibility, universality, large-scale participation, funding education.
The modern economy, positioned as innovative, largely depends on the quality of the country's human capital, the formation of which, in turn, presupposes a high-quality and diverse educational system, including, due to market expansion, both formal and informal variations, non-systemic changes. Such a transformation of education, solving the problem of accessibility, leads to a contradiction of goals, calling into question the quality and effectiveness of the services provided.
In this regard, the problems of accessibility of the system of higher vocational education are of particular relevance, since in the market conditions the acquisition of higher education is not guaranteed by the state for all citizens, and its role becomes decisive from the standpoint of the country's entering the trajectory of a stable economic development and the introduction of new technologies.
Russia's achievement of acceptable economic growth and modernization of the economy are impossible without solving the problem of modernizing the educational system and expanding its coverage of all age and social strata of the population. As a result, it becomes necessary to analyze the relationship between availability - payment for a loan.
By the accessibility of the system of higher professional education (SVE), we mean the accessibility of the main structural elements of SVE, namely, higher educational institutions that provide high quality services, regardless of their organizational and legal forms, types and types, implementing educational programs and state educational standards of various levels and focus for the bulk of the population, regardless of socio-economic factors (economic accessibility), as well as the availability of entrance exams, educational programs
and educational standards from an intellectual standpoint for the bulk of the population (intellectual accessibility). Affordability assumes that the financial expenses of households for the purchase of quality higher professional education services (including associated costs) should be characterized by a level that does not jeopardize or undermine the satisfaction of other primary needs, i.e., these costs should make up such a part of their income which is not burdensome.
In essence, the availability of SVPO can be interpreted even more simply as the level of costs for overcoming obstacles, which include financial (economic accessibility) and mental (intellectual accessibility) costs.
In addition to the direct inequality in access to SVPE, let us single out the inequality of intentions (social accessibility) - the dependence of the probability of intention, desire to enter a university on social differences. Inequality of intentions is generated by socio-economic factors that determine the availability of higher education in general, and, in particular, the social environment in which a person grew up (social networks), as well as less significant factors, such as confidence, certainty and the knowledge that a person has the right to certain actions.
It is necessary to determine which of the availability is primary and which is secondary. To begin with, let us note that in Russian education the world tendencies of transformation of higher education from elite to universal are repeated. It is received not by the chosen few, but by most of the young people who graduated from comprehensive school... As a result, in the modern market of educational services, the declared universal accessibility of higher education is mainly a slogan, since in many countries it is transforming
it becomes excessive mass. It is important to emphasize that universality and mass character are concepts of different quality. By universality we mean the availability of SVPO for everyone who has talent, interest, and intellectual abilities to obtain a higher education, regardless of socio-economic factors (assumes a high criterion for selecting students according to intellectual abilities). And under the mass character - the availability of SVPO for everyone who is able to bear the costs associated with obtaining higher education, regardless of talent, interest, intellectual abilities (low criterion for selecting students by intellectual abilities).
Thus, in the Russian system of higher education today there are two subsystems: one - "elite" education, characterized by a relatively high quality of the services provided, and the other - mass higher education of low quality. Poor quality higher education can, with some assumptions, be called relatively affordable, both financially and intellectually. Opportunities for obtaining an education that provides a high quality of professional training of future specialists has decreased for most of the population from both positions.
As a result, the analysis of accessibility to higher education should be focused differently in relation to the two existing systemsproviding educational services of low and high quality, respectively. It is obvious that expanding the availability of low-quality mass higher education cannot be a task of social and economic policy.
However, even taking into account the differences in the quality of services provided, the primary one today is economic accessibility, which determines the overall availability of SVPO.
Sociological research data show that insufficient financial resources of the family are often cited as the motivation for refusing to receive higher education; more than a third of households put this factor in first place. It should be noted here that among university students the so-called “ middle class”(53% from families of entrepreneurs, managers and specialists). But even they, most often (73%), declare that the payment for a student's studies is very tangible for the family budget, since it requires serious restrictions on other expenses.
It turns out that the most selective (high-quality) part of higher education turns out to be available for a relatively small number of students, while others are rejected, drop out of the competition.
The persistence of differences in the opportunities for obtaining a higher level of education, due to
differences in learning ability and in the individual effort spent on mastering knowledge is justified. The availability of higher education should be determined by the level of ability, talent, high personal investment in human capital, and not by the level of the family's financial and social capital.
In addition, as the results of annual sociological surveys over the past 5 years show, an increasing number of parents are striving to "give higher education" to their children. Since 2002, the school-to-university barrier has been overcome by more than 1.5 million people. ...
Obviously, in the context of growing demand for higher education services, the previous methods of financing are not able to provide large-scale training of specialists at a high level. This poses to the higher education system the problem of creating such financing mechanisms that would ensure the expanding production of highly qualified personnel with rational use resources of society and reducing the scale of redistribution processes. In essence, this implies a rejection of full budget financing and a transition to a private investment system, i.e., a transition from a system with partial cost recovery to a system with full cost recovery as prevailing, which can already be observed in modern Russian conditions. The system with partial cost recovery is a system of financing higher education, in which the state fully pays the cost of a student's education at a university, and partially reimburses (or does not reimburse at all) the costs of related expenses (accommodation, teaching materials, additional services, meals, etc.) .d.). The full cost recovery system assumes that all of the above costs are fully borne by the consumer of the educational service (student and / or his family).
However, the question of the ratio of education costs for all stakeholders and the possibility of developing the Russian SVPO along the way of increasing individual costs is ambiguous and controversial in terms of ensuring its availability and quality.
Education is an economic good, so it cannot be “free”. If the costs do not fall on the student or his parents, then they are distributed to all other citizens of the country. Moreover, in a market economy, higher education is a “mixed economic good”, combining features of both public and private goods, that is, the consequences of the consumption of educational services are good not only for the direct consumer, but also for the economy and society. generally. This implies another important feature of higher education as a
economic benefit, which consists in the fact that it has positive internal and external effects.
This allows us to make an important conclusion that higher education should be paid in one way or another and form by all stakeholders, which include the student and his family, the business sector, universities, the state and society as a whole. In this case, a very important point should be taken into account, graduate School does not exist by itself, it is part of the social whole and must correspond to it. Therefore, the introduction of the market in education should follow the development of the market in the economy.
In this sense, the market in education, understood as an absolutely free, completely uncontrolled and unlimited play of private interests, is inadmissible. Education, as already noted, is a "mixed" good, that is, not only private, but also public. But the social value of education is of decisive, main importance. If education follows only the logic of the development of a market economy, then in the course of competition in education the same will be observed as in the modern business sector. Which will lead to a violation of the main tasks and functions of higher education in society. Thus, market competition in this area is completely inappropriate. And the market mechanisms existing here require the intervention of society and the state. The market by itself is unable to put things in order in the training of specialists, since the worst universities are able to offer their "product" at the lowest price.
Thus, higher education cannot be guided only by the needs of the market, that is, private, selfish and short-term interest, it must also remain a public good and serve the strategic goals of the development of the individual, society and the state.
In addition, education belongs to the category of trusted goods, that is, to those goods and services, the quality of which the buyer himself is practically unable to assess directly even after their purchase and is forced to rely on information that he receives from someone, in particular from a university. ... In other words, the trusting nature of education determines the uncertainty of its quality. However, for education, this is not the only kind of uncertainty. Another source of it is the fact that the applicant, at the time of making a decision, does not have information about how useful and valuable his chosen profession will be. Accordingly, here, too, he is forced to rely on signals from outside.
The trusting nature of this good opens up ample opportunities for the opportunistic behavior of more informed market players. Moreover, even the established fact of opportunism in the form of providing an underestimated quality of educational services does not necessarily
allows the buyer to receive compensation from the university - after all, the consequences of such education are not immediately apparent. That is why in the educational market, like nowhere else, mechanisms are relevant that would discipline sellers and prevent them from taking advantage of information asymmetry. These should not be contractual, but institutional mechanisms. And the problem of the design of such mechanisms and their effectiveness is directly related to the problem of financing education.
Thus, educational policies that do not take into account the institutional environment have negative economic consequences for higher education. In general, it can be concluded that the parallel coexistence of two educational systems with partial and full cost recovery is inevitable. So it really exists, there is not a single country in the world where higher education for the population would be completely free, and there is not a single one where it would be completely paid. The proportions differ, but are probably largely predetermined by the characteristics of social systems; in socially oriented countries (developed countries of Europe, for example, in Germany), the system with partial cost recovery prevails, and in countries oriented to the market, the share of places with full cost recovery in universities is much higher.
As for Russia, funds for improving the quality of training, for modernizing universities and worthy remuneration for teachers in the state budget are clearly not enough. In this regard, there is a gradual prevalence of the system of higher professional education with full cost recovery.
Based on the current situation in the field of higher education in Russia, we can conclude that the problem of the economic accessibility of SVEO in the future will only increase, which can lead to extremely undesirable consequences for the socio-economic development of the country. To avoid this, it is necessary to provide ways to solve these problems. One of these methods is the development of a system of public (or private) educational loans and subsidies, which in the modern world experience in the development of higher education are considered as mechanisms for ensuring equal access to SVE for the population belonging to different strata of society. But here the question arises: can Russian families afford it?
Unfortunately, the majority of the population today has a below average income level. As a result, only 25 ... 30% of families can potentially participate in financing children's education. According to experts, by 2010 the number of such families will grow to 40.45%. Therefore, the majority of Russians believe that education, including higher education, should be free. In this connection, 70% of families
First of all, they focus on the possibility of their children entering the budgetary department, and studying for a fee is considered as a backup option, that is, paying for consumers of educational services acts as a compensatory mechanism.
Thus, we get a clear confirmation of the fact that the decisive reason limiting the availability of quality higher education is the cost associated with obtaining it. In general, for the average Russian, the share of education costs per family member is about 35% of his income. Therefore, it is no coincidence that three quarters of families of university entrants (73%) believe that the education of children will require serious restrictions in their family budget. Moreover, for the majority of them (54.6%) the burden on the family budget will be quite significant, and for 28.5% it will be reasonable. The burden on the family budget will be almost imperceptible only for 3.4% of parents.
As you can see, the financial capabilities of Russian households are clearly insufficient to provide tuition fees for all students under the conditions of the gradual prevalence of the system with full cost recovery.
Of course, the state is not going to introduce the system of higher education with full reimbursement of costs everywhere; moreover, today it is not in a position to do so, since in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 43, paragraph 3) “everyone has the right to receive free of charge on a competitive basis. higher education in a state or municipal educational institution and at an enterprise. " Based on this, it should be assumed that the state will pay for the training of such a number of people, which, firstly, are necessary for itself for the purposes of effective functioning and fulfillment of its main tasks, connected, first of all, with ensuring the national security of the country. Secondly, that part of talented young people who are willing and able to study. For the rest of the citizens, getting higher education will be, and, in fact, is their personal issue, in the solution of which the state should help them, as is done in all developed countries, for example, through special grants and loans for studies.
Indeed, in the context of the inevitable reduction of budget places in universities and the actualization of the problem of the economic accessibility of SVE for most Russians, a logical option for solving this problem is the development of the institution of educational lending as a damper way of transition from the education system with partial cost recovery to a system with full cost recovery as prevailing. This will lead to an increase in the economic accessibility of SVPO, which, in turn, may cause ambiguous and contradictory consequences:
1. Universities, placed in tough conditions of competition for applicants, all other things being equal, will be forced to accept all applicants, of whom there will be quite a lot, since the financial problem, which is currently the main constraining factor in obtaining higher education, will be solved with a loan. As a result, we get a system of mass higher education of low quality with all the ensuing consequences.
2. Another development of the situation is possible, which is a more probable option than the first, given current trends. The predominance of the education system with full cost recovery can cause a significant reduction in those wishing to get higher education, since for the majority the financial problem will not be solved with the help of an educational loan due to its high cost and / or conservatism of Russian society, which is expressed in the reluctance of the population due to sociocultural and mental features to take any loans. Confirmation is the following fact: today every second family (57%) of university entrants is ready, if necessary, to borrow a large amount to pay for education. Half (51%) are aware of the existence of an educational loan, but only a little more than a third of families (35%) are ready to use it on acceptable terms, while only 1.2% actually used it. At the same time, most heads of households believe that such a loan should be interest-free and should be written off if a person is sent after receiving a diploma to work in those places and for the salary that will be offered by the state.
In general, these features in the field of educational lending correspond to the general attitude of Russians towards loans, namely, the reluctance to take out loans and fear of the prospect of a life in debt. Thus, according to research by the Public Opinion Foundation, only 36% of the population over the past 2-3 years had a chance to use a loan (take a loan from a bank or buy goods in a store on credit). At the same time, 61%, in principle, do not allow themselves in the future to take advantage of any loan. Of those who are ready for loans, only a few (3%) are considering a loan for educational needs.
As a result, in this situation, either a massive reduction of universities is possible, as a result of which the country will receive a high-quality SVPO, available both financially and intellectually to only a limited number of citizens; or, if the number of universities remains the same, there will be a low quality SVPE in the country, accessible financially and intellectually. In fact, these tendencies are already observed in modern society, so if nothing is done, they will intensify.
Thus, we can conclude that in modern conditions, most of the population is not yet ready for educational loans, either financially or mentally. Due to the identified features of Russian society, we come to the conclusion that an educational loan can be only a partial mechanism for increasing the economic accessibility of SVPO, capable of providing assistance to mainly wealthy segments of the population ("middle class" and above), if they need it at all. For the "minority", which is understood as a certain part of society, characterized by the presence of less power, which is often, but not always, small in number in comparison with the dominant (large) group and has comparatively worse choice opportunities, an educational loan practically does not solve the problem of the economic accessibility of SVPO. many reasons associated mainly with their negative attitude to the possibility of loans, not so much because of personal economic calculations, but because of their aversion to debt. Therefore, such students need special solutions aimed at increasing the availability of SVPO. This, however, does not indicate the uselessness of educational lending as an institution.
The need to develop new approaches to attracting private resources to education is due to the generally low level of income of the population and the need to provide it with convenient and profitable accumulation schemes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Household spending on education and social mobility. Newsletter. - M .: GU-Higher School of Economics, 2006.-56 p.
2. Federal State Statistics Service. 2009. ИЯЬ: http://www.gks.ru (date of access: 22.01.2009).
3. Abankina I.V., Domnenko B.I., Levshina T.L., Osovetskaya N.Ya. Prospects for educational lending in Russia // Education Issues. - 2004. - No. 4. - S. 64-88.
4. Andrushchak G.V., Prakhov I.A., Yudkevich M.M. Strategies for choosing higher educational institution and preparation for entering the university // Project "Educational strategies of applicants". -M .: Vershina, 2008 .-- 88 p.
5. Educational trajectories of children and adults: family incentives and costs. Newsletter. - M .: GU-HSE, 2007 .-- 40 p.
It should be noted that there are differences in the strategies of families. Families experiencing financial difficulties are more likely to pay for education from the savings of the older generation (parents) or borrow money. Families with higher incomes (“middle class” and above) pay for their studies mainly from the current earnings of their parents.
All this puts on the agenda the development of mechanisms for private investment in education. In our opinion, the main problems of their formation are:
Lack of mechanisms for direct government support for private investment through the development of both private and public lending and subsidies programs;
The underdevelopment of the system of financial instruments for targeted savings, allowing to distribute over time the costs associated with obtaining education, and thus reduce the burden on the family budget (educational securities, educational insurance, educational loans).
From the analysis of the material presented, it follows that for the majority of students, education in a quality university is associated with very high costs; given the available opportunity to get a higher education not of the highest quality, but affordable in terms of finance and intelligence, many households opt for the latter. In this situation, well-planned student loans can help solve these problems.
6. Constitution of the Russian Federation // Guarantor-student. Special issue for students, graduate students and teachers [Electronic resource]. - 2009. - 1 electron. wholesale disc (CD-YOM).
7. Borrowers: payments on loans during the crisis. - Population survey: report // Public Opinion Foundation. 2009. ИЯЬ: http://bd.fom.ru/report/map/d090312 (date of access: 22.01.2009).
retention of sulfur, gasoline with lead additives, some types of paints, varnishes, solvents, etc. The payment for emissions of pollutants into the environment can also be considered a kind of environmental tax.
7. Environmental pledge. Thus, since 1991, a system has been in effect in Germany, which involves the inclusion in the price of goods sold in packages, a security surcharge, which is returned after the delivery of packages to the points of their reception. In a number of countries, this system applies to cars, batteries, glass containers, etc.
S. Markets for the purchase and sale of saved resources. Their effect is assumed in the event that some enterprises overfulfill the planned standard for electricity consumption and thereby obtain the right to sell the saved surplus to other enterprises that have failed to meet the standards established for them. Note that the principle of combining directive planning with indicative planning is quite clearly manifested here. The plan for the sale of energy by energy companies appears as a directive, while the planned volumes of energy consumption by industrial companies and institutions are indicative.
Extension of the considered practice of combining the plan and the market poses western countries to a qualitatively new level of development, characterized as sustainable.
It is obvious that their experience is especially necessary for Russia until its economy has completely turned into a raw material appendage of the developed countries of the West. This need is intensified by the growing resource consumption of production, its high material consumption and energy consumption. The scientific and human potential that has been preserved in the country quite allows for the transition to target planning.
Notes
1 See: Selin S., Chavez D. Developing a Collaborative Model for Environmental Planning and Management // Environmental Management. 1995. No. 2. P.23.
2 Weizsäcker E., Lovis E., Lovis L. Factor four. Costs Half, Returns Double: New Report to the Club of Rome. M .: Academia, 2000.S. 220.
CRITICISM AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. S. Smirnov
WHO DOES NOT ACCESS HIGHER EDUCATION?
(About the book by V.N. Kozlov, E.N. Martynova, L.P. Maltseva and others.
"Higher education: the problem of accessibility in the region." Chelyabinsk, 2000)
Published by the Chelyabinsk publishing house state university the book is undoubtedly relevant and interesting. It is based on a specific sociological study carried out in 1999 by the laboratory of applied sociology in cooperation with the staff of the Center for Training the Disabled ChelSU. It is dedicated mainly to two categories of young people - disabled people and students of university classes, that is, those with whom the university conducts purposeful work in the field of organizing the availability of education. This choice is quite justified both in applied and in general theoretical terms, since, in fact, scientific research involves not only good command of
his technique and methodology, but also, no less important, excellent knowledge of the object and subject of study. Both conditions are met, and therefore the book "turned out".
It consists of three independent parts. The first discloses the research methodology and methodology. The second examines from a sociological perspective the importance of education for young people with physical and social disabilities, as well as preparation for entering a university in university classes. In the last part, the authors suggest some ways to solve the problem raised.
At the same time, the book is somewhat overloaded with non-basic material. For example, it says a lot and correctly about the role of education in modern social life, about which university is and which is not a classical one, and that the future belongs to a classical university. It contains information about modern information technologies. There is also a retelling of the RF Law “On Education”. All this, of course, the prospective student needs to know, but it is not directly related to the survey, and therefore seems to be something foreign, superfluous and, in our opinion, only spoils the impression of a really good specific research.
Let's make a reservation right away, no sociological survey can give a complete picture of the problem under study, if only because an infinite number of questions cannot be asked. Their number is always limited, so you have to select the most significant ones. In addition, the human mind is arranged in such a way that in any of our questions, even if not in an explicit form, there is an answer or one of its options. What we ask about, then we are answered. In this regard, the selection of the questions asked is no less important than the calculation and interpretation of the answers received. So what did the researchers ask the respondents about?
Considering the specifics of the problem, it would probably be logical to first of all ask how they understand the term “accessibility of higher education”, what are its criteria, what factors enhance or weaken the accessibility of education for Russian youth in general and for young people with disabilities in particular. The questions, of course, are not simple, one might say, fundamental, methodological. What will be the answer to them depends, in essence, the result of the entire survey. But they were never asked.
Not trusting future applicants and their parents to answer the main question, the authors decided to do it themselves, more precisely, to “interrogate” the Committee of Education Ministers of the European Union. Referring to the latter, they scrupulously listed as many as eleven factors that make higher education inaccessible. Among them are various types of discrimination based on ethnicity, age, sex, and insufficient government awareness "about the preferences of the population in relation to higher education," and the archaism of forms of education. "Forgotten" the truth about one "trifle" that makes everything in a market state (depending on the presence or absence of this "trifle") available or inaccessible, including higher education.
It is quite clear that if the respondents were directly asked about this, they would receive one direct answer, and not eleven indirect ones.
If the authors followed the indicated path, many questions could have been omitted. Why, say, ask what place higher education occupies in the system of life values \u200b\u200bof young people from rural areas, if this does not directly affect the degree of education accessibility? Probably, the question should be posed much broader, for example, what is the attitude of young people to the commercialization of education, would they like to receive educational loans, what do they think about the content of vocational education?
The value of any scientific work is determined not only by what facts and phenomena have become clearer and more understandable for us, but also by what thoughts and questions the reader has after acquaintance with this work. The book under review was no exception in this case. The study clearly showed that during the years of bourgeois reforms, the accessibility of higher education from a predominantly intellectual and pedagogical problem was transformed into a social and even political factor.
The authors quite rightly point out that education is part of the process of socialization, that it creates favorable opportunities for "vertical mobility". “... A diploma of higher education becomes evidence of social status, and education becomes a means of struggle social groups for mastering wealth, power, prestige. All this generates powerful incentives to obtain and expand it ”(p. 3).
However, this is only one part of objective reality. Its second side is that a higher education diploma can also testify to the social status of an unemployed teacher, doctor, or serviceman living below the poverty line. It is well known that an “educated” teacher gets four times less than an “uneducated” trolleybus driver and ten times less than a store owner. So, is vocational education “a means of struggle of social groups for the acquisition of wealth”? This question, due to its problematic nature, would probably also be useful to ask the respondents.
What is the evidence of the aspiration of young people, and even those who have big health problems, to universities?
Unfortunately, the questions on this topic in the questionnaire are not clearly formulated. The answers sound the same: “I want to become a specialist” (52%), “I want to have an interesting job” (42%), etc. At the same time, the answer "Education is a value" was given by only 17% of the respondents. So what happens? Be a specialist, have good work - this is not a value for the majority ?! (p. 52).
It may seem strange, but latently not only many respondents with disabilities and their parents do not consider education as an independent value, but also the authors of the survey themselves. This is indirectly confirmed by the fact that both of them consider the study of a disabled person at a university mainly from the standpoint of his rehabilitation. Undoubtedly, studying at a university is one of the important ways of reintegrating young people with physical health problems into society. But what kind of specialist will turn out in the end, in fact, very few people are interested. Yes, apparently, very few people expect to work in their specialty (about 30% of parents, a little more than young disabled people themselves). How many of them in practice will be able to find a job in the conditions of fierce competition in the labor market, the researchers profoundly kept silent about this.
Most of the respondents would like to receive a law or economics education. Now it is prestigious, fashionable, but therefore the least accessible, especially for a disabled person (meaning, first of all, employment). “Families with low incomes are more focused on medical, pedagogical and agricultural areas,” they agree to humanitarian and even “free” professions. The rich are only interested in the first two (p. 85). Why is that? Is this related to an accessibility issue? (Whoever is richer chooses better goods?) No answer. One can only guess. However, guessing is not so difficult. One must think that the poorest have no education at all, since the scholarship has long lost its economic content.
As you can see, after reading the book, the questions did not diminish, perhaps even more. But, unlike a reference book, the task of a good book is to awaken the reader's mind, make him think for himself, and not formulate ready-made answers. It is not possible and necessary to agree with all the provisions and conclusions of the authors. But the fact that they were able to prepare good material for reflection is indisputable.
REVIEW
on the book of Academician A.G. Granberg "Fundamentals of Regional Economics", approved by the Ministry of Education as a textbook for students
universities studying in economic areas and specialties
At present, the scientific direction and practice of organizing and developing the regional economy are rapidly developing. The number of publications is growing, scientific and practical conferences are held on the problems of the development of territories of different levels. The number of economic specialties is increasing, and, accordingly, the number of students studying regional economics. Therefore, the publication of this book summarizing the Russian experience of creating a regional economy is necessary.
Before the publication of the peer-reviewed textbook in Russia, there were works devoted to certain issues of the regional economy, and, above all, in the direction of economic geography. Academician A.G. Granberg, in our opinion, considers these problems at a qualitatively different level.
The book is undoubtedly a great contribution to the successful study of regional economics, it is built on the use of modern theoretical advances in this area. In subsequent editions, the author can be recommended to expand the issues of regional efficiency and institutional development of regions.
The book is of great theoretical and practical interest not only for students, but also for specialists engaged in teaching and research.
A.Yu. Davankov, Director of the Institute of Socio-Economic and Regional Problems of ChelSU T.A. Vereshchagin, Dean of the Faculty of Economics, ChelSU A.A. Golikov, Professor of the Department of World Economy, ChelSU
FIRST PUBLICATION
I.A.Komarova REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF STUDENTS AS A MEDICO-SOCIAL PROBLEM
The reproductive health of students deserves attention in view of the high social expectations from this group of young people. The need to realize oneself in the role of a spouse and a parent belongs to the basic needs of a person at the age to which the student body belongs. Young people nowadays often begin to have a sex life quite early and do not look back at, in their opinion, outdated moral conventions. Sexual behavior and reproductive attitudes are often at odds with each other, however, they cannot but be considered in a single complex, speaking of the reproductive health of the population.