Development creative activity students
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DEVELOPMENT
CREATIVE ACTIVITY OF STUDENTS IN THE LESSONS
Teaching profession creative by nature. Changes in the ideology of education in modern conditions is expressed in the creation of a person-oriented position of self-determination and self-development, self-improvement. This strategic position forces the teacher to define priorities differently educational activities, in the first place, put, first of all, the personal development of students.
Let the words of Emile Zola, concerning all areas of our lives, become the motto of every teacher today: “The only happiness in life is a constant striving forward...”
It is well known that the creative activity of students can be developed by creatively working teachers. Their creative interaction and creative cooperation are necessary. We understand creative collaboration as the process of interaction between teachers and students in achieving a common goal. In joint activities Creative skills and the capabilities of the participants in the activity (partners) are realized most fully: complementing each other, they reach a qualitatively new level of development.
| Development of creative cognitive activity– the topic is very relevant for elementary school and it is given a special role. After all, in primary school the foundation of knowledge is laid, the child’s personality is formed. Unfortunately, we have to observe that by the middle school year For a first-grader who so badly wanted to go to school, thirsting for something new and unknown, the joyful anticipation of the school day suddenly fades, and the initial craving for learning goes away. Maintaining cognitive creative activity – important condition success of the educational process. The teacher’s task is to teach the child to independently identify learning task, to see her doing separate, different tasks. Relying on students' creativity is one of the main techniques for creating positive learning motivation. Universal techniques for the formation of creative cognitive interests and independence in junior schoolchildren there is no training in practice. Every creative teacher achieves this using his own methods of developing creative cognitive interests. The development of activity, inquisitiveness, independence, initiative, a creative attitude to business, to cognitive activity is an important and necessary task facing the teacher. To form the creative cognitive activity of schoolchildren, it is possible to use all the methods and techniques available to didactics. Explanatory - illustrative - story, explanation, experiments, tables, diagrams - contributes to the formation of primary knowledge in primary schoolchildren. The use of the reproductive method contributes to the development of practical skills in students. Problem-search, partially search, in combination with the previous ones, serve to develop the creative abilities of schoolchildren. The need to form creative cognitive activity forces teachers to look for means of activating and managing educational and cognitive activity. The means that allow us to organize purposeful and systematic work on the development of students in the learning process are educational tasks. By completing them, students acquire new knowledge, techniques of mental activity, consolidate and improve skills. Every lesson is specific system tasks that lead the student to mastery of certain concepts, skills, and abilities. The achievement of lesson goals, activity, and independence of students depends on what tasks the teacher selects for a given lesson and in what sequence he arranges them. The teacher must select tasks for the lesson that would serve a specific purpose or be based on the application of any concepts, rules, establishing certain connections, identifying patterns based on observations. Tasks of this type allow not only to conduct lessons effectively, but also serve to develop mental activity and develop strong knowledge, skills and abilities of students. How skillfully a teacher can select and group tasks for a lesson will determine how consciously, creatively, and willingly children in elementary school will learn. The independence of their thinking, the ability to connect theoretical material with practical activities. Sustained cognitive interest is formed in different subjects in primary school by different means. Visual aids, support diagrams, and tables that are used in each lesson contribute to better learning of the material. Entertainment is a very important tool. Elements of entertainment bring something unusual and unexpected into the lesson, arouse in children a sense of surprise rich in its consequences, a keen interest in the process of cognition, and help them easily learn any educational material. The clearest emotional means of developing cognitive interests is play. Using elements of educational and cognitive games from lesson to lesson, students rise one step higher: game-entertainment turns into game-work. While playing in class, students unnoticed perform various exercises where they have to compare, practice, and train. The game puts the child in search conditions, awakens interest in winning, and hence the desire to be fast, collected, dexterous, resourceful, be able to accurately carry out tasks, and follow the rules of the game. Moral qualities are formed in collective games. Children learn to help their comrades, take into account the interests of others, and restrain their desires. When including games and game moments in the process of teaching schoolchildren, one should not forget that behind the game there is a lesson - getting to know new material, consolidating and repeating it, working with a textbook and notebook. Many games and exercises are based on material of varying difficulty, which makes it possible to implement an individual approach and ensure the participation of students with different levels of knowledge. It does educational process more interesting, children are more likely to show activity, intelligence and sometimes achieve the most high results. An important means of activation creative activity students is to establish a connection between the material being studied and the reality around them. The Russian language, which contains tasks aimed at developing these qualities, has enormous opportunities for the development of children’s creative cognitive activity, self-realization, and self-expression. A huge role in the development of creative cognitive activity in Russian language lessons is given to working with a textbook. The textbook organizes the cognitive activity of students, systematizes knowledge, forms spelling skills, develops speech, and promotes moral and aesthetic education. The textbook contains tasks that develop the ability to reason, prove, compare, and draw conclusions. During Russian language lessons, students spend a lot of time on independent work. For this purpose, tasks are also used that allow you not only to test your knowledge of the material covered, but also have the opportunity to constantly repeat the studied material and learn ahead of schedule. Riddles, proverbs, tongue twisters, games, and poems are of great importance in the development of cognitive activity in the classroom. All these forms help in the development of thinking, intelligence, imagination, enrich the speech and memory of children. Riddles in lessons are used both orally and in writing on various topics studied in the primary school Russian language program. Tasks can be very different. Here we get acquainted with the meaning of the word, with types of transport, and connection with the surrounding life and the development of students’ speech. In any type of work, riddles, proverbs, sayings have an emotional impact on the development of children’s cognitive abilities, which has a positive effect on their knowledge, skills and abilities. Children become especially interested if they complete these tasks not in a simple notebook, but using colorful drawings or figures in the form of tree leaves, cucumbers, pictures of trees, i.e. depending on what topic the task is intertwined with. All this makes it possible to interest children in the meaning of the words being studied, enriching their vocabulary and developing a conscious skill in writing and correct use of difficult words in oral and written speech. Based on the above, we can draw conclusions about the importance of developing children’s cognitive activity: 1. Creating positive motivation in the lesson. 2. Ensuring active and intensive work on semantic analysis of information. 3. Development of semantic conjecture and activation of the student’s lexical experience and enrichment of vocabulary. 4. Promoting optimal organization of attention. 5. Arming yourself with rational methods of memorization. 6. Development of the required pace of information perception. 7. Increasing the pace of work. 8. Development and mastery of the information space, lesson content. 9. Accustoming to self-assessment of the process and result of one’s own activities in the lesson in comparison with other students. |
When developing the structure of a lesson or extracurricular activity, you need to take into account that
· development creative activity of students depends on the teaching influence on him from the teacher, friends, parents, as well as personal experience the student himself;
· sources creative activity can be:
o the learning process, which acts as a process of organizing the cognitive activity of students,
o personality reserves of the student and teacher;
· forms manifestations of creative activity in the classroom are:
o independence,
o individual creativity;
· conditions the formation of creative activity are:
o maximum reliance on the active mental activity of students,
o conducting the educational process at the optimal level of student development,
o emotional atmosphere of learning, positive emotional tone of the educational process.
The end result of the teacher’s efforts is to transfer the student’s specially organized activity into his own, that is, the teacher’s strategy should be to reorient the students’ consciousness: learning from an everyday forced duty should become part of a general acquaintance with the world around them.
Of great importance for the development of students’ creative activity is the teacher’s competent use of the following techniques:
· creating a situation in which the student must justify his opinion, provide arguments and facts in his defense, and use acquired knowledge and experience;
· creating a situation that encourages the student to ask questions to the teacher, friends, find out what is unclear, and comprehend knowledge more deeply;
· reviewing tests, essays, creative works, which is associated with advice, adjustments, and active searches for the main thing;
· providing assistance to comrades in difficulties, explaining the unclear;
· completing maximum tasks designed for reading additional literature, scientific sources and other search activities;
· encouragement to search for different ways to solve a problem, to consider the issue from different points of view;
· creating a situation of free choice of tasks, mainly search and creative ones;
· creating situations for the exchange of information between students;
· creating a situation of self-testing and analysis own knowledge and practical skills.
Non-standard lessons
Non-standard lessons are extraordinary approaches to teaching academic disciplines. Their goal is extremely simple: to revive the boring, to captivate with creativity, to interest in the ordinary, since interest is the catalyst for all educational activities. Non-standard lessons are always holidays when all students are active, when everyone has the opportunity to express themselves in an atmosphere of success and the class becomes a creative team. These lessons include a wide variety of forms and methods, especially such as problem-based learning, search activity, intersubject and intrasubject connections, reference signals, notes and more. Tension is relieved, thinking is enlivened, interest in the subject as a whole is excited and increased.
Types of non-standard lessons:
1. Lessons - games. Not the opposition of play to work, but their synthesis - this is the essence of the method. In such lessons, an informal atmosphere is created, games develop the intellectual and emotional sphere of students. The peculiarities of these lessons are that the educational goal is a game task, and the lesson is subject to the rules of the game, obligatory enthusiasm and interest in the content on the part of schoolchildren.
2. Lessons - fairy tales, lessons - travel rely on children's imagination and develop it. Conducting lessons - fairy tales is possible in two versions: when folk or literary fairy tale, the second is composed by the teacher himself. The form of the fairy tale itself is close and understandable to children, especially younger and middle-aged children, but high school students also respond with interest to such a lesson.
3. Lessons – competitions, quizzes are carried out at a good pace and allow you to test the practical and theoretical knowledge of most schoolchildren on the chosen topic. Competition games can be invented by a teacher or be an analogue of popular television competitions.
Lesson like “What? Where? When?"
The group of students is pre-divided into three groups, homework is distributed, team numbers and record sheets with the names of the players are prepared for the captains. The game consists of six stages.
1. introduction teachers.
2. Warm-up – repetition of all key questions of the topic.
3. The time for thinking about the question and the number of points for the answer are set.
4. Game “What? Where? When?".
5. Summing up.
6. Final word teacher.
Lessons – business games
It is more convenient to conduct such a lesson when repeating and generalizing the topic. The class is divided into groups (2 – 3). Each group is given a task and then their solution is shared. There is an exchange of tasks.
Lessons like KVN
1. Greeting teams (homework).
2. Warm up. Teams ask each other questions.
3. Homework(check on code tape).
4. Perform 3–4 tasks by team members at the board.
5. Tasks for team captains (based on cards).
6. Summing up.
4. Lessons based on simulating the activities of institutions and organizations. Lesson - court, lesson - auction, lesson - knowledge exchange and so on. Students are given problem-search tasks, they are given creative tasks, these lessons also play a career guidance role, the students’ artistry and originality of thinking are revealed.
Lesson - auction
Before the “auction” begins, experts determine the “sale value” of the ideas. Then the ideas are “sold”, the author of the idea who received the highest price is recognized as the winner. The idea moves on to the developers justifying their options. The auction can be held in two rounds. Ideas that make it to the second round can be tested in practical problems.
5. Internet lessons are held in computer classes. Students complete all assignments directly from the computer screen. The form is similar for middle and older school age.
6. Song in English class. The use of song material stimulates motivation and therefore contributes to better assimilation of language material due to the action of involuntary memorization mechanisms, which make it possible to increase the volume and strength of memorized material.
7. Educational films in English lessons. Develops the skills and abilities of perceiving and understanding foreign language speech by ear, which requires significant effort and time from the teacher and students.
8. Round table lesson
A presenter and 5–6 commentators on the issues of the topic are selected. Teacher's opening speech. The main directions of the topic are selected and the teacher offers students questions on the solution of which the solution to the entire problem depends. The presenter continues the lesson, he gives the floor to commentators, and involves the whole class in the discussion.
Collective discussion teaches independence, activity, and a sense of involvement in events.
9. Lesson - seminar
Lessons of this form are held after the completion of the topic and sections. Questions for the seminar session are given in advance, reflecting the material of this section and interdisciplinary connections. After hearing comprehensive answers to the seminar questions, the teacher sums up the lesson and directs the student to prepare for the lesson - test on this topic.
10. Lesson - test
It can be carried out in different ways. The first is when the examiners are teachers who are free from classes. Secondly, the examiners are more erudite students who have mastered the topic well, the leaders of each level. At the end of the lesson a summary is made. A collective method of learning is also used. For example, solving exercises followed by mutual testing. The class is divided into several groups and a consultant is appointed. Each group receives task cards. The first example is solved and explained by the consultant, and the remaining students complete the rest independently. Consultants coordinate and keep records. The teacher monitors everyone's work.
11. Use of computer programs in lessons. It is characterized by the individualization of learning and the intensification of students’ independent work, increasing cognitive activity and motivation.
12. Lessons based on forms, genres and methods of work known in social practice: research, invention, analysis of primary sources, commentary, brainstorming, interview, report, review.
"Brain attack"
The lesson is similar to an “auction”. The group is divided into “generators” and “experts”. Generators are offered a situation (of a creative nature). For a certain time, students offer various options for solving the proposed problem, recorded on the board. At the end of the allotted time, the “experts” enter the battle. During the discussion, the best proposals are accepted and the teams change roles. Providing students in the classroom with the opportunity to propose, discuss, and exchange ideas not only develops their creative thinking and increases the level of confidence in the teacher, but also makes learning “comfortable.”
13. Lessons based on non-traditional organization of educational material: a lesson of wisdom, revelation, a lesson “The understudy begins to act.”
14. Lesson - excursion In our time, when ties between different countries and peoples are developing more and more widely, familiarity with national culture is becoming a necessary element of the process of learning a foreign language. The student must be able to give a tour of the city and tell foreign guests about the uniqueness of the culture.
15. An effective and productive form of training is lesson-performance. Preparing a performance is a creative work that contributes to the development of children’s language communication skills and the discovery of their individual creative abilities. This type of work activates the mental and speech activity of students and develops their interest in the subject.
16. A very interesting and fruitful form of conducting lessons is lesson-holiday. This form of lesson expands students' knowledge about the traditions and customs of peoples.
17. Lesson - interview. An interview lesson is a kind of dialogue for the exchange of information. This form of lesson requires careful preparation. Students work independently on assignments based on the literature recommended by the teacher, preparing questions to which they want answers.
18. Essay lesson. The Dictionary of Brief Literary Terms interprets the concept of “essay” as a type of sketch in which main role What plays is not the reproduction of a fact, but the depiction of impressions, thoughts, and associations. This form of lesson develops students’ mental functions, logical and analytical thinking.
19. Bipair (integrated) lesson
Lessons of this type are taught by 2 - 3 teachers at once. For example:
· mathematics, physics and computer science
· mathematics, drawing teacher, industrial training.
Algorithms for solving the problem are compiled using knowledge of mathematics, physics, etc.
The main advantage of a bipair lesson is the ability to create a system of knowledge for students and help them imagine the interconnection of subjects. Bi-paired lessons require the activity of each student, so the class needs to be prepared for them: offer literature on the topic of the lesson, advise them to summarize practical experience. They help unite the teaching staff, set common goals for them, and develop common actions and requirements.
20. Lesson-musical promotes the development of sociocultural competence and familiarization with the cultures of English-speaking countries. The methodological advantages of song creativity in teaching a foreign language are obvious. It is known that in Ancient Greece Many texts were learned by singing, and in many schools in France this is now practiced. The same can be said about India, where today in primary school they learn the alphabet and arithmetic by singing. The musical lesson promotes aesthetic and moral education schoolchildren, more fully reveals the creative abilities of each student. Thanks to singing a musical in class, a favorable psychological climate is created and fatigue is reduced. In many cases, it also serves as a release that reduces tension and restores students’ working capacity.
21. Project method has recently gained more and more supporters. It is aimed at developing the child’s active independent thinking and teaching him not just to remember and reproduce the knowledge that school gives him, but to be able to apply it in practice. The project methodology is distinguished by the cooperative nature of completing tasks when working on a project; the activities that are carried out are inherently creative and focused on the student’s personality. It assumes a high level of individual and collective responsibility for the implementation of each project development task. The joint work of a group of students on a project is inseparable from the active communicative interaction of students. Project methodology is one of the forms of organizing research cognitive activity in which students take an active subjective position. When selecting a project topic, the teacher should focus on the interests and needs of students, their capabilities and personal significance of the work to be done, and the practical significance of the result of working on the project. The completed project can be presented in a variety of forms: an article, recommendations, an album, a collage and many others. The forms of presentation of the project are also varied: report, conference, competition, holiday, performance. The main result of work on the project will be the updating of existing and acquisition of new knowledge, skills and abilities and their creative application in new conditions. Work on the project is carried out in several stages and usually goes beyond the scope of educational activities in the classroom: choosing a topic or problem for the project; formation of a group of performers; developing a project work plan, determining deadlines; distribution of tasks among students; completing tasks, discussing the results of each task in a group; registration of a joint result; project report; assessment of project implementation. Work using the project methodology requires students to have a high degree of independence in search activities, coordination of their actions, active research, performing and communicative interaction. The role of the teacher is to prepare students to work on the project, select a topic, assist students in planning work, monitor and advise students as they progress through the project as a participant. So, the main idea of the project method is to shift the emphasis from various types of exercises to the active mental activity of students during joint creative work.
22. Video tutorial - mastering communicative competence in English without being in the country of the language being studied is very difficult. Therefore, an important task of the teacher is to create real and imaginary communication situations in a foreign language lesson using various working techniques. The use of video also helps to develop various aspects of students’ mental activity, and, above all, attention and memory. While watching, an atmosphere of joint cognitive activity arises in the class. Under these conditions, even an inattentive student becomes attentive. In order to understand the content of the film, schoolchildren need to make some effort.
Modernization of education cannot be imagined without the use of information and communication technologies (ICT).
The rapid development of society, the spread of multimedia and network technologies make it possible to expand the possibilities of using ICT in lessons in modern school.
The use of ICT in teaching general education subjects to schoolchildren at school leads to an improvement in the quality of education. Practice shows that children
They learn educational material with great success if ICT is included in the lesson;
The role of ICT in terms of intellectual and aesthetic development students;
They are formed information culture, which is so necessary for a schoolchild for his future sociologization;
The spiritual, social, and cultural horizons of children expand.
V.G. Belinsky said: “Without the desire for something new, there is no life, no development, no progress.” These words were spoken a long time ago. Back then, no one even thought about computer technology. But, it seems to me, these words are about a modern teacher who is ready to master everything new, innovative and successfully apply it in the practice of his work.
Currently, ICT has come to the aid of the teacher, which makes it possible to enliven the lesson, arouse interest in the subject, and better understand the material.
The introduction of ICT in the classroom allows the teacher to implement the idea of developmental education, increase the pace of the lesson, reduce the loss of working time to a minimum, increase the amount of independent work, and make the lesson more vibrant and exciting.
Building diagrams and tables in a presentation allows you to save time and design educational material more aesthetically. Assignments followed by testing and self-testing activate students’ attention and form spelling and punctuation vigilance. The use of crosswords (sometimes students come up with them), educational tests, cultivate interest in the lesson, make the lesson more interesting and allow you to start preparing for the CT and exams.
The use of ICT in every lesson, of course, is not realistic, nor is it necessary. A computer cannot replace a teacher and a textbook, so these technologies must be used in conjunction with other teaching tools at the teacher’s disposal. It is necessary to learn how to use computer support in a productive, relevant and interesting way. Information Technology not only facilitate access to information, open up the possibility of variable learning activities, its individualization and differentiation, but also allow us to organize the learning process itself in a new way, at a more modern level, and build it so that the student is an active and equal member of it.
A modern teacher must definitely learn to work with new teaching tools, if only in order to ensure one of the most important rights of the student - the right to quality education.
"Orientation modern education on the development of a child’s personality requires identifying and defining those of its properties, the impact on which contributes to the development of the personality as a whole. Creative activity is considered as one of them, which is a system-forming property of an individual, a defining characteristic of its movement towards self-improvement, a condition for realizing oneself as an individual at all stages of ontogenesis."
Activity is a multidimensional concept. It is no coincidence that the problems associated with its research are considered by philosophy, pedagogy, and psychology.
Much attention is paid to the study of the problem in the philosophical literature. Already in the studies of Plato and Aristotle there are attempts to find mechanisms of personality activity that lead to creativity. The concept of “personal activity” is defined as the ability to change the surrounding reality in accordance with one’s own needs, views, and goals.
Activity, according to N.A. Berdyaev, as a philosophical category reflects “the ability of objects of inanimate and living nature and subjects social life to spontaneous, intensely directed or conscious interaction with the environment, change and transformation of it and oneself, as well as the intensity of this process, its measure."
According to M.V. Bodunov activity, considered as an integral parameter of personality, has two sides - qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative, substantive side of activity is determined by the complex of operating motives, attitudes, interests and motivations that determine the performance of certain actions. The quantitative side is characterized by tempo, intensity, distribution over time.
Druzhinin V.N. believes that the concept of “common activity” unites a group personal qualities, determining the internal need, the individual’s tendency to effectively master external reality, in general to self-expression in relation to outside world.
In the study of the problem of activity, we are interested in the main conclusions of L.S. Vygotsky about the “system of human activity” and labor activity. "In the process of social life, man created and developed highly complex systems psychological connection, without which work activity and all social life would be impossible. These means of psychological communication, by their very nature and function, are signs, i.e. artificially created stimuli, the purpose of which is to influence behavior, to form new conditioned connections in the human brain." Vygotsky, turning to the specifics of activity, revealed its social nature.
The philosophical approaches outlined above underlie the consideration of the problem of developing activity in pedagogy. Also Y.A. Comenius considered activity a necessary condition for learning. Moreover, he considered the content of learning to be the leading factor in a child’s activity, although the results of his personal interaction with the outside world were also taken into account.
The approach of J. - J. Rousseau is also based on the development of initiative, inquisitiveness, and activity of the student, but the emphasis in it is shifted to the individual experience of the child as the source of his activity. Also important for our research is the idea of the need to take into account the age characteristics of children when creating an environment, as well as the maximum reliance in teaching on the child’s individual experience, the use of the results of his personal interaction with environment.
Domestic teachers - K.D. Ushinsky, N.I. Pirogov, L.N. Tolstoy and others considered various aspects of activity. K.D. Ushinsky understood learning as an active, volitional process. “A child needs to learn to overcome both uninteresting and difficult things.” A necessary condition learning considered activity and N.I. Pirogov, who spoke about the need to stimulate activity through the use of productive teaching methods. L.N. Tolstoy gave a special place in teaching to the development of students’ creative activity by providing scope for their initiative, without suppressing their natural development.
Later, the idea of activity in domestic pedagogy was considered by P.P. Blonsky, A.S. Makarenko, S.T. Shatsky and others S.T. Shatsky rightly noted that the development of children’s activity should occur in the process of direct active participation in life. To develop the creative and cognitive activity of students, it is necessary to organize their cognitive activity in such a way as to orient students to independently or partially independently obtain information that is new to them.
V.G. Belinsky and A.I. Herzen were convinced that children’s curiosity and activity should first of all be developed with the help of natural sciences, books that introduce the earth and nature, which may most interest children, since nature is close to them.
Having analyzed all of the above, under activity, we will begin to consider the active state of a person, his internal motivation, aspiration, mental stress and the manifestation of volitional efforts in the process of acquiring knowledge.
creative activity dance aerobics
Activity is one of the most general categories in studies of the nature of mental development, cognitive and creative abilities of the individual. G.I. Shchukina distinguishes two extreme types of activity - adaptive and creative. The adaptive form of activity is characterized by the needs underlying achievement motivation, direct regulation based on the principle of feedback, subordination to the Yerkes-Dodson law of optimum motivation
Creative forms of activity are caused by an orientation towards the novelty of the situation and the general curiosity of a person, the contradiction of learned stereotypes of past experience, and the requirements of new conditions. Creative forms of activity cannot be considered without defining such a concept as creativity.
The issue of creativity has a long and controversial history. At all times, it has been the object of close attention of thinkers and scientists (philosophers, psychologists, teachers). The concept of "creativity" dates back to the works of Plato and Aristotle. In philosophical literature, the use of the concept of “creativity” is multifaceted. It is considered as “activity”, “process”, “type of activity”, “form of activity”.
In the philosophical understanding (N.A. Berdyaev, K. Jung, V.F. Ovchinnikov, etc.), the phenomenon of creativity is defined as something that is characteristic of living and inanimate nature, to man and society, and acts as a mechanism for productive development. Psychologists (D.E. Bogoyavlenskaya, A.N. Leontiev, Ya.A. Ponomarev, etc.) consider creativity as a product of mental activity, which is of fundamental importance for our research, as one of the most important mechanisms of personality development.
The characteristics of creativity from the point of view of a personal approach are presented in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, who notes that already at a very early age we find creative processes in children, which are best expressed in children’s games. Creativity and the need to create arise in preschoolers thanks to their play activities and develop further in younger schoolchildren. L.S. Vygotsky strongly objects to the idea that creativity is the preserve of a select few. He says that the typical features of children's creativity are best revealed not in child prodigies, but in ordinary normal children.
In pedagogical literature, creativity or creative activity is defined as activity that produces new, original products created for the first time that have social significance (V.I. Andreev, Yu.L. Kozyreva, Yu.N. Kudyutkin, etc.). Researchers (L.K. Veretennikova, S.G. Glukhova, P.F. Kravchuk, etc.) consider the essence of creativity, both through the personality, its characteristics, and through the processes that take place in creative activity. However, most scientists identify novelty, originality and uniqueness as characteristic features of creativity, and define creativity as an activity that generates something new that has never happened before.
Expressing the generally accepted understanding of creativity, I.B. Gutchin writes: “Creativity is a purposeful human activity that creates new values that have social significance.”
Creativity always contains elements of novelty and surprise. Emphasizing the difference between the development of nature and productive human activity, K.A. Timiryazev noted the main distinguishing feature of human creativity - its purposefulness. In nature there is a process of development, but not creativity.
Some authors (Ya.A. Ponomarev and others) interpret creativity quite broadly and even identify it with the concept of “development”. "The universal criterion of creativity acts as a criterion of development." Creativity is characterized by productive activity, in which there is an ascent from simpler forms to more complex ones.
Creative activity is impossible without reproductive activity, because thinking is generally impossible without memory. Creativity is a moment of interconnection, a dialectical unity of the productive and reproductive. Based on the general methodological principle of understanding development as a dialectical unity of old and new, creativity is considered as a process of creative transformation.
A necessary condition for the development of creativity is its diverse connections with the cultural whole. The development of an individual outside of society and without activity is impossible. Therefore, the formula “human development as an end in itself of creativity” means the following:
a) the development of a social person, a society that creates more favorable conditions for the flourishing of each individual:
b) self-realization of the individual, objectification of his creative abilities, achievement of certain objective results, thanks to which the development of society occurs.
A number of researchers (V.G. Ryndak, N.A. Berdyaev, Yu. L. Kulyutkin, A. L. Shnirman, etc.) consider human creativity in the aspect of self-realization of the creator, the manifestation of his highest potentials, the highest form of human activity; as a process of achieving a result in which a person realizes and asserts his potential strengths and abilities and in which he himself is realized.
Modern domestic researchers of creativity (P.A. Beskova, B.S. Meilakh, etc.) proceed from an understanding of the creative process as a complex mental act, conditioned by objective factors and combining elements of figurative and logical cognition, synthesizing analytical and directly sensory aspects of perception and reproduction of reality.
Modern foreign scientists have different approaches to the definition of creativity. So, for example, in the understanding of P. Torrance, this is a natural process generated by a person’s strong need to relieve tension that arises in a situation of incompleteness and uncertainty.
American scientists (J. Guilford, A. Maslow, D.I. Nireberg, E. Torrence) consider creativity as a process, “the logical development of ideas and mental images that transform elements of reality into something new.” R. Sternberg's concept of creativity, like some other theories, along with cognitive ones, includes affective and motivational elements.A. Newell, J. Shaw, G.S. Simon, analyzing the procedural side of creativity, believes that solving a problem can be called creative if there is strong motivation and stability. R. Mooney identifies four main approaches to creativity, depending on which of the four aspects of the problem comes to the fore: the environment in which creativity takes place; creative product; creative process; creative person .
Until now, the subject of dispute among creativity researchers is which aspect in the definition of creativity should be considered as the main one. Some believe that creativity should be defined “in terms of the product,” others believe that the main thing in creativity is the process itself. The view that the essence of creativity should be revealed through process is most clearly expressed in the works of R. Arnheim, who argues that creativity cannot be judged only by the object produced. Creativity is “the full development of knowledge, actions and desires.”
Novelty, as a criterion of creativity, is included in almost all definitions and is a key word. However, the idea of novelty varies greatly among different authors. Some emphasize the subjective nature of novelty, that is, its significance for the subject himself - the creator, considering it unimportant whether society recognizes the idea. Another approach notes that novelty can characterize only certain moments of activity, for example, the creative development of an already known idea. Third views focus on the social significance of novelty. But in any case, it is the term “novelty” that is system-forming in relation to the idea of creativity (J. Guilford, A. M. Matyushkin. Ya. A. Ponomarev, N. Torrence, etc.). It is impossible to create something new without reference to anything at all. The new can only be new in comparison with the old, with the stereotype.
Analyzing all of the above, we can come to the conclusion that children's creativity is one of the forms independent activity a child, during which he deviates from the usual and familiar ways of manifesting the world around him, experiments and creates something new for himself and others.
Creativity has an individual character of manifestation of purposeful activity, where the key role is played by the activity of the individual, the so-called “free spirit” by Berdyaev. "Activity as a search for the meaning of human existence. A personality creates itself throughout human life."
The formulation and preliminary study of the problem of developing creative activity revealed its versatility, complexity and insufficient development in the theory and practice of education. To solve this problem, it is important to determine the essential aspects of the concept of “creative activity” and to reveal ways of developing this personality quality. Issues of the development of creative activity of the individual are reflected in the works of psychologists A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky and others.
Creative activity can be defined as integrity, which is characterized by many of its manifestations: the unity of internal and external creative activity, the mutual dependence of motivational and operational components, imagination and productive thinking as the basis of a single executive mechanism of mental creative activity (L.S. Vygotsky), inclusion search activity due to the fact that the result of creativity was not initially specified. Reflects the integrity of creative activity and the transfer of methods and features of creative activity from the structure of one direction of creativity to the structure of another, manifested, in particular, in “universal” creative abilities (B.M. Teplov).
A number of scientists (M.A. Danilov, A.V. Petrovsky, T.I. Shamova, etc.), assessing the concept of “creative activity” in the context of activity, define it as an orientation towards transformative and search methods activities.
Creative activity expresses the desire and readiness of an individual to consciously and voluntarily, according to inner conviction, improve proactive innovative actions in various areas of human activity.
We consider creative activity as a stable integrative quality, simultaneously inherent in both the personality itself and its activities, expressed in the purposeful unity of needs, motives, interest and actions, characterized by a conscious search for creative situations. Creative activity involves a theoretical understanding of knowledge and an independent search for a solution to a problem.
The development of children's creative activity remains one of the psychological and pedagogical problems of our time. Analysis of some main directions makes it possible to present in general some important points for the development of creative activity of the individual. In particular, the following can be noted:
1. manifestation of creative abilities in a person personally indirectly, i.e. its psychological and pedagogical “history” of development is a kind of key that unlocks the manifestation of creative activity, covering all aspects of existing knowledge, skills and existing life experience, i.e. personality manifests itself in creative activity. This determines the relationship and interdependence of personality traits and creative processes;
2. the most important component of the creative process is human intellectual activity, manifested in creative initiative. Naturally, the level of creative activity is associated with a person’s personal characteristics, and often the nature of mental processes in a person predetermines the level of manifestation of activity.
Druzhinin V. N. believes that creative activity is inherent to one degree or another in every person, and its manifestation is hampered by environmental influences, prohibitions, and social patterns, then one can interpret the role of elements of open education and increased emphasis on independent work of students as a very positive point. And on this basis, the development of creative activity is the way to free creative potential from those “clamps” that they acquired earlier.
In the process of studying and analyzing philosophical, psychological and pedagogical literature Based on the research problem, we came to the conclusion that the indicators of creative activity in children can be considered those that are highlighted in the characteristics of creativity by psychology: novelty, originality, detachment, departure from the pattern, breaking traditions, surprise, expediency, social value. If we share the point of view that creative activity is inherent to one degree or another in every person, and its manifestation is hampered by environmental influences, prohibitions, and social patterns, then it is possible to develop creative activity by including in the organization of creative activity those means that contribute to the development of creative activity.
Lyudmila Teleshenko
The essence and ways of forming children's creative activity
Modern society needs a person who is capable of self-improvement and self-development, who can effectively and innovatively solve new problems. life problems. Therefore, it is very important to raise a spiritually rich personality, paying special attention to the development creative activity younger preschoolers.
Development problem creative We consider personality in the context of the development of real abilities of a growing person, which are being formed and are embodied in various types cognitive and creative activities. The outcome of these activities does not always have obvious social value, but participation in the process is of paramount importance to children. During this process shows independence, initiative, reveals creative potential of the individual.
Modern education is aimed at the overall development of the child’s personality. The basis for comprehensive development is creative activity, That's why formation of creative activity students is one of current problems the younger generation. Meaning we see the formation of creative activity, first of all, that in the process creative activities, a love of serious, thoughtful work and perseverance in achieving the goal are cultivated in the child.
Without manifestation creative activity the child’s cognitive abilities cannot develop successfully. Creative activity the child occupies a central place in formation of strong-willed, purposeful, comprehensively developed personality.
For effective development creative activity of children it is important to determine the essential aspects of the concept " creative activity", to uncover ways development of the considered personality quality in the learning process.
History of research on the problem creative activity shows us its inextricable connection with the problem personality activity in general.
Activity– not just an activity, not its type and state. Scientists are considering activity as a characteristic of a person, his initiative, the incentives of which are the content and nature of the activity itself. It is amateur performance that has creative potential, because it is dictated not only by external necessity, but by initiative from within.
Activity– a multidimensional concept. It is no coincidence that the problems associated with its research are considered by philosophy, pedagogy, and psychology.
Much attention is paid to the study of the problem in the philosophical literature. Already in the studies of Plato and Aristotle there are attempts to find mechanisms personality activity, leading to creativity.
Activity, according to N. A. Berdyaev, as a philosophical category reflects “the ability of objects of inanimate and living nature and subjects of social life to spontaneous, intensely directed and conscious interaction” with the environment, change and transformation of it and oneself, as well as “the intensity of this process, its measure." One of the very important issues of child psychology and pedagogy is the question of creativity in children. Creativity is a complex phenomenon, complex, due to many socio-pedagogical and psychophysical prerequisites.
Children's researchers creativity is celebrated that high achievements are associated with such factors as the level of imagination in gaming activities (J. Moran, J. Sawyers, as well as with various social abilities: communication, role acceptance (J. Connelly, A. Doyle, 1984, use of language and desire for leadership (W. Fu, H. Kennedy, 1982, opportunity for self-expression, interests and level of education of parents (T. Kovacs, 1982). According to P. Smith (1983, for the development of children creativity it is necessary to provide children with materials for classes and the opportunity to work with them, to encourage creative interests of the child; one should also strive for his inner looseness and freedom.
P. Torrance identified the components creative thinking - factors of creativity.
These include:
Intelligent creative initiative – focus on going beyond these tasks and requirements;
Fluency of thinking – richness and variety of associations, number of connections formed;
Originality of thinking - independence, unusualness, wit of the solution.
Scientist defines creativity through characteristics creative process. Creative The way to solve a problem is that a person tries to avoid generally accepted and obvious solutions, explores the problem, putting forward many hypotheses, testing his guesses until he finds a solution.
A. N. Leontyev, considering the components creativity, highlighted the motivational and operational aspects in the structural diagram creativity.
V.P. Zinchenko and V.M. Munipov propose to supplement this scheme with emotional and ideological components. Taking this into account, the structure creativity can be represented as a set of ideological, motivational, content-operational and emotional-volitional components.
The worldview component, according to scientists, determines the position of the individual in the process of activity and in assessing its results. To the basic worldview properties of a person that contribute to creative activities include:
1) the individual’s awareness of his ideological properties;
2) the ability to defend one’s own creative positions.
The next one is the motivational component, which includes a system of motives that express a person’s conscious urge to activity, including creative, the totality of those mental moments that determine his behavior as a whole, what motivates his activity, for the sake of which it is performed.
In our work creative activity is considered as a quality that is simultaneously inherent in both the personality itself and its activities. Creative activity involves a theoretical understanding of knowledge and an independent search for solutions to problems.
Development creative activity personality requires the teacher to create an atmosphere where curiosity and interest arise, the need to defend one’s creative positions, feeling of passion, desire for creative achievements, a situation of success is created in creative activity.
Thus, creative activity of children in the learning process is connected with all parties child's developing personality: needs, interests, inclinations, abilities, volitional manifestations, emotional attitude to activity. Intellectual, emotional and volitional components in creative activities are inseparable, because not a single emotion, not a single volitional decision and action arises outside of human activity.
Development process creative activity involves quantitative and qualitative changes occurring in the structure of the personality and in the system of its interaction with the surrounding reality, which can be correlated with certain points on the development scales of the main parameters creative activity.
To identify levels of development creative activity of children it became necessary to develop indicators formation of creative activity.
Researchers identify the following levels creative activity: level of problem (M. I. Makhmutova); formation of creative experience educational activities (I. Ya. Lerner); intellectual activity with levels enabled creative activity(D. B. Bogoyavlenskaya).
Thus, Z. V. Bayankina puts forward a classification creative activity by degree of mastery creativity, highlighting levels: adaptive, search, research, creative. Yu. V. Naumenko builds a classification based on the constancy of the manifestation of the operational component creativity, thereby defining different levels creativity. E. N. Tupichkina, L. N. Petrova identifies a classification creative activity to develop interest in creativity, highlighting levels: zero, low, medium, high.
D. B. Bogoyavlenskaya believes that independence is a quality included in activity. P. Ya. Galperin says that in the change in independence, on the one hand, the dynamics of the current level of development are manifested, on the other hand, the process formation of creative activity, which is the quality of activity.
Anyone should pay attention not only to the correctness of the formulations from a mathematical point of view, but also from the point of view of grammar, syntax, native language, and subsequently the Russian language.
Tasks designed to work with verbal and logical constructions mathematical language, contribute to the formation of logic in the speech of younger schoolchildren in native language. The basis for such tasks can be the formulation of the properties of arithmetic operations and the definition of mathematical concepts. Examples of tasks of this type include the following:
Establish the truth of statements;
Find errors, etc.
Tasks of this nature effectively influence the development of speech of primary schoolchildren in their native language and contribute to their better assimilation of mathematical material. The formation of basic communicative qualities of mathematical speech in the native (Ossetian) language in primary schoolchildren at the initial stage serves as the foundation for the implementation of full-fledged bilingual mathematics education in grades 3-4.
Thus, the formation of communicative qualities of mathematical speech is served by a set of educational tasks for the development of mathematical speech of primary schoolchildren:
Tasks designed to work with terminology, symbols, diagrams, graphic images;
Tasks with verbal and logical constructions of mathematical language.
Bibliography
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A.M. Kasimova
DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVE ACTIVITY OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL PROBLEM
Abstract: the article discusses the problem of developing the creative activity of a preschooler, which is achieved with the child’s activity and independence in transformative activities.
Key words: creativity, activity, arts and crafts, artistic creativity, folk art, tradition, aesthetics.
© Kasimova A.M., 2013
The development of creative activity of preschoolers in the process of introducing them to decorative and applied arts allows children to open up, study and master various techniques of artistic and creative activity. One cannot but agree with the opinion of the famous Soviet psychologist D.B. Elkonin: “If we take into account that at an early age the child’s object perception is not yet sufficiently differentiated and that color, shape, size and other properties do not exist for the child in isolation from the objects that possess them, then the special importance of these types of activities for the development of perception becomes clear and the child’s thinking." It should be noted that the positive impact of the development of creative activity of preschoolers depends on the methods of proper pedagogical guidance. But before we talk about the development of creative activity in preschoolers as a psychological and pedagogical problem, we consider it appropriate to briefly dwell on the characteristics of preschool age.
The formation of an active, creative personality contains a number of questions to identify the sources of human activity, the patterns of their individual manifestation in various types of activities. These issues were resolved by teachers such as P.P. Blonsky, N.Ya. Bryusova, E.T. Rudneva, S.T. Shatsky and others. The latter noted that preschoolers acutely feel the need for spiritual experiences and to express their impressions. The teacher’s task, according to the researcher, was to create conditions “for the fullest development of creative potential... for the beginnings of creative power exist in almost everyone, small and large people - you just need to create suitable conditions for its manifestation.” To solve our problem, the provisions developed in the research of psychologists L.S. are of particular importance. Vygotsky, N.N. Volkova, E.I. Ignatieva, Ts.I. Kireenko, B.M. Teplova, P.M. Yakobson and others about the psychological nature of children's creativity, its development through the means of art.
Like all other qualities of a person, creative activity arises and develops in the process of creative activity, by some thing in the external world or by a certain structure of the mind or feeling, living and revealed only in the person himself. In this regard, one of the most important issues of children's pedagogy and psychology is L.S. Vygotsky considered “the question of creativity in children, the development of this creativity and the significance of creative work for general development and formation of the child."
There are many ways and directions for developing the creative activity of preschoolers, for example, working with different materials, which includes types of creating images of objects from fabric, paper and natural materials. Continuing this thought, it is appropriate to recall the statement of the prominent Russian teacher V.N. Soroka-Rosinsky, who noted that “nothing contributes more to the formation and development of personality, its creative activity, than an appeal to folk traditions, rituals, folk art." And the famous art critic N.D. Bartram expressed an interesting idea, based on observations, that the best toy for a child is one that he made with his own hands. “A thing made by the child himself,” he wrote, “is connected to him by a living nerve and everything that is transmitted to his psyche along this path will be immeasurably more alive, more intense, deeper and stronger than what comes from someone else’s, factory-made and very often mediocre invention ".
Psychologists have dealt with the problem of the development of creative activity, which includes the creative process, as a result of which a person creates something that did not exist before. According to the conclusion of V.V. Davydova, A.N. Leontyev, Ya. A. Ponomarev and others. the main source of creative activity is the need, that is, the desire for
more complete identification and development of creative possibilities, which encourages the individual to show his creative activity.
What is creative activity? According to G.S. Arefieva, this is “the highest level of human activity.” A.M. Korshunov believes that creative activity is a special form of human activity, characterized by originality and novelty of the product. According to V.F. Ovchinnikov, “creative activity is one of the manifestations of personality, testifying to its bright individuality and ability to put forward non-standard solutions.” Researcher A.I. Krupnov notes that activity, on the one hand, is understood as a measure of activity, the level of the interaction process, or as the potential capabilities of a subject to interact, on the other hand, it is characterized as a set of proactive actions of the subject, conditioned by its internal contradictions, mediated by environmental influences.”
Personal activity is considered by psychologists as “a group of personal qualities that determine internal needs, the individual’s tendency to effectively master external activities, to express himself in relation to the outside world.” The problem of personality activity in the studies of modern psychologists such as B.F. Lomov, K.K. Platonov. D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya and others, is revealed in various aspects, the structure and dynamics of the development of intellectual, creative activity of the individual at the universal and age levels are studied in detail.
Despite the fact that the decorative and applied and artistic and creative processes are characterized by psychologists as the embodiment of the activity of human thinking, the constituent factors are imagination associated with the objective perception of reality, intuition based on the subjective characteristics of the individual, characteristic of each creatively gifted individual, inspiration, which leads to maximum realization and self-expression in the creative process. An important mental component of creative activity is the perception of external reality, objective reality, the development in the process of memory, attention, imagination, thinking, and the mental development of preschool children, which activate creative activity. “Any decorative and applied activity begins with the perception of the surrounding reality and the formation of ideas about it.”
The main components and properties of the perception of the surrounding reality are its objectivity, integrity, constancy. One of the defining features of perception as a physiological-psychological process can be considered its dependence on past experience and the task of the activity being performed, and the socio-psychological characteristics of the subject. Here we mean details, inclinations, interests, motivation of activity, emotional state of the subject at the time of performing a practical task in the process of visual activity. In this regard, the opinion of E.I. is relevant. Ignatiev, who noted that “in most studies devoted to children’s artistic creativity, only the result of visual activity is considered, and the process of creating an image is not studied.” That is, in such works the development of creative activity is considered as a spontaneous process that does not depend on living conditions, upbringing and training, which is not entirely true, since the child not only constantly has examples of decorative and applied art before his eyes, which does not detract from their artistic and aesthetic significance , but also with his characteristic freshness of perception, he assimilates the techniques with the help of which these samples are created. “The mental development of a child,” wrote A.N. Leontyev, cannot be considered in isolation from his mental development
in general, from the richness of the child’s interests, his feelings and all other features that form his spiritual appearance.”
Artistic and creative activity is characterized, first of all, by those general groups components of activity that characterize the subject-operational side and include in the individual’s practical knowledge about certain objects and phenomena of social reality and the corresponding skills and abilities and, finally, components that determine the specifics of social activity and the measure of its severity (initiative, independence, perseverance as ability to endure prolonged stress and overcome difficulties). An original assessment of artistic creativity is given by V.S. Kuzin. “It is an activity,” he writes, “as a result of which artists create new original works of social significance.”
“Armed” with the statements of authoritative scientists, we can express our point of view regarding creative activity, which has its own sources and parameters. The formation of creative activity is associated with human life, with the awareness of factors influencing the formation of forms, methods and means of educational influence, in this regard, the effectiveness of work on raising a creatively active personality depends on solving issues related to identifying driving forces, sources of human activity, knowledge of the patterns of their individual manifestation. The child’s desire to independently search for a solution to a problem, the manifestation of cognitive interests, is the key to creative activity. Stimulating creative activity requires the teacher to create such learning conditions that would arouse the child's interest in learning, the need for knowledge and, finally, their conscious assimilation.
The development of a preschooler’s creative activity provides for the maximum possible manifestation of individuality, which is achieved with the child’s activity and independence in transformative activities. We must understand that today the main goal of education is the formation of a new generation, capable not of repeating what was done before, but of creating a new one, that is, the formation of a creative, inventive person. Being complex characteristics personality, creative activity reveals deeper personal formations, such as needs, abilities, and value orientations.
The main thing in this sequence is the motivational aspect, that is, the orientation of the personality, goals, and attitudes. At the same time, the highest level of activity is manifested in a conscious attitude towards the activity, since its content acts as an intrinsic value that stimulates interest in its content side. It can be assumed that the creative activity of a preschooler is the individual’s focus on independent decision problems, to search for new original ways of activity that express the individual’s desire to transform the surrounding subject environment. “In all children, from the moment the desire for various types of activities arises, it is necessary to form an artistic and imaginative beginning, which is a prerequisite for productive creativity.”
The problem of developing the creative qualities of an individual in artistic and aesthetic activities has attracted the attention of many specialists. For example S.V. Didenko considers aesthetic evaluative activity as a means of developing the creative activity of children as individuals, provided that the educational process is oriented toward creating a system of educational emotional-evaluative situations that include children in various types of artistic activities and focus on the aesthetic evaluation of the surrounding reality.
N.V. Diaghileva studied the stages of development of children's creative independence in fine arts classes. In these and other studies, creative activity is interpreted as a person’s activity in a particular field of activity, and the concept of “creative activity” itself is revealed through general concept"creation". Most authors (G.A. Davydova, V.T. Kudryavtseva, Ya.N. Ponomarev, A.G. Spirkina, O.N. Tikhomirov, etc.) interpret creativity as an individual activity, consisting in the production of something new and original. A number of specialists, including D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya, consider creativity as going beyond the limits of existing knowledge and define creativity as a situationally unstimulated activity, manifested in the desire to go beyond a given problem, from which it follows that activity at the level of creative action is a common basis, a unit, not only intellectual, but also any type of creative activity."
Thought L.S. Vygotsky that “we call creative activity such human activity that creates something new, no matter whether it is created by creative activity, some thing in the external world, or a known structure of the mind, or a feeling that lives and is revealed only in the person himself.” is quite consistent with the problems of our research. Creative activity opens up good opportunities for using elements of folk arts and crafts, which are also an educational factor. At the same time, this activity is the basis for the formation of a cultural, spiritually rich, creatively active personality.
Creative activity contributes to physical development, the formation of experience, the development of mental mechanisms and positive individual personality traits, such as abilities, interests and inclinations. Moreover, the development of these properties occurs in the creative activity of preschool children, in which three stages can be noted: 1) development of initial practical skills, 2) formation of knowledge, 3) development of mental activity in the process of generalizing accumulated experience.
So, creative activity in preschool age we define it as an integral characteristic of personality, which presupposes the child’s desire to independently find a solution to a problem and includes such components as motivational, volitional, content, operational and effective.
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ON THE. Kolesnikova
MODELS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN PUBLIC AUTHORITIES AND CIVIL SOCIETY STRUCTURES
Abstract: the article discusses issues of interaction between civil society institutions and government bodies. Various approaches and models of interaction between civil society and the state, including at various stages of historical development, are analyzed.
Keywords: civic engagement, cooperation, government bodies, civil society institutions, interaction models.
Cooperation state institutions with civil society, including through dialogue with a wide range of public organizations, is important for maintaining stability, reducing social tension, and successfully implementing government policy, including social reforms.
One of the confirmations that today the state is interested in the formation and strengthening of civil society institutions in the country, as well as ensuring their effective activities, is the creation and activities of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation, the institution of the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation, various councils under the President of Russia (for example , on the development of civil society institutions and human rights, on the codification and improvement of civil legislation, on
© Kolesnikova N.A., 2013