To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to choose a related word or form of the same word so that this vowel is stressed.
Spelling alternating vowels in word roots
If the root is followed by a suffix -A-, in roots with alternating e(And) is written And, and in the roots -false-(-lag-) And -braid-(-kas-) is written A.
Fundamentally mountains(gar- O. Exceptions: fumes, soot, scorch(special and dialect words).
In the roots clone-(clan-), creative(creature-) in unstressed position is written O.
Fundamentally zor- in unstressed position it is written A. Exception: dawn.
Fundamentally -grew-(-growing-) before st And sch is written A. Exceptions: industry, sprout, sprout, moneylender, Rostov, Rostislav, Rostokino.
Fundamentally -skoch-(-with how-) before h is written O, before k is written A. Exceptions: jump, jump.
Spelling depends on meaning O And A in the roots -mok-(-poppy-) And -even-(-equal-):
-mok-- in the meaning of “to pass liquid”;
-poppy-- meaning “to lower into liquid”;
-even-- in the meaning of “smooth”, “even”;
-equal-- in the meaning of “same, identical”
Fundamentally -float- always written A: float, buoyancy. Exceptions: swimmer, swimmer, quicksand.
Spelling unpronounceable consonants in word roots
To check the spelling of roots with unpronounceable consonants ( stn, zdn, lnts, rdc) you need to choose a related word so that this consonant comes before the vowel.
Spelling O(e) after sibilants in the roots of nouns and adjectives
At the root of the word after the hissing words it is written e, if in related words it alternates with e; if it is formed from a verb or passive past participle.
O and Yo in suffixes and endings of nouns and adjectives
In suffixes and endings after sibilants it is written under stress O.
Spelling I-Y after C
At the root after ts is written And. Exceptions: gypsy, tiptoe, chick, chick.
In suffixes and endings after ts is written s(except for words on -tion).
Spelling O(E) after C
In suffixes and endings under stress it is written O, without accent – e.
Soft sign in verb forms
b written in the indefinite form of verbs: wash your face, in the form of the imperative mood: put, in the form of 2 l. units: wash your face.
Spelling b
Dividing ъ written before the root e, e, yu, i after prefixes on a consonant and in foreign words akh after the following consonant prefixes: ab, hell, diz, in, inter, con, counter, ob, sub, trans, and also after the initial pan.
Spelling Y-I at the junction of prefix and root
After a prefix ending in a hard consonant, at the root of the word instead And write s(as we hear, so we write). In a word charge is written And according to pronunciation.
Note. This rule does not apply to compound words, for example: pedagogical institute, sports equipment.
After consoles inter-, above- saved And, since it is not written after sibilants and back-linguals s.
Saved And also after foreign language prefixes and particles ( counter-, dis-, trans-, pan-, sub-, post-, super-).
Spelling of prefixes
Spelling of prefixes pre- and pre-
Console at- used in the following meanings:
– “approach, accession, incompleteness of action, proximity”: sew, open, school.
- bringing the action to completion: tap.
– performing an action in someone’s interests: hide.
Console pre- used in the following meanings:
– “very” (highest degree of manifestation): most unpleasant.
– “re-”: block.
Spelling of prefixes raz- (ras-) and other prefixes (without-, voz- (vz-), iz-, niz-, through- (through-) on z-s
In consoles on s-s s is written before the voiced one, and With- before a voiceless consonant.
Spelling of the root pol- as part of a compound word
Floor- written with a hyphen before root vowels, l And in capital letters. In other cases floor- written together.
Console semi- written together.
Spelling difficult words
Difficult words- these are words that are formed by combining two stems in one word.
Spelling compound words with connecting vowels O and E
O, if the first stem ends in a hard consonant.
Roots in difficult words connected using a connecting vowel e, if the first stem ends in a soft consonant, sibilants and ts.
Continuous and hyphenated spelling of compound nouns
They are written with a hyphen -
– names of cardinal directions: northeast, southwest;
– names of complex mechanisms and units of measurement: diesel engine, bed. Exception - workday;
– names of some plants: Blooming Sally;
– with initial foreign language elements vice-, label-, headquarters-, ex-.
– formed from two words of the same thematic group (words-synonyms, antonyms that clarify each other): misfortune(synonyms), raincoat (cloak and he is tent).
Spelling complex words together -
with a verb to And in the first part: daredevil. Exception - Tumbleweed;
with a genitive numeral in the first part of the word: fivefold. But: centipede(because not in the direct sense of the count). Exceptions: 90 (ninety-kilogram), 100 (hundred-meter), 1000 (thousand-year);
names of city residents: Almaty resident;
compound abbreviations: duffel bag.
Continuous and hyphenated spelling of adjectives
Adjectives are written with a hyphen:
formed from coordinating phrases: Russian-English dictionary
(dictionary with Russian and English words);
expressing quality with an additional touch: light green;
formed from hyphenated nouns: New York;
The remaining complex adjectives are written together.
Spelling suffixes of nouns and adjectives
Noun suffixes
Suffix -chick written in nouns with the meaning of person after root consonants d, t, h, s, g, if there are no other consonants before them: defector; alimony worker.
Before the suffix -chick final consonant stems k, ts, h are replaced T: distribution - distributor.
Before the suffix -schik a soft sign is written only after l: roofer.
Suffix -ek is written if when changing a word e drops out: padlock - padlock, But: key - key.
Suffix (unstressed) -ets- written in m.r. nouns: well, -its-- in nouns: gorgeous.
Spelling of participle suffixes
From the stem of the infinitive to -et, -it, -ti, -ch past participles are formed with the suffix -enn-.
From the stem of the infinitive to -at, -at Passive past participles are formed with the suffix -nn-, while verbal suffixes -A- And -I- in the sacrament they are preserved.
(A literate person. Tutorial. L.D. Bednarskaya, L.A. Konstantinova, E.P. Shchennikova)
Name: Collection of basic rules of morphology of the Russian language school course.
The reference manual includes all the basic rules of the school course on the morphology of the Russian language. The collection is compiled taking into account existing textbooks and is intended for widespread use by students.
Words of independent parts of speech have lexical meaning. Nouns refer to different objects around us. Adjectives denote the characteristics of these objects. Using numerals, you can count objects or indicate their order when counting. Pronouns, unlike nouns, adjectives and numerals, do not name, but indicate objects, their characteristics and quantities. The actions of objects are indicated by verbs. But the actions of objects have their own characteristics, which are called by such a part of speech as an adverb. The category of state as an independent part of speech denotes the state of nature, environment and the physical and mental state of a person.
MORPHOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH
Independent parts of speech 11
Special verb forms 12
Functional parts of speech 12
Interjections 12
Noun. 13
Nouns, animate and inanimate 13
Proper and common nouns 13
Gender of nouns 14
Common nouns 14
Gender of inflected nouns
Changing nouns by numbers 15
Plural of nouns 16
Nouns with only plural form 16
Nouns that only have the form singular 17
Three declensions of nouns.... I17
Indeclinable nouns. ...... 19
Spelling NOT with nouns. ... 21
Spelling of noun suffixes -chik, -schik 22
Spelling compound nouns 23
Morphological analysis 25
Verb 26
Changing the verb by numbers. 26
Changing the verb by person 26
Spelling NOT s. verbs 27
Infinitive form of verb 27
Spelling -tekh and -you:ya
Spelling b after sibilants
Types of verb 29
Verb tense 29
Past tense 29
Present tense 30
Future tense - 30
Verb conjugation 31
Variable verbs 32
Transitive and intransitive verbs 32
Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs 33
Verb mood 33
And life-giving mood 33
Conditional mood 33
Imperative mood
Impersonal verbs 35
Spelling vowels in verb suffixes 35
Morphological analysis 36
Adjective 38
Changing adjectives by numbers 38
Changing adjectives by gender 38
Changing adjectives by case 39
Spelling vowels in case endings of adjectives 39
Spelling short adjectives with a sibilant base 40
Degrees of comparison of adjectives 41
Superlative adjectives 43
Places of adjectives 44
Qualitative, adjectives 44
Relative adjectives 44
Possessive adjectives 45
Spelling NOT with adjectives 46
Spelling -N- and -NI- with adjectives 47
Spelling compound adjectives. . . 49
Morphological analysis 50
Pronoun 52
Places of pronouns 52
Personal pronouns 52
Reflexive pronoun self 53
Interrogative pronouns 53
Relative pronouns 54
Indefinite pronouns 54
Spelling of the prefix NOT in indefinite pronouns 55
Hyphen in indefinite pronouns. . . 55
Negative pronouns 55
Combined and separate spelling NOT and NI in negative pronouns 5(5
Possessive pronouns 56
Demonstrative pronouns 56
Determinative pronouns 57
Morphological analysis 58
Numeral 59
Simple and compound numbers 59
Soft sign at the end and in the middle of numerals 59
Cardinal and ordinal numbers. Discharges. Numerals denoting the whole number 60
Fractional numbers 61
Collective, numerals 61
Ordinal numbers 62
Morphological analysis 63
Adverb 64
Semantic groups of adverbs 64
Adverbs of adverbs 64
Determinative adverbs 65
Classes of pronominal adverbs 66
Degrees of comparison of adverbs 66
Comparative degree of adverbs 66
Superlative adverbs 67
Morphological analysis 67
Condition category 67
Morphological analysis (IS
Special verb forms. Communion 69
Declension of participles and addition of their endings 70
Short and full passive participles 71
Valid iuichlgptch brushes of time. Spelling of suffixes -ush-(-yush-), and ash-(-yash) 72
Vowels about suffixes of active participles, present tense 73
Active participles of the present tense 73
Passive present participles, Spelling suffixes Vowels i suffixes of present passive participles 74
Passive past participles. Vowels before -Я- and -ЯЯ- in participles 75
-I- and -YA- in suffixes of full participles and verbal adjectives......... 76
-I- and -NI- in suffixes of short participles and verbal adjectives 77
Spelling NOT with participles 78
Letters E and E after sibilants in participle suffixes 79
Morphological analysis 79
Participle 81
Commas with gerunds and participles 81
Spelling NOT with gerunds 82
Imperfect participles and perfect form 82
Morphological analysis 83
Functional parts of speech. Preposition 84
Prepositions are derivative and not about water 84
Prepositions simple and compound 84
Spelling of derived prepositions formed from adverbs 85
Integrated and separate writing of derivative prepositions
Spelling -E at the end of derived prepositions 8(5
Morphological analysis 87
UNION 88
Simple and compound conjunctions 88
Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. . 88
Spelling conjunctions also, too, so that 89
Morphological analysis 90
Particles 91
Particle Discharges 91
Separate and hyphenated spelling of particles. . 91
Spelling particles NOT and NI 92
Morphological analysis 94
A special part of speech. Interjection 95
Derivative and non-derivative interjections 95
Isolation of interjections 95
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With rare exceptions, Russian is one of the least favorite subjects in school. Difficult tests, a lot homework and endless rules... Unfortunately, today's lessons do not help schoolchildren become more literate and, most importantly, do not develop speech at all. What's the matter?
Russian as a foreign language
Let's imagine ourselves in the place of a child. From birth he hears his native language and begins to speak it almost from the age of two. By the age of seven, future first-graders speak generally no worse than adults.
In first grade, the main task is to teach the child to write and read. How does the school deal with this?
It is during the first school year that a child masters and understands the important essence of our language: we say one thing and write another. Anyone who has already learned to read not syllable by syllable realizes that the word “milk” is read as “malako” and agrees with this.
Meanwhile, studying the Russian (native!) language in our school is reminiscent of studying a foreign language - the child is constantly given phonetic transcription, although he himself knows perfectly well how the words sound.
If a child is already reading, then he undoubtedly understands the difference between sounds and letters, since the process of reading, in fact, consists of translating letters into sounds. Transcription only interferes with the student, confuses him, not allowing him to remember the only correct form, “image” of the word.
This is how children already in the first and second grades do it once or twice phonetic analysis words “path”, determining the softness of consonants, the number of letters and sounds. For what? To safely forget about it in high school, remembering only before the State Exam and the Unified State Exam.
There is an opinion (and it is supported by textbooks) that it is thanks to the active study of phonetics in primary school children begin to write correctly. Alas, this is completely inconsistent with the observations of any parent - children now are no more (and perhaps less) literate than the previous several generations, who studied phonetics in grades 5-6 and no longer than one term.
Scary grammar
According to textbooks and workbooks, students learn literacy simply by applying and remembering rules or (if there are no rules) vocabulary words.
By the way, try to remember at least one rule (except for “zhi, shi write with the letter i”).
Case names? Endings of first declension nouns in the genitive case? And in general, what are first declension nouns? What about first conjugation verbs? Do you remember? Now think about what rules you regularly apply when writing?
Let us remember the rule for spelling vowels after sibilants in a suffix:
Under stress in suffixes of nouns and adjectives not formed from verbs, it is written O (girl, little gal), and without stress - E (song).
When a class "goes through" this topic, students do many exercises, most of which simply ask them to fill in the missing letter. In fact, the tasks themselves suggest where the rule is to be applied, just like dictations on a given topic. Once a section is “passed,” the exercises can be forgotten almost until the final exam.
Now let’s try to imagine ourselves in the place of a schoolchild who has learned a lot of rules, and now he just needs to write correctly (in general, we are all in this place anyway). There are no hints in the form of brackets or ellipses. To apply a rule, you must first generally understand the need for its application. How to do this? Let’s say a person writes the word “girl” and... what? There are three options:
the spelling of the word is not in doubt;
the spelling of a word is doubtful for some reason (why?);
a person checks every word in general, so he immediately identifies the root, suffix, selects a rule and corrects the error.
Do you think the latter option is common?
The fact is that in fact there are two options: either a person writes and does not notice the mistake, or notices it because he does not like the “look” of the word.
Many people call the second option “innate literacy,” although in fact it is not so much innate as acquired. Good visual memory and a love of reading help to remember the “images” of words, and, accordingly, write correctly.
Already in the first grade, schoolchildren are required to learn quite a lot of “dictionary” words, the spelling of which does not follow the rules. How are they taught? Yes, they simply rewrite each one 10-20 times in a notebook. And after that they write correctly.
This is where the dog is buried. In order to correctly write most words in Russian, it is not at all necessary to learn and apply the rules. It’s enough just to read and write more - rewrite texts from books and textbooks. Texts without gaps or ellipses, so that all important letters of the word are visible. Then that very “innate literacy” will be formed, which is so envied by those who are forced to constantly look into the dictionary.
By the way, in this regard, you can remember how they teach in our school foreign languages. In both English and French, no one crams the rules (and in any case, their number is simply not comparable with the number of rules in the Russian language), but they simply remember the type of word and its sound.
It turns out that many rules do not help to write correctly, they only organize the base of the language and create its “logic”.
Most people write competently, without applying rules or using them sometimes, and in this case they are often presented not in the form of rules, but in the form of convenient associations (for example, what is he doing? - bathing; what to do? - swimming).
By the way, despite such a simple rule, many people in this case still write the soft sign incorrectly... Why would that be? After all, they taught this at school!
Speech development? No, we haven't!
It is interesting that many Russian linguists, teachers and language historians of the 19th century put in first place not grammar, but the development of speech! The ability to read thoughtfully, understand and present what was read, and mastery of live speech a hundred and fifty years ago was considered a much more important skill than competent writing.
For example, Fedor Ivanovich Buslaev, a linguist and language historian who laid the foundation for the scientific study of Russian folk literature, wrote:
“All grammatical teaching must be based on reading the writer. The main goal is for children to clearly understand what they read and to be able to express themselves correctly verbally and in writing.”
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky, scientist and teacher, believed that studying the Russian language has three goals: speech development, conscious mastery of treasures native language and grammar acquisition. Please note that grammar comes third!
Vladimir Petrovich Sheremetevsky, a teacher of the Russian language and methodologist, wrote that the subject of teaching the native language is the living word. And he again put students’ mastery of live speech in first place.
But at the beginning of the twentieth century, the scientific and linguistic orientation became stronger in the methods of teaching the Russian language, although attention was paid to the development of all aspects of oral and written speech: pronunciation culture, work on vocabulary and phraseology, and the development of coherent speech skills.
But by the end of the twentieth century, despite all sorts of new techniques (and perhaps thanks to them), the Russian language as a subject was practically emasculated to pure grammar. Of course, in modern textbooks there are exercises for speech development, but there are few of them, and children and teachers do not pay much attention to them. And not before! There are so many rules to learn, so many analyzes to do, that writing an essay or presentation seems like a trivial task that does not require attention. It is not surprising that the skills of coherent speech (at least!) and coherent writing, the ability to correctly formulate thoughts are very poorly developed. But any fifth grader will do syntactic and morphological analysis in a couple of minutes.
But why, exactly, do we learn our language? Certainly not for the sake of impressing the audience at a conference with the syntactical analysis of a sentence.
Word will correct ours grammatical errors, but, alas, it will not help with the ability to coherently express thoughts orally and in writing.
Meanwhile, children are drowning in a heap of rules and regulations, not even suspecting that the ability to speak, read and understand is much more important than declination and conjugation. It’s a pity that in the Russian language, endless study of the rules does not at all guarantee literacy; moreover, it instills an aversion to native language lessons (try finding a schoolchild who loves “Russian”).
58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling
SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. Main sections of spelling:
- writing morphemes in various parts speeches,
- continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words,
- use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
- hyphenation.
Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.
Also, based on the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a specific grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.
The second principle of Russian orthography is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are written the same way they are heard. An example would be the spelling of prefixes with з-с (mediocre - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and ы after prefixes ending in a consonant (to play).
There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (noun) - burn (verb)) and a traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).
Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling.
A spelling rule is a rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions.
59. Consumption uppercase and lowercase letters.
uppercase letter | lowercase letter |
| - Written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - Written at the beginning of direct speech (She said: “Please come in.”) | - It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word does not represent a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night). |
| Written with a capital letter | Written with a lowercase letter |
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international ( The State Duma, United Nations), | - names of ranks, ranks (Lieutenant Popov), - words comrade, citizen mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, citizen Petrov) |
60. Word hyphenation rules
- Words are transferred syllable by syllable (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
- You cannot separate a consonant from the following vowel (ge-ro"y),
- You cannot leave a part of a syllable on a line or move part of a syllable (push-tyak, pus-tyak - correct; pust-yak (incorrect),
- You cannot leave or transfer one vowel on a line, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya - correct; a-na-to-mi-ya - incorrect),
- You cannot separate ь (soft sign) and ъ (hard sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
- The letter does not break away from the previous vowel (district),
- When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (sister, sister, sister); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable in which the morphemes are not parsed (pod-zhat).
61. Spelling vowels in the root.
If the root vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing the problem of choosing which letter to write arises.
- If you can find a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called verifiable. For example, pillars - one hundred foreheads; to reconcile (friends) - mi"r.
- If an unstressed vowel cannot be verified by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked in a spelling dictionary (potato, elixir).
- The Russian language has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; The choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:
- from accent:
Gar-gor: with an accent it is written a (zaga"r, razga"r), without an accent - o (tanned, burn), exceptions: vy"garki, i"zgar, smoldering;
Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarnitsa, illuminate), under stress - what is heard (zarka, zareva), exception: zareva;
Klan-clone: without emphasis it is written about (bow, bow), with emphasis - what is heard (bow, bow);
Creation - creation: without emphasis it is written about (create, creation), with emphasis - what is heard (creativity, creature), exception: at "creation;
- from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:
Kaskos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);
Lag-lozh: before g it is written a (adjective, adjective), before w it is written o (application, offer), exceptions: po "log;
Rast- (-rasch-) - grew: before st and sch it is written a (grow", nasar"shchivag), before s it is written o (za"rosl, grown up), exceptions: o"brass", rostok"k, you "rostok, usurers" k. Rosto"v;
Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump), before h it is written o (jump “jump”), exceptions: jump “k, jump”;
- From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:
Ver-vir-, -der-dir, -mer- world, -per- pir, -ter- tier, -blest- blest, -zheg-zhig, -steel- became, -reads: before the suffix -a- it is written and (collect, light, lay), in other cases it is written e (bleat, light), exceptions; combine, combination;
Roots with alternation a (ya) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (jam, clamp), in other cases it is written a(ya) (jam, clamp) ;
- from value:
Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of “immerse in liquid, make wet” (dipping bread in milk), -mok - in the meaning of “passing liquid” (shoes get wet);
Equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on par” (to become equal), -rovn - in the meaning of “even, straight, smooth” (level, level);
- -float-float-float: o is written only in the words swimmer"ts and plavchi"ha, y - only in the word quicksand, in all other cases it is written I (lavu"honor, float"k).
62. Spelling of vowels after sibilants and C.
- After the hissing consonants zh, ch, sh, shch, the vowels a, u, i are written, and the vowels i, yu, y (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interjury Bureau).
- Under stress after sibilants it is written in, if you can find related words or another form of this word where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then o (clink glasses, rustle) is written.
- It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
- A fluent vowel sound under stress after a hissing sound is indicated by the letter o (sheath - nozho "n).
Spelling vowels after c.
- At the root, after c, u are written (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, on tiptoes, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words.
- The letters i, yu are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
- Under stress after c it is written o (tso "kot").
Vowel selection; and or e.
- In foreign words it is usually written e (adequate); exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
- If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after prefixes or a cut with the first part of a compound word (save, three-story).
- After the vowel it is written e (requiem), after the other vowels - e (maestro).
The letter is written at the beginning of foreign words (yod, yoga).
63. Spelling of consonants in the root.
- In order to check dubious voiced and voiceless consonants, you need to choose a form or related word so that these consonants are in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, i, r)) sound: fairy tale - say.
- If a dubious consonant cannot be verified, then its spelling must be remembered or found out in a spelling dictionary. ;
- Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefix and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that need to be remembered or identified in a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzzing, juniper and words with the same root; words of foreign language origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class). - In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants, having a combination of letters branches, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose a word with the same root or change the form of the word so that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: shine (although “shine”), ladder (although “ladder”), splash (although “splash”), flask (although “glass”).
64. Spelling of prefixes.
- The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered; they do not change under any circumstances (convey, carry, enter, etc.). The same prefixes include the prefix s-, which is voiced before voiced consonants in speech, but does not change in writing (to run away, to do).
- In prefixes on e-s (without- - bes-, voz (vz) - - vos- (vs-), iz- - is-, niz- - nis-, raz- (ros-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (cross-)) is written z before eaon-, kimi consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before voiceless consonants it is written s (boundless, rise).
- It is particularly difficult to write the prefixes pre- - pri-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.
The prefix is used to mean:
- high degree of quality (it can be replaced with the words “very”, “very”): exaggerated (= “very enlarged”), preinteresting (= “very interesting”);
- “through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix pere-): transgress (= “to step over).
The prefix is used to mean:
- spatial proximity (suburban, border);
- approaching, joining (to approach, to sail);
- incomplete action (cover, pause);
- bringing the action to the end (nail, tap);
- performing an action in someone else's interests (hide).
In some words, the prefixes pre- and pre- are not emphasized and the spelling of such words must be remembered: abide (meaning “to be in some place or state”), despise (meaning “hate”), neglect, president (the word foreign language origin); device, order, charity (meaning “care”), etc.
4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with the vowel and, then instead of and it is written ы (pre-June, play); exceptions:
- compound words (pedagogical institute), -collect,
- prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institute, super-interesting),
- the word "double-pulse", etc.
- foreign language prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).
65. Spelling of separators b and b Spelling of separator b (hard sign).
1. The separating ъ (hard sign) is written before the vowels e, e, yu, i:
- after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
- in words of foreign language origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after the compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
- in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;
2. This rule does not apply to complex abbreviated words: children.
Spelling of the separator ь (soft sign).
The separating ь (soft sign) is written:
- inside the word before the vowels e, e, yu, i: peasant, blizzard;
- in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.
Spelling of vowels after sibilants and ts in suffixes and endings.
1. In the endings and suffixes of nouns, adjectives and suffixes of adverbs, under stress after hissing and c, o is written, without stress - e (knife "m, big" go, book "n", kontsom"m, okol'tso"vy-vat; BUT ekila "jewel, p"look for, ry"zhego, merchants, okoltseva".
2. After hissing words, ё is written under stress:
- at the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
- in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (to uproot),
- in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
- in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
- with the suffix of passive participles -yon(n)- (struck, harnessed),
- in the suffix of verbal adjectives (zhzheny) and in words derived from these adjectives (zhzhenka),
- in the pronoun about what,
- nothing to do with words.
66. Spelling of nouns.
Spelling of endings in nouns:
- in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending is written -i; For feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. police, genius, blade R.p. police, genius, blade D.p. police, genius, blade V.p. police, genius, blade, etc. police, genius, blade P.p. about the police, about the genius, about the blade
- in neuter nouns in -ye in P.p. without stress it is written e, and under stress - i: about happiness, in oblivion;
- in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Rod.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawthorns, kitchens.
- in nouns ending in -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. The singular ending is written -im, and in nouns na-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end: Ivanov, but Darwin.
- nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, yno, denoting the names of settlements, have in the like. ending -th: near Lvov, beyond Khotkov;
- if a noun with the suffix -ish- is masculine or neuter, then the ending is written -e, if feminine - -a: swamp - swamp, but hand - ruchsha;
- animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- male and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have the ending -a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and neuter nouns with these suffixes have the ending -o: bread, little house;
- in neuter nouns after the suffix -a- the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: crammed.
Spelling of noun suffixes:
1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-chek-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with a zero sound (cf.: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns the suffix is written -ets- if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf.: handsome man (m.b.) - beauty (f.b.) - letter" (m.b.) - dress;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink-is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting female persons (for example, refugee, Frenchwoman) the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);
note: if nouns with -na, -nya have a plural ending in ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination is written -enk- (kitchen - kitchens - kitchenette);
5. In the affectionate suffixes -oniye- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often - after hard ones) after n is written ь (soft sign) (for example, kisonka, Nadenka),
note: in modern Russian the suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank- do not exist, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century inclusive and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; cf. modern striped, Nadenka), Exceptions: good girl, zainka, bainki (suffix -others-);
6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix -yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from the nouns pine with a soft consonant (field - pole, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed using the suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ush- (wedges, pegs, pellets, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the type of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, zh (translator, librarian, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -schik- is written. (compositor, layout designer);
note 1: in some words of foreign origin the suffix -schik- (flute maker, asphalt worker) is written after t.
note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -schik- only after the consonant l (roofer),
note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, ts, ch, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced with the consonant t (distribution - distributor);
8. In many female patronymics one hears [ishna], but is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).
67. Spelling adjectives. Spelling the endings of adjectives.
declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declension of possessive adjectives with a stem ending in j (for example, fox, bear); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-y-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mamin.
In plural the endings of all genera are the same.
| 1 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | cheerful, early | cheerful, early | fun, early |
| pl. number | cheerful, early | |||
| Type 2 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fox | fox | fox |
| pl. number | I.p. | fox | ||
| Type 3 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | father, sister | father's, sister's |
| pl. number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | ||
Note: the accusative case of adjectives in the masculine singular is the same as the genitive case if the adjective refers to an animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative case if the adjective depends on an inanimate noun or pronoun.
- Russians male surnames on -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in the instrumental case of the singular have the ending -й (like short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
- Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have the ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
- The adjectives zagorodny, mzhduzhdus-ny, podaorodny, suburban have endings -й (-я, -ов) in the nominative singular case, and the adjective non-resident-endings - “и (-я, -ов).
- Adjectives ending in -yny in their short form have the ending -“n (slim - slender), with the exception of: worthy - worthy;
- It is possible to have two spellings and pronunciations of the adjective endless (-yaya, -ee) - endless (-aya, -ov).
Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:
1. Under stress the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.: beautiful - combative), Exceptions: merciful, yuro marvelous;
2. With the suffixes -chiv-, -liv- it is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. The suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after sibilants and c, the suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chy, formed from nouns ending in -shka, a is written before h under stress, without stress - e (cf. frog: frog "chiy - frog" shechy);
5. Before the suffix -or- the letter u is written if the sound it denotes belongs to the same morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating stem the letters ad, s, st, w appear before the suffix -k-, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:
- if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
- if the stem ends in k, ch, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and ch change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),
note: in some adjectives the alternation of k, ch with c does not occur (Tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):
- if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk- k is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),
Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;
- if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the letter combination sk is written (Welsh-Welsh),
- if the stem ends in se, then one with is omitted, since in the Russian language there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonant letters (Odessa - Odessky);
- if the stem ends in -н or -рь, then before the suffix -к-ь (the soft sign is omitted),
Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written
- in adjectives formed from the names of months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign words geographical names(Taiwanese)
- in combination day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -and- final the consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into sch (boredom - boring, turmoil - hectic);
Spelling n and nn in adjective suffixes:
| 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, tin. 3. 8 short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -n- (slender - slender). | 1. In adjectives formed using the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed using the suffix -ONN: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the stem on n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long). |
Note 1: N is written in adjectives: spicy, crimson, red, drunk, ruddy, young, green, windy, pork.
Note 2: It is written windy, but windless.
Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between the adjectives oily (for oil, on oil) and oily (stained, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.
Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between the adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).
68. Spelling difficult words.
1. Compound words can be formed using two simple stems connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem on a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem on a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, birdcatcher.
2. Spelling complex words without a connecting vowel:
- it is necessary to distinguish between complex words formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
- numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
- prefixes of foreign language origin are written together with the root: anti-, archn-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-Anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
- words in -fication are not complex; this combination of letters is preceded by and (gasification).
3. Spelling of compound nouns:
a) written together:
- compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
- compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (deriver, daredevil),
Exception: tumbleweed;
- all compound words (Sberbank, Baltic Fleet).
b) written with a hyphen
- complex nouns without a connecting vowel, denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
- names of intermediate cardinal directions (southeast, northwest);
- complex owls, denoting names of plants containing a verb in personal form or a conjunction (coltsfoot, love-not-love);
- words with foreign language elements: chief-, untv-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).
4. Spelling of complex adjectives: a) written together:
- adjectives formed from complex nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystem);
- compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another ( Railway- railway);
- complex adjectives representing scientific and technical terms or belonging to bookish styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
- complex adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;
b) written with a hyphen:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
- complex adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (jack-londonovskiy, petr-petrovichev);
- complex adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected by a coordinating connection (convex-concave);
- compound adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);\
- compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the words west-, south-, -ogo-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).
69. Spelling of numerals.
- Complex numerals are written together (thirty);
- Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three-sevenths);
- Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
- The numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and the numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred ь (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two stems;
- There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in terminological meaning in indirect cases; both forms are found in stable expressions.
- The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word
- through a hyphen if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper noun (half Russia);
- together, if the second part of a complex word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
- separately if it has an independent meaning and is separated from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.
Note: the numeral semi- in compound words is always written together: half-breed, half-naked.
Spelling of numeral endings.
1. Declension of cardinal numbers:
The numeral one is declined in the same way as a singular adjective:
The numerals two, three, four have special case endings:
The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals ten and two are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:
| I. p. R. p. D. p. V. p. etc. P. p | six | thirty |
The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative case, in other cases - the ending -a):
In quantitative compound numerals, each word is declined:
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half have a special declension:
3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:
4. Declension of ordinal numbers:
Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:
For composite ordinal numbers, only the the last word:
70. Spelling pronouns.
1. Spelling of negative pronouns:
- under stress it is written not, and without stress - neither, (cf., kikto" - not "who, not at all" - not "how much);
- if negative pronouns do not have 48 prepositions, then they are written together, and if there are, then in three words (cf.: someone - no one, nothing - for nothing),
- combinations of none other than, nothing else, have the meaning of opposition and are written separately, and combinations of none other, nothing else have this meaning of opposition and therefore are written together (cf. This can be resolved by none other than the school principal. - no one else could do it better.).
2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:
- indefinite pronouns containing the particles some-, some-, -that, -or-, - are written with a hyphen (someone, something, anyone),
- if a preposition follows a particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (some with someone, some because of someone).
71. Spelling verbs.
Spelling verb endings.
1. Depending on the personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: verbs of I and II conjugations.
The II conjugation includes:
- verbs in -it (except for the verbs shave, lay, build, which belong to the first conjugation),
- 7 verbs in -et (twist, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
- 4 verbs ending in -at (to melt, breathe, hold, hear).
Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:
2. There are several differently conjugated verbs that do not belong to either of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.
| units 1st person read, take 2nd person read, take The third person reads, takes plural | Want want wants We want | I'm running you're running let's run run are running | eat eat eating Let's eat eat eat | I'll create you will create will create Let's create let's create will create | give give it will give Let's give let's give |
3. If a verb with the prefix obez- (obes-) is transitive, then it is conjugated according to the II conjugation, and if intransitive, then according to the I conjugation (for example, compare the conjugation of the verbs to weaken (someone) and to weaken (yourself).
4. In verbs of the first conjugation in the form of the future tense the ending is written -“ those, and in the form of the imperative mood - the ending - ite (cf.: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)
b (soft sign) in verb forms.
1. b (soft sign) is written:
- in the infinitive (to write, to wish, to want, to wash),
- in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
- in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
- in a reflexive particle that comes after a vowel (bent, turned, come back);
2. b (soft sign) is not written:
- in the form of the 3rd person singular present or simple future tense (washes, does).
Spelling verb suffixes
1. If in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yu(-yu), then the suffixes -ova-, -eva- are written in the infinitive and in the past tense (manage - manage, was in charge, war - fight, fought );
if in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yu, -ivayu, then the suffixes -ыва-, -iva- (I impose - impose, imposed) are written in the infinitive and in the past tense.
2. Verbs ending in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - prolong).
Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition in is written separately (openly),
- if the nouns from which the adverbs are derived are not used independently in the modern Russian language (locked up, to pieces),
- adverbs with spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (away, first)
note: if a sentence contains an explanation for a noun, then such words are no longer adverbs, but combinations of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (from the beginning of the book),
- if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf.: to exhaust completely - to come to the horse corridor):
4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:
- if they are formed using the prefix po- from full adjectives or adverbs ending in -oma, -em, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in a cat’s way),
- if they are formed using the prefix v-(vo-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
- if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly);
5. Adverb combinations are written separately:
- if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (with gas to the eye, shoulder to captivity),
- if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without holding back, on the run, right away),
- if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning case form(abroad, in good faith),
- if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition in is written separately (openly).
74. Spelling prepositions.
The spelling of prepositions must be memorized or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes, to correctly spell a word, it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.
- Complex prepositions iechza, from under, due to, etc. are written with a hyphen. (due to illness, due to steel);
- The following prepositions are written together: in view of, instead of, like, over, as a result of (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in a consequence;
- Prepositions such as in form, in connection, etc. are written separately.
- The prepositions in continuation, during, as a result have an e at the end (during the lesson), BUT during the river.
75. Spelling conjunctions.
1. Written together:
- union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the conjunction so and the combination of the pronoun and the particle that (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);
note: remember! through thick and thin,
- conjunctions too and are also written together (Are you also/will you also go to the concert?); it is also necessary to distinguish between conjunctions, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or placed in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (You brought the same), and me too.);
- particles of something, something, or, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -so (yes, someone, give it, he is, enough),
Spelling particles NOT with in different parts speeches
| Part of speech | apart |
|
| noun | 1. if without is not used (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can find a synonym without not (untruth - lie, foe - friend), | 1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative, it is assumed with a logical emphasis on negation (Your father put you here, didn’t he? |
| adj. | 1. if the base is not used (careless, nondescript). 2. if you can find a synonym without (not small - big, gvmslody - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the conjunction but (the river is not yaubok, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuous form, low - low) | 1. if there is or is implied opposition with the conjunction a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives (the sky here is southern), 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring) |
| number | with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something) | always written separately (not three, not seventh) |
| pronoun | with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor) | |
| verb | if without it is not used (to hate, to be perplexed) note: verbs like nedomostat are written together, since they include a single prefix nedo-, | with all other verbs (not to know, to cry |
| gerundish | if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are not written together, just like verbs (overlooked) | with all other participles (not knowing, for crying) |
| participle |
| having given communion | if full participles do not have dependent words with them (unattended student) | 1 . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not arrive on time), 2. with short participles ( test papers not verified) if there is or is supposed to be opposition (not finished, but just started work) |
| adverb | 1 . if without is not used (ridiculously, carelessly), 2. adverbs ending in -o, -e, if you can find a synonym for white not (not stupid - smart) | 1. adverbs ending in -o, -e, if there is or implies opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs ending in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not funny at all). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian) |
Spelling particles NOT and NI
1. Unstressed vowel in the root.
To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to change the form of the word or select a word with the same root so that the stress falls on it.
G O ra – g O ry
B O rummaged - b O rushes
Not accepted And rimy – m And R
2. Alternation of vowels in the root.
In the roots gor - gar under the accent the letter A is written, without the accent - O (zag A r – zag O mature)
Fundamentally zar - zar, under stress, the vowel that is heard is written, without stress - A (z A roar, s A rnitsa, oz A yay, s O ryka)
Fundamentally clone - clan under stress, the vowel that is heard is written, without stress - O (skl O thread, cl A bow, bow O n, knuckle O thread)
In the roots kos - kas the letter A is written if there is a suffix A after the root, if there is no this suffix, then the letter O is written. (to A sanie, prikk O fell asleep)
In the roots lag - lie A is written before G, O is written before G (sentence A go, offer O live)
In the roots growing up - growing up before ST, Ш the letter A is written. If there is no ST, Ш the letter O is written (р A stet, por O c) Exceptions: Rostok, industry, Rostov, Rostislav.
In the roots Ber - bir, der - dir, mer - world, per - pir, ter- ter, shine - blist, zheg - zhig, stel - stil the letter A is written if after the root there is a suffix A. (collect - collect, lay - spread)
3.Vowels O - E (Ё) after sibilants and C in different parts of the word.
1.Fundamentally words after hissing words are written under stress with the letter E (Ё). (in related words and forms of this word the letter E is written without stress. (vecherka - evening, cheap - cheaper) Exceptions: seam, rustle, saddler, hood, gooseberry, glutton, thicket, major
It is necessary to distinguish:
A) noun – burn, arson, verbs – burn, set fire
B) in words of foreign language origin:
jockey, juggler, shock, highway, driver.
C) in proper names: Pechora, Pechorin, Shostakovich
2. After C, the letter o is written in the root under the stress. unstressed
The vowel after T must be checked with stress. (base, whole -
whole)
3.In endings, suffixes nouns and
adjectives after hissing and C, the letter O is written under stress, without stress - E (chest, hut, big, red, little jackdaw, fighter, crimson)
4 .At the end of adverbs, the letter O is written under stress, without
accent – E (hotly, ebulliently)
5 .The letter E is written under the accent
a) at the endings of verbs (we take care, bakes),
b) in the verbal suffix –yovyva (shade)
c) in the suffix –er of nouns (conductor, trainee)
d) in the suffixes -yonn, -yon of passive participles,
from verbal adjectives, if they are formed from
verb with -it (completed - complete, stewed - stew)
d) in pronouns (about anything, nothing)
4. Vowels ы, and after ц in different parts of the word.
1. At the root of the word after C the letter I is written (number, circus) Exceptions:
gypsy, chicks, chick, chick, chick)
2.In words ending na – tion the letter I is written
(acacia, lecture, delegation)
3.In suffixes and endings the letter Y is written (birds, pages,
Sinitsyn)
5. Voiced and voiceless consonants.
To check the spelling of paired consonants b-p, v-f, g-k, d-t, zh-sh, you need to change the word so that after this consonant there is a vowel. (tooth - teeth, light - light)
6. Unpronounceable consonants at the root of a word. (combinations vstv, ndsk, stl, stn, etc.)
The word needs to be changed or a word with the same root must be chosen so that this consonant is heard clearly. (joyful - joy, whistle - whistle)
But: sn– wonderful – miracles.
7. Separating b and b
Kommersant
b
1. Before letters E, E, Yu, Ya
after consoles
to a consonant
(to go around, to separate)
1. Before the letters E, E, Yu, I, I
in roots, suffixes, endings.
(barrier, blizzard, fox, nightingale)
In difficult words
(three-tier, inter-tier)
In foreign words:
adjutant, object, subject, etc. broth, battalion, signor, etc.
8. Soft sign after sizzling ones.
b is written
b is not written
1. Feminine in nouns
kind (night, rye)
1. In masculine nouns (knife, rook)
2. In all verb forms
(write, kindle, smile)
2. Plural in nouns. numbers
(lots of clouds, near puddles)
3. In adverbs ending in Zh, Sh, Ch (jump,
entirely) Exceptions: already married,
unbearable
3. In short adjectives (hot,
good, powerful)
4. In particles (only, huh, huh)
9. Vowels И –И after prefixes.
After consonant prefixes letter is written Y, if the word from which it is derived begins with the letter I (unprincipled - idea, summarize - result, play - game)
After consoles super-, sub-, trans-, inter- a letter is written AND ( inter-institutional, super-interesting, sub-inspector).
10. Continuous and hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives.
Together:
1. Formed from a subordinating phrase (ancient Greek - Ancient Greece, car repair - repair of cars)
2. Used as terms or expressions in book language (above, undersigned)
With a hyphen:
1.Denote the shade of color (light pink, red-brown)
2.Derived from a hyphenated noun (southwest - southwest)
3. Between the parts of the adjective you can insert the conjunction “and” (Russian-German - Russian and German, convex-concave - convex and concave).
4. Formed from a combination of a noun and an adjective, but with a rearrangement of these elements (literary-artistic - fiction)
5. Having the combination -ico (chemical-pharmaceutical) at the end of the first base.
Apart:
Phrases consisting of an adverb and an adjective are written separately. An adverb acts as a member of a sentence, indicating the degree of the attribute expressed by the adjective (genuinely friendly, sharply hostile) or in what respect the attribute is considered (socially dangerous, i.e. dangerous to society). Adverbs in –ski in the meaning of “likening” (damn cunning).
11. Not with different parts of speech.
Together
Apart
Without NOT not used ( all parts of speech)
can't, hate, unseen
There is a contrast with the conjunction “A” or it is implied (noun, adjective, adverb of O, E)
not the truth, but a lie
Can be replaced with a synonym or an expression similar in meaning ( noun, adjective, adverb of o, e)
untrue - lie, unknown - stranger)
There are words “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, etc.
(adjective, adverb in O, E)
Not at all interesting, not at all beautiful
There are no dependent words and no opposition with the conjunction “A”
(participle)
unstuck, untold
There are dependent words or opposition with the conjunction “A” (participle)
not said in time
With verbs, gerunds
(didn't find it without searching)
With adverbs not in –O, E (not in a comradely way)
With negative and indefinite adverbs and pronouns (no one, several, nowhere)
With negative pronouns, if there is a preposition (not with anyone, not with anyone)
12. One and two letters N in suffixes.
Parts of speech
NN
Nouns
Living room, toiler, herbalist
At the junction of morphemes
Fifty dollars, window sill
Adjectives
In the suffixes -in, -an, -yan
Gus in oh, leather en th
Excl.: tin, wood, glass
1) in adjectives formed using the suffix -n- from nouns with a stem in N (fog n y)
2) in adjectives formed from nouns using the suffixes -onn, -enn (arts enne oh, aviation he N y)
Except: windy
Participles and verbal adjectives
1) in brief passive participles(error corrected en A)
2) in full participles and verbal adjectives formed from imperfect verbs (crash enй – there is no prefix and dependent word)
Excl.: slow, desired, sacred, unexpected, unprecedented, unheard, unexpected)
1) if the word has a prefix other than non- (dried)
2) if they include dependent words (sown through a sieve)
3) if the word has the suffix –ova, -eva (otsink ovann y)
4) if the word is formed from a perfective verb (lich yonn y - deprive)
Adverb
There are as many Ns written in adverbs as in the adjectives from which they are derived
(tuma nn o – tuma nn oh, excited nn o – vzvolnova nn y)
23. Letters E, I in case endings of nouns.
1. nouns have 1st declension in the dative and prepositional cases (in the grass - 1 cl., pp., on the road - 1 cl., d.p.)
1. nouns have 1st declension in the genitive case (at the river - 1st cl., R.p)
2. nouns have 2 declensions in the prepositional case (in the house - 2 cl., pp.)
2. nouns have 3 declensions (in mother, in the night)
3. for nouns with –i, -ie, -iya, -mya in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases
(attach to the stirrup (on -ya)), pick from the acacia (on - iya))
24. Conjugation of verbs, spelling of personal endings of verbs.
Put the verb in the indefinite form (what to do? what to do?)
II conjugation I conjugation
na –it na –et, -at, -ut, -yt, -ti, -ch
except: shave, lay (1 reference) except:
drive, hold, hear, breathe
endure, twist, offend, depend,
hate, see, look (2 questions)
the letter is written at the end And the letter E is written at the end
beautiful it– beautiful it count et – count ot, rut it– Mr. at(excl.)
when finding an indefinite form, take a verb of the same type (decorate - decorate)
Spelling of prefixes.
1. Letters Z-S at the end of the consoles.
In the prefixes voz-vos, bez-bes, from -is, niz -nis, once - races, through - thre before sonorous a letter is written with consonants Z, before deaf consonants - letter WITH.
(Ra h give - ra With bite, babe h sonorous - be With cordial)
There is no prefix Z: knock down, cut down, run away
There is no prefix in the words here, building, health.
In the prefix once (ras) - roz (ros) the letter A is written without emphasis, under the accent - the letter O. (to fall apart - sledges, scatter - scattering)
2. Prefixes pre-, pr-
Pre-
at-
1. It is possible to replace the prefix very, very much.
(Very big – very big)
1.Spatial proximity
(about) – school, seaside
2.Approaching, joining,
addition (to arrive, to screw,
join)
2.Close to the value of “re”
(transform, block)
3.Incomplete action (open slightly)
4. Bringing the action to completion
(come up with)
Spelling suffixes
1. Suffixes –EK, -IK of nouns
To write the suffix correctly, you need to decline the word (put it in the genitive case form). If a vowel is dropped, then the suffix -EK is written, if it is not dropped, then the suffix -IK must be written (lock - lock, finger - finger)
2. Suffixes of verbs -ova (-eva), -yva (iva)
If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivayu, then you need to write the suffixes -yva, -iva.
If it ends in -yu, -yu, then you need to write the suffixes -ova, -eva.
(conversations ova l, conversations ova th - conversations wow, story yva l – story I feel)
3. Suffixes of participles –ush, -yush, -ashch, -yash.
If the participle is formed from a verb of the 1st conjugation, then you need to write the suffixes -ush, -yush.
If the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations, then you need to write the suffixes –ash, -yash.
(piercing – to prick (1 reference), dyeing – to paint (2 references))
4. Participle suffixes –EM, -OM, -IM
If the participle is formed from a verb of 1 conjugation, then we write the suffix -EM, -OM, if from a verb of 2 conjugations, then the suffix -IM
(visible – see (2 spr.), burnt – burn (1 spr.))
5. The letters O, A at the end of adverbs with prefixes –IZ, -DO, -S
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that do not have these prefixes, then we write the letter A.
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that contain these prefixes, then we write the letter O.
(before dry – dry, before urgently - before urgent)
On dull , V left (no prefixes –iz, -to, -s)
6. Suffixes –K-, -SK- of adjectives.
The suffix -K- is written:
1) in adjectives that have a short form (number To y – kolok, elm To y – mating)
2) in adjectives formed from some nouns with a stem in k, ch, c (German To y – German, weaver To yi – weaver)
In other cases the suffix –SK- (French) is written sk y - French h)
7. Suffixes –CHIK-, -SHCHIK-
After the letters d - t, z - s, zh, the letter Ch is written. In other cases, the letter sch is written. (bound Tchick, stone box– no letters d, t, z, s, g)
8. Vowels before -N, -NN in suffixes of participles, before the suffix of the past tense verb -L-.
If a participle or verbal adjective is formed from a verb ending in –at, -yat, then it is written before Н,НН letter A, Z(weigh A nnny – hung at).
If a participle or verbal adjective is formed from verbs that do not end in -at, -yat, then the letter E is written before N, NN
(roll up e ny - zasoch it, crush e ny – red it).
Hyphen between parts of words.
Hyphenated spelling of adverbs.
Adverbs are written with a hyphen between parts of the word, which include:
1) the prefix po- and the suffixes -oom, -em, -i (in a new way, in a comradely way)
2) the prefix v-, vo- and the suffixes –ы, -и (secondly, thirdly)
3) prefix somehow (somehow)
4) suffixes -to, -or, -ni (kolda, somewhere)
5) complex adverbs that contain the same roots (little by little)
Indefinite pronouns with the prefix ko- and the suffixes that-or-, nibo are written with a hyphen (someone, some)
Compound words with half are written with a hyphen if the second root begins with L, with a capital letter, with a vowel. In other cases, gender in complex words is written together. (half a moon, half a watermelon, half a Volga, half a house)
Interjections, formed by repetition of basics (ooh-ooh)
Particles are joined to other words through a hyphen. (come on, take it)
Integrated and separate spelling of homonymous independent and function words.
Prepositions with other words are written separately. (on the river, on me, by five)
Derivative prepositions, formed on the basis of adverbs, are written together (to go towards the delegates).
Continuously derived prepositions are written: in view of (= for a reason), like (= like), about (= about), instead of, like, as a result of (due to)
Talk about exams, but put money into the account (noun)
Derivative prepositions are written separately during, in continuation of, according to
reason, for purposes, from the outside).
Unions also, too, so that are written together. They should be distinguished from combinations in the same way, the same as that. In these combinations, the particles could be omitted or rearranged to another place.
Mother studied at the institute. My father also studied there.
The same word, but not to say it that way.
Morphology(parts of speech).
Grammatical features independent parts of speech.
Part of speech
Gram. meaning
Question to the beginning form
Constant signs
Variable signs
Syntactic.
role in the sentence
Noun
Item
Who? What?
Inanimate-inanimate, own or vernacular, gender, declension
Case, number
Subject,
Addition
Adjective
Sign
Which? Whose?
Qualitative, relative possessive; full-short, degrees of comparison
Gender, number, case
Definition, predicate
(short adj.)
Numeral
Quantity, order when counting
How many? Which?
Simple-composite, quantitative, ordinal, collective
Case, number, gender (for ordinal ones)
As part of any member of a sentence, definition (ordinal)
Pronoun
The meaning of the part of speech instead of which it is used
Who? What? Which? How many? Which?
Rank, person (for personal)
Case (for some), number, gender
Any member of the sentence
Verb
Action, state
What to do? what to do?
Aspect, transitivity, conjugation, reflexivity
Mood, tense, number, person or gender
Personal forms – predicate, n.f. – any member of the sentence
Participle
Item attribute by action
Which?
What do you do? What did he do? and etc.
Active or passive, time, aspect
Case, number, gender, full or short
Definition
Participle
Additional action
Doing what? What did you do?
How?
Type, return
No
circumstance
Adverb
Sign of action or other sign
How? Where? Where? When? For what? and etc.
Degrees of comparison
No
circumstance
Classes of adjectives.
Discharge
Signs
Examples
Quality
1. Answer the questions Which? Which? Which?
2. denote different qualities objects: color, internal qualities of a person, state of mind, age, size of the object; qualities perceived by the senses, etc.
3. may have diminutive suffixes –ist, -ovat, - -enk, etc.
4. can have a short form and degrees of comparison
5. complex adjectives and adjectives are formed. With prefix not-
6. combined with adverbs very, extremely, etc.
More pleasant
Sick
Too light light – light
difficult
Relative
1.answer the questions which? Which? Which?
2. indicate the material from which the item is made; time, place, purpose of the item, etc.
3. have the suffixes –an, -yan, - sk-, -ov-,
4. do not have a short form, do not form degrees of comparison
5. do not go well with adverbs, too much.
Wood
Nautical
Possessives
Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?
2. denote belonging to a person or animal
3. have the suffixes –ov, -ev, -in, -yn, -iy
Fox, fathers, wolf
Pronoun categories.
Discharge
Pronouns
personal
1st person: I, we
2nd person: you, you
3rd person: he, she, it, they
Returnable
Myself
Possessives
Mine, yours, ours, yours, yours
Interrogative-relative
Who, what, which, which, whose, which, how many
Undefined
Someone, something, some, several, some, something, etc.
Negative
Nobody, nothing, no, no one's, not at all, no one, nothing
Index fingers
That, this, such, such, such, so much
Definitive
Himself, most, every, all, every, any, different, other
Digits of numerals.
By conception
By structure
quantitative
Ordinal
Simple
Complex
composite
Whole
Fractional
Gathering
Three,
Twenty five
One third,
One and a half
Two
Three
seven
Third, thirty-fifth
Fourteen, thirty
Five hundred, one hundred thousandth
One hundred and seventy-three, three point eight
Verb mood and tense.
Indicative
Conditional
Imperative
Denotes an action that is happening, has happened or will actually happen
Denotes an action that is possible under some condition (would read, would read)
Denotes an action to which the speaker encourages someone to perform (advises, asks, orders)
Present tense
Past tense
Future
What is he doing?
What did you do?
What did you do?
What will it do? (future complex)
What will he do? (future simple)
Is reading
I read, I told
will read
Formation of participles
From the present tense verb stem
From the stem of the infinitive
Present participles
Past participles
Valid
Passive
Valid
passive
1 reference
2 references
1 reference
2 references
Vsh
Enn
Nn
Ush, - yush
Ash
Box
Eat
Ohm
Them
Ym
Bole yushch th
Scream asch th
Ozarya eat th
Storage them th
Jump Vsh th
Carried w th
Pulled out enne th
Uvencha nn th
washouts T th
Formation of gerunds
Imperfect participles
Perfect participles
Suffixes -а, -я
Suffixes
Vsh
Lice
Lying down - lying down A
We are sitting - sitting I
Think - think V, I think lice
Get carried away - carried away shi sya
Classification of adverbs by meaning.
Adverb category
Questions answered by adverbs
Examples
Mode of action and degree
How?
How?
Fast, fun, new, frequent, great
Measures and degrees
How many? How many times?
In what degree?
To what extent? How much?
A little, a little, a little, five times, too, completely, completely, twice
Places
Where?
Where?
Where?
Far, nearby, around, from within, from afar, everywhere
Time
When?
How long?
Since when?
How long?
Now, soon, long ago, now, on the eve, during the day, at night, in summer, early
Causes
Why?
From what?
For what reason?
In the heat of the moment, blindly, involuntarily
Goals
For what?
For what?
For what purpose?
On purpose, out of spite, intentionally
A special group consists of pronominal adverbs:
Demonstrative adverbs – here, there, there, from there, then
Indefinite adverbs – somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somewhere
Negative adverbs – nowhere, never, nowhere, nowhere
Interrogative relative adverbs - where, where, when, why, why.
Lilac blooms (when?) in the spring. (adverb)
Behind the spring(when? Why?) summer will come. (noun)
Adverbs with prefixes must be distinguished from consonant combinations of nouns, adjectives and pronouns with prepositions.
At first it was difficult. (when? – circumstance – adverb)
At first year (noun with a preposition, because there is a dependent word).
Got sick That's why and didn't come. (adverb, why?)
That's why The bridge is closed to traffic. (adj., over a bridge (which one?) – definition)
In the distance blue sand spinning. (in what? Where?)
In the distance The shepherd played annoyingly. (adverb, where?)
State category words – indicate the state of nature, the environment, living beings, humans (damp, cloudy, offensive, funny, joyful). They are used in one-part impersonal sentences and are predicates.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs .
Parts of speech
comparative
Superlative
Simple
Composite
Simple
Composite
Adjective
Her(s)
She
Stronger
Earlier
Less often
more…
less…
More strong
Less strict
Aish(ii)
Eish (ii)
Strict
strongest
total (all)..
most…
least…
Deepest, highest quality
Adverb
Her(s)
She
Stronger, sooner, less often
more…
less…
More strongly
Less strict
Aishe
Yeishe
Strictly
total (all)..
most…
least…
best quality
To distinguish the comparative degree of an adjective from the comparative degree of an adverb, you need to look at which word in the sentence the form of the comparative degree depends on. If it depends on a noun, then it is a comparative degree of an adjective (in a sentence it is a predicate) - person thinner, Class friendlier.
If it depends on the verb, then this is an adverb (in a sentence it is a circumstance) - cut thinner, sing more friendly.
Functional parts of speech.
Pretext – serves to connect words in phrases and sentences. They can be simple and compound, derivative and non-derivative.
non-derivatives
Derivatives from
Adverbs
noun
Participles
In, to, with, at, about, on, at, for, from, through, etc.
Along, opposite, in front, according to, around
As a result, like, in continuation, during, in relation to, in contrast to, towards, in view of, in conclusion, over, in connection with, due to
Thankfully, after, in spite of, in spite of, based on
Union – serves for communication homogeneous members and parts complex sentence. There are simple and compound, coordinating and subordinating.
Places of conjunctions by meaning.
Essays
Subordinates
1. Connecting (both this and that): and, yes, also, also, not only...but also, both...and
1. Explanatory: what, as if to
2. Adverse (not this, but this): but, ah, yes, but, however
2. Circumstantial:
Time: when, only, while, barely , as soon as, after, before, just
Target: in order to, in order to, in order to, for the sake of
Comparison: as, as if, as if, exactly
Cause: because, since, because, for
Condition: if (if), if
Consequence: So
Concession: even though, despite the fact that, let, let
3. Dividing (either this or that): or, either, neither...nor, then...that, either...either, not that...not that
Particle - conveys shades of meaning and serves to form some forms of independent words. By meaning there are formative and semantic. By category – simple, complex, compound.
(even, precisely, after all, just, hardly, as if not, etc.)
Particle discharges by meaning and function.
Semantic (express different meanings)
Form-building
(form word forms)
1. Denial: no, neither
1. form of the conditional mood of the verb: would, b
2. Statement: yes, yes, exactly, of course, yeah, yeah, definitely
2. form of the imperative mood of the verb: let, let, yes, come on, let's
3. Strengthening: even, even, already, and, really, well, still, after all, well
3. comparative form and superlatives adj.: more, less, most
4. Question: is it really, really, what, what, how, how, what if
Exclamation: what the, how, well
Doubt: hardly, hardly, maybe
7. Clarification: exactly, exactly, exactly, directly, slightly, just, at least, at least, almost
8. Selection, limitation: only, only, only, almost, exclusively
9. Direction: here, and here, there, and there, this
10. Relaxation of the requirement: -ka
Distinguishing particles He and Ni
Particle NOT
NI particle
Not – meaning of negation
Misha Not went to the skating rink.
Not Misha went to the skating rink, and Yura.
Ni is a negative particle with an intensifying value:
A) increasing denial
In the sky Not was neither one lumen.
No neither wind, neither sun, neither noise.
In the sky neither clouds.
Two particles NOT – the meaning of the statement
Not Can Not talk about this trip. - I have to tell you.
B) strengthening the statement
Where neither I look around, thick rye everywhere. (I'll look everywhere)
The words may be: where neither, who nor, whatever and etc.
Interjection is neither an independent nor an auxiliary part of speech. Interjections are used to express:
Feelings, emotions (fear, joy, doubt, surprise, sadness, delight, sadness, etc.): oh, well, bravo, my God, wow, God be with you.
Speech etiquette (greetings, farewells, wishes, thanks, requests, etc.): thank you, thank you, goodbye, farewell, forgive me, please, all the best, hello.
Commands, orders, requests: na, fas, shh, hello, bye-bye, stop, chick-chick.
Syntax.
Collocation – several words related in meaning and grammatically.
According to the main word, phrases can be nominal (the main word is an adjective, a noun, a pronoun), verbal (the main word is a verb, participle, gerund), adverbial (the main word is an adverb).
Types of connections between words in phrases (by dependent word).
Coordination
Control
Adjacency
The dependent word is used in the same gender, number and case (adj., participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal number)
The dependent word is placed in the case required by the main word (noun, pronoun = noun)
The dependent word is related to the main word only in meaning
(adverb, gerund)
Prepositional
(with preposition)
Unprepositional (without preposition)
To an experienced teacher
Grew up by the road
Land development
Work with passion
Types of offers.
Types of offers
Examples
By the nature of the expressed attitude to reality
Affirmative(affirm the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it).
Negative(the connection between the subject of speech and what is said is denied).
The long evening in October is sad. (I. Bunin)
No, I don't value rebellious pleasure. (A. Pushkin)
By the number of grammatical bases
Simple (consist of one grammatical stem)
Complex (consist of two or more grammatical stems)
A clear breeze rushes along the narrow street. (N. Rubtsov)
Dawn bids farewell to the earth, steam falls at the bottom of the valley. (A. Fet)
By the nature of the grammatical basis
Two-piece(the grammatical basis consists of a subject and a predicate)
One-piece(the grammatical basis consists of either only the subject or only the predicate)
I loved late autumn in Russia. (I. Bunin)
It's already quite dawn. (K. Fedin)
By the presence of minor members
Common(includes grammatical basis and minor members of the sentence)
Undistributed(have only grammatical basis)
Two drops splashed onto the glass. (A. Fet)
The lake was white. (I. Bunin)
According to the context and speech situation
Full(all necessary members of the sentence are present)
Incomplete(one or more sentence members are missing)
The whole city lay in darkness. (A. Fadeev)
Everything obeys me, but I obey nothing. (A. Pushkin)
Types of predicate.
Simple verb expressed in one verb form
Composite
Verbal auxiliary can, desire, want, begin, continue, finish or short adj. Glad, ready, able, must, intends+ infinitive
Nominal
Linking verb to be, to become, to do, to appear, to become, to seem, to be called+ nominal part: noun, adj., numeral, place, short adverb, adverb
In childhood, the rains were replaced by a rainbow. (S. Marshak)
The monkey decided to work. (I. Krylov)
The gold of the cross became white. (S. Marshak)
Minor members offers.
Definition
(which? which? Which? Which? Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?) is emphasized by a wavy line
Addition
(who? What? To whom? What? Whom? What? By whom? What? About whom? About what?) is underlined with a dotted line
Circumstance
(where? When? Where? From where? Why? Why? How?)
underlined by a dotted line with a dot
Agreed
(adjective, participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal)
Direct (vin. case without preposition)
Mode of action (how? In what way?)
Inconsistent
(noun)
Indirect (indirect cases or vin. case with preposition)
Places (where? Where? From?)
Time (when? Since when? Until when? How long?)
Reasons (why? For what reason?)
Measures and degrees (To what extent? To what extent?)
Goals (why? For what purpose?)
Conditions (under what condition?)
Concessions (in spite of what?)
Types of one-part sentences and ways of expressing the main member of the sentence.
Personalized
Verbal
Nominative sentence (the main member of the sentence is the subject, the noun in the I.p.)
Midnight. Haze and wind.
Definitely personal(verb 1st, 2nd person, singular, plural; indicative, behavioral)
I'm going. Are you going for a walk? Come with me.
Vaguely personal(verb 3rd person, plural, present, everyday tense; plural, past tense)
Vita was given a player.
Impersonal(impersonal verb, personal verb in the meaning of impersonal, infinitive, words of the state category, short participle, word No)
It's getting dark. It's cold outside.
Generalized-personal(verb 2 persons, singular; 3 persons plural present or future; 2 persons led moods)
Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.
Types of definitions.
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Characterize an object on one side (you can put the conjunction I between them)
They characterize an object from different sides, for example, by color and size (big red ball), you cannot put the conjunction I between them)
Depend on one word and answer the same question
They explain each other, that is, one of the definitions depends on the phrase that includes the noun being defined. and another definition (red ball Which? big)
Connected by a coordinating connection, i.e. do not depend on each other
Deprived of enumerative intonation
Pronounced with enumerative intonation
Isolated members of a sentence.
I. Separate definitions .
Any definitions in the form of a phrase (adverbial phrase, adjectival phrase) or individual words are separated by commas on one side or on both sides (within a sentence), if:
Refers to a personal pronoun
Exhausted, dirty, wet, we reached the shore.
They come after the noun they define.
Forest, finally shaking off the remnants of the night darkness, stood up in all his majesty. (B. Polevoy)
Before a qualifying noun, if they express a reason.
Driven by spring rays, the snow had already flowed from the surrounding mountains in muddy streams into the flooded meadows. (A. Pushkin)
II. Dedicated Applications .
Attachments in a letter are separated by a comma or two commas within a sentence if:
They refer to the personal pronoun
Us, doctors, this truly boundless patience is amazing. (N. Ostrovsky)
Common applications that come after the qualified noun.
A pineapple,a wonderful gift of tropical nature , looks like a large cedar cone weighing two to three kilograms.
Clauses appearing before a qualified noun if it has a causal meaning.
Native sailor, Voropaev first saw the sea as an adult. (P. Pavlenko)
III Special circumstances.
1. Circumstances expressed by gerunds and participial phrase, are always separated by commas in writing.
Suddenly she ran past me, humming something else.
The waves are rushing thundering and sparkling, alien stars look from above.
2. Circumstances expressed by a noun with a preposition despiteIn houses,despite the early hour , the lamps were on.
Note:
are not isolated
Participles with the meaning of an adverb. Yazykov covered his face with his palm and satwithout moving . (not moving = motionless)
Stable combinations and phraseological units, which include gerunds. He workedtirelessly .
IV. Separate clarifying members of the sentence.
To clarify detached member suggestions, you can pose an additional question Where exactly? How exactly? Who exactly? When exactly?
1. Circumstances of place and time: Left,at the dam , the axes were knocking.
2. Definitions: It was dominated by brown,almost red , the color of the soil and the unbearably blue hue of the sea.
3 . Isolated clarifying members of a sentence can be joined using conjunctionsthat is, or, as well as words especially, even, mainly, in particular, for example .
He's pretty good even with some special pronunciation , spoke Russian .
Additions with prepositions except, apart from, instead of, excluding, apart from, along with, over, etc..
Everyone has , with the exception of the commissioner, things were going well.
Introductory words and sentences.
Groups of introductory words by meaning
example
Varying degrees of confidence:
a) a high degree of confidence (of course, of course, indisputably, undoubtedly, really, etc.)
b) lesser degree of confidence (seems, probably, obviously, perhaps, perhaps)
Mountain air, without any doubts, has a beneficial effect on human health.
Seems, your story made a lot of noise there.
Different feelings (fortunately, to general joy, unfortunately, to surprise)
Fortunately, our horses were not exhausted.
Source of the message (according to someone, according to someone, according to someone)
According to the doctor, the patient will be discharged from the hospital in a week.
The order of thoughts and their connection (firstly, secondly, finally, therefore, means, so, vice versa, for example, etc.)
Firstly, you need to learn the rule.
So, one desire for benefit made me publish this excerpt. (M. Lermontov)
Notes on ways to formulate thoughts (in one word, in other words, better to say, etc.)
In a word, this man had a desire to create a case for himself. (A. Chekhov)
Introductory words and sentences should be distinguished from other members of the sentence ( introductory words are not part of the sentence, they are not grammatically related to other words, they can be removed from the sentence).
Printing pages:
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COLLECTION
RULES
IN RUSSIAN