The Catalan (Valencian) language (self-named catala) belongs to the Occitan-Romance subgroup of the Romance languages ​​of the Indo-European family. It is spoken by about 11 million people in the so-called. Catalan lands in Spain (autonomous communities of Catalonia, Valencia, Balearic Islands), France (Eastern Pyrenees department), Andorra and Italy (Alghero on the island of Sardinia).

Catalan is the official language in the above mentioned provinces of Spain (along with Spanish) and in Andorra.

Some Valencian organizations are advocating for the recognition of the Valencian independent language, however, most scholars consider Valencian and Catalan to be one language. In the latter case, there are several options for the name of the entire language and its individual parts:

• · Catalan language with several dialects, one of which is Valencian;
• · Catalan-Valencian language (less commonly Catalan-Valencian-Balearic) with Catalan and Valencian variants;
• · a single language with different names: in Catalonia - Catalan, in Valencia - Valencian

It is believed that the formation of an independent Catalan language began in the 9th century, during the Reconquista. The first monuments of the Catalan language date back to this century. The language originated from Vulgar Latin in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. In the late Middle Ages, Catalan was a literary language and had prestige. Although Occitan remained the language of poetry in Catalonia until the 15th century, Catalan - the first of the Romance languages ​​- opened up such areas as philosophy and science.

After the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon to Isabella I of Castile in 1469, the Catalan nobility began to switch to the Castilian (Spanish) language, which led to a constant narrowing of the scope of the Catalan language and the formation of a situation of diglossia that is still observed today. The repressive language policy of the Bourbons in the 18th century had a very negative impact; its reason was that the Catalans fought on the side of the Habsburgs in the War of the Spanish Succession.

TO early XIX century, the Catalan language was finally forced out of most areas of use. However, its position was more favorable than, for example, the Galician language. Although the political and social elite (nobility, writers) stopped using the language during the decline of the language (XVI-XIX centuries), it was spoken by the common people and the clergy, which allowed the language to maintain a certain social prestige. In the first half of the 19th century, a resistance movement began to form, the so-called Renaissance (Renaixenza). At first it did not go beyond the bounds of a literary movement, but over the course of the century it acquired political and national features. The first victories in language policy date back to the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1930s, Catalan even received the status of a second official language in Catalonia. But the success did not last long. After Franco's victory in Civil War(1936--1939) the use of the Catalan language was prohibited [source not specified 476 days]. The legislation of Francoist Spain provided for criminal liability for its use. This situation continued until the end of Franco's dictatorship in 1975. The democratization of Spain led to greater autonomy in certain areas, and in 1979 Catalan again received official status.

Writing

The Latin alphabet is used as the graphic basis of Catalan-Valencian-Balearic adding a number of special letters and digraphs. Further periodization is developed only for literary written language. It distinguishes the early period - from the 9th to the 15th centuries; middle - from the 16th to the 19th centuries; and the newest - from the 19th to the present day.

Phonological information

Seven vowel phonemes can be in stressed position: front-lingual and, e open, e closed, a, y, o open and o closed. In unstressed position, the vocalization system varies depending on the dialect. In the central dialect it includes i, u, ?. IN Western dialects-- a, e, o, u, i.

Basic syllable types: V, VC, VCC, CV, CVC, CVCC, CCVC.

Catalan is understood by approximately 10 million people in Spain (Catalonia, Valencia), the Balearic Islands, the south of France, Italy (Sardinia) and Andorra. The area where the Catalan language is spoken is called Paisos Catalans (Catalan countries). Approximately 7.7 million speakers actively use the language, and 4.4 million call Catalan their main language of communication. There are Eastern Catalan and Western Catalan dialects. The east of Catalonia, the south of Catalan-speaking France, the Balearic Islands and Sardinia are classified as Eastern Catalan dialects. Other areas of distribution of the Catalan language are classified as Western Catalan dialects. The main criterion for this division into dialects is the pronunciation of unstressed o, e and a. In Western Catalan these sounds are pronounced in the same way as they are rendered in writing, while in Eastern Catalan dialects o, e and a in unstressed positions are pronounced like weak English.

Anthropological characteristics

The anthropological type of Catalans is Mediterranean, they have long faces, long, straight or hooked noses, dark hair and dark skin predominate, but there are also light ones.

1. CONCEPT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is a field of knowledge, the subject of study of which is a person. It is typical for the present time ambiguous understanding of the content anthropology: 1) as a general science about man, combining knowledge of various natural sciences and humanities; 2) as a science that studies human biological diversity. Biological anthropology itself deals with the study of historical and geographical aspects of variability biological properties human (anthropological characteristics).

Subject studying biological(or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. Task biological anthropology - identification and scientific description of variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological characteristics and systems of these (anthropological) characteristics, as well as identification of the reasons that determine this diversity.

Levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical anthropology has several main sections - areas of study of human biology. With a large degree of convention, we can talk about the existence of anthropology historical(studies the history and prehistory of human diversity) and geographic anthropology (studies the geographic variability of humans).

Physical anthropology took shape as an independent scientific discipline in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously in the countries Western Europe and in Russia the first scientific anthropological societies were established and the first special anthropological works began to be published. Among the founders of scientific anthropology are outstanding scientists of their time: P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, ​​A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin and others.

The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and specific anthropological methods, specific terminology and the very principles of research are formed, the accumulation and systematization of materials concerning issues of origin, ethnic history, and racial diversity of humans as a biological species take place.

Russian anthropological science already by the beginning of the 20th century. represented independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to human research.

2. ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the “birth” of anthropology in Russia is considered to be 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanova(1834-1896) the Anthropological Department of the Society of Lovers of Natural History was organized (later renamed the Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography - OLEAE). Origins Anthropological research in Russia is associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th-19th centuries.

One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, founder of modern embryology, outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792-1876) is also known as one of the largest anthropologists of his time, as the organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822), he develops a view of the origin of humanity from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their resettlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their habitat areas.

The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much with his work in this area as with his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other areas of the South Pacific.

Development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. XIX century called the "Bogdanov period". Moscow University professor A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural History Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural historical knowledge. The program of work of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a comprehensive science about the physical type of man and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

The first major work by D. Anuchin (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic monkeys and represented a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. Characteristic feature All of D. Anuchin’s activities were aimed at popularizing science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the “Soviet period” of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF DISCIPLINE "ANTHROPOLOGY"

common goal Anthropology can be formulated as the study of the origin and historical existence of man.

Anthropological knowledge is, of course, necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They allow you to deepen your knowledge about biological essence man and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish man from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of its existence, etc.

The task of the discipline- trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; study the polymorphism of human types due to gender, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions habitats, etc.; to trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in the conditions of a specific cultural system.

Upon completion of the course, students must master the basic concepts of anthropology, understand its place in the system of sciences and practice; study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the interrelation and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; know the basics of constitutional and developmental anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; master the concepts of raceogenesis, ethnogenesis and know the genetic problems of modern human populations; know the basic needs, interests and values ​​of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the “person - personality - individuality” system in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors must be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology- This biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The diversity of a person in time and space consists of the manifestations of a large number of very different traits and characteristics. Anthropological sign- this is any feature that has a specific state (variant), which reveals similarities or differences between individuals.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of traits; morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual - population level.

Objectives of physical anthropology - scientific description biological diversity modern man and interpretation of the reasons for this diversity.

Research methods:

A) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

V) demographic (relationship of demography with population genetics);

G) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

d) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

e) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and family);

and) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all branches of anthropology).

Anthropology studies the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological characteristics). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the range of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it clearly belongs to the field of biology.

Also, historically, physical anthropology has been divided into three relatively independent areas of research:

- anthropogenesis(from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is human morphology viewed over time measured on a geological scale;

- race studies And ethnic anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. Essentially, this is the same morphology, but considered on a scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by humans;

- actual morphology, studying variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5. POPULATION AND ITS TYPES

Under population(literally - population) is understood as an isolated collection of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species, inhabiting a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group, over a large number of generations, turns out to be isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

Basic population criteria- This:

Unity of habitat or geographical location (area);

Unity of origin of the group;

The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);

Free crossing within the group and adherence to the principle of panmixia, i.e., equal probability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for self-reproduction of the group.

All of the above biological definitions are equally valid for humans. But since anthropology has a dual focus - biological and historical, two important consequences can be drawn from the presented formulations:

The biological consequence: individuals belonging to a population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity to each other than to individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and territory occupied, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

The corollary is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of an individual human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still undeveloped hierarchical structure, subdividing into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time being part of larger population systems (including ethno-territorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .

6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES

Anthropogenesis(from Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origins of man and the process of his development.

A set of approaches to studying the past of humanity includes:

1) biological sciences:

Human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

Primatology - paleontology of primates;

Paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

General biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

Taphonomy (the science of burial of fossil remains);

Dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) Social sciencies:

Archeology - Paleolithic archeology, archeology of later times;

Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;

Psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two - theories of evolutionism(arising from the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism(derived from the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions have been raging between proponents of these two different theories in biology and natural science.

According to evolutionary theory man descended from the monkey. The place of man in the order of modern primates is as follows:

1) suborder of prosimians: sections lemuromorphic, lorimorphic, tarsimorphic;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

A) section of broad-nosed monkeys: family of marmosets and capuchins;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

Superfamily Cercopithecoidae, family Marmosetaceae (inferior narrow-nosed): subfamily of Marmosetaceae and slender-bodied;

Superfamily hominoids (higher narrow-nosed):

Family of gibbons (gibbons, siamangs);

Pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest relatives of humans;

Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.

7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1

Currently, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: Dryopithecus - Ramapithecus - Australopithecus - Homo habilis - Homo erectus - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropus) - Neoanthropus (this is already a modern type of man, homo sapiens).

Dryopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and died out about 8 million years ago, lived in tropical forests. These are early apes, which probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and ate their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapithecus(Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). It is believed that Ramapithecus appeared 14 million years ago and went extinct about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from jaw fragments found in the Siwalik Mountains in India. It is not yet possible to establish whether these creatures were upright.

Australopithecus, who inhabited Africa 1.5-5.5 million years ago, were a link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecines did not have such natural defenses as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and were inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as weapons for defense and attack allowed Australopithecines to defend themselves from enemies.

In the 60-70s. XX century in Africa, the remains of creatures were discovered whose cranial cavity volume was 650 cm 3 (significantly less than that of a human). The most primitive pebble tools were discovered in the immediate vicinity of the discovery site. Scientists suggested that this creature could be classified as a member of the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - skillful person emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found, dating back to 2-1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired significant similarities with Homo erectus.

One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or homo erectus(Homo erectus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed approximately from 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The most ancient people have similar characteristics: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, a low sloping forehead has a supraorbital ridge, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies between 800-1400 cm 3 . Along with obtaining plant food, Pithecanthropus engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in their places of life of bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffalo.

8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2

The most ancient people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals(at the place of their first discovery in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).

Neanderthals lived during the Ice Age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of glaciated Europe testifies to their significant progress in comparison with the most ancient people: ancient people knew how to not only maintain, but also make fire, they already had speech, the volume of their brain is equal to the volume of the brain of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in shape and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.

The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: caring for the wounded or sick. Burials are found for the first time among Neanderthals.

Collective actions already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality among children and adults, and better overcome difficult living conditions won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals became increasingly stronger.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), replaced the ancient people, happened relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed the entire complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries also have.

9. EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

An important and still unresolved question in science is the reconciliation of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to reconcile the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living things and further through the gradual development of the simplest single-celled organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into man, in whom there is not only biological but also spiritual life, with the second law of thermodynamics, which Is it so universal in nature that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), operating in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The simultaneous existence of universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is resolved by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite sufficient to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious fact that the influx of thermal energy into open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of large amounts of thermal solar energy into the earth’s biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build, organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the earth’s biosphere, and about such a global, complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work for the spontaneous emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms that are still unknown to science.

10. PREREQUISITES OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM

Among the basic premises of the doctrine evolutionism the following are available:

1) hypothesis about universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of living things in non-living things. - Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. - Nothing confirmed;

4) single-celled organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;

5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the “general law of evolution”;

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted over very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). - Very controversial;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of rows of fossils.

Relevant counter-presuppositions of the doctrine creationism are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent explanation that does not contradict the facts:

1) the entire Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created, according to a reasonable plan, both unicellular and multicellular organisms and, in general, all types of organisms of flora and fauna, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings happened once, since they can then reproduce themselves;

4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted within short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in ideological premises: what underlies life - an intelligent plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.

11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS

Under general The constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” property of reacting in a certain way to environmental influences, without disturbing the connection between the individual characteristics of the organism as a whole. This is a quality characteristic of all individual characteristics subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

Under private constitution refers to individual morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (external appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, that is, they are characterized by functional unity. This complex should include:

Morphological characteristics of the body (physique);

Physiological indicators;

Mental properties of personality.

In anthropology, particular morphological constitutions are most developed.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manouvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Shtefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Chtetsov, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

Functional diagrams in which Special attention assigned to the functional state of the body.

12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAK

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most later classifications. The types he identifies under other names can be recognized in many diagrams, even if the principles of their construction differ. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), picnic and athletic.

Similar, but without many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from E. Kretschmer’s scheme is its strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The diagram is built according to two coordinates of the physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of muscle development. Additional features are the shapes chest, abdominal area and back. V. Bunak’s scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the characteristics of the main types. They were identified by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the expression of the features underlying the scheme is not entirely clear and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author identified two more body types as undefined, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME OF V. DERYABIN

Having analyzed the entire range of available constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than were considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of ​​what body types there are. Based on this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those characteristics or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of constitutional schemes we have examined;

The a posteriori approach does not involve a simple imposition of a scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of a fixed scale of variability, taking into account its patterns. With this approach, theoretically, objective patterns of morphofunctional connections and correlation of traits will be better taken into account. The subjectivity of the typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60 years, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

The first axis describes the variability of overall body size (overall skeletal dimensions) along the macro- and microsomia coordinate. One pole of it is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the shape of the musculoskeletal system) and has a variation from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscle component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (inverse ratio of components);

The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposis (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposis (strong fat deposition). The “constitutional space” is open on all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical use carried out by calculating 6-7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12-13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. Based on these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is determined.

14. ONTOGENESIS

Ontogenesis(from Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or life cycle- one of the key biological concepts. This is life before and after birth, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should in no case be represented as a simple increase in size. Human biological development is a complex morphogenetic event; it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, the formation of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four large stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;

3) cell determination and differentiation; Deterministic cells are those that have “chosen” a program for further development. During this development, cells specialize to perform certain functions, that is, they differentiate into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of the mentioned processes is the formation of cellular systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to changes in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, the whole organism. Even if obvious quantitative changes (growth itself) are not observed, qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. The transformations occurring in the process of ontogenesis are associated with the “emergence” of all types of variability in human biological characteristics, including those discussed earlier.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.

15. FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

Human ontogenetic development can be characterized by a number of general features:

Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not infinite; it follows a so-called limited type. The final values ​​of each trait are determined genetically, that is, there is a reaction norm;

Graduality and irreversibility; The continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those structural features that were already evident at previous stages;

Cyclicality; Although ontogenesis is a continuous process, the pace of development (the rate of changes in characteristics) can vary significantly over time. A person has periods of growth activation and inhibition. There is a cyclicity associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight in the fall), as well as a daily cycle and a number of others;

Heterochrony, or multitemporality (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different body systems and different traits within the same system. Naturally, in the first stages of ontogenesis the most important, vital systems mature;

Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take developmental processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is maintained by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the genetic control itself, implemented at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

Sexual dimorphism is the most striking characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Let us remind you once again that the differences caused by the “gender factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice neutralizes the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogenesis is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of ontogenetic development of an individual person is unique.

16. STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The process of ontogenetic development is logically divided into two stages:

The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment of formation of the zygote as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

Postnatal development - earthly life person from birth to death.

The maximum increase in body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21-25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4-5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5-8 years of age, a weak half-growth leap is sometimes observed. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13-15 years in boys, a clearly expressed acceleration of growth is observed - a growth spurt: the rate of body length growth is about 8-10 cm per year in boys and 7-9 cm per year in girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.

The maximum rate of fetal growth is characteristic of the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is observed more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development are the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of “regionalization” and histogenesis (cell differentiation with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to differential cell growth and cell migrations, parts of the body acquire certain outlines, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - continues actively until adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are visible already at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the rate of fetal growth slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - at a time when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, mechanisms of growth retardation contribute to a successful birth, but this does not always happen. The weight and body size of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother’s body.

Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the rate of body length growth increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16-17 years and in boys aged 18-19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years of age, a decrease in body length occurs.

17. PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS

The oldest periodizations of ontogenesis go back to antiquity:

Pythagoras(VI century BC) identified four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20-40 years), autumn (40-60 years) and winter (60-80 years). These periods correspond to formation, youth, the prime of life and its decline. Hippocrates(V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century V. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:

The younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years old) and children (6-15 years old);

Blooming generation - young (16-30 years old), mature (30-45 years old) and elderly (45-60 years old);

The fading generation is old (61-75 years old) and long-lived (75-100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by a German physiologist M. Rubner(1854-1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:

Infancy (birth to 9 months);

Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);

Late childhood (from 8 to 13-14 years);

Adolescence (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);

Maturity (41-50 years old);

Old age (50-70 years);

Honorable old age (over 70 years old).

In pedagogy, the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-pre-adolescence is often used. school age(1-3 years), preschool age(3-7 years), junior school age (from 7 to 11-12 years), middle school age (up to 15 years) and senior school age (up to 17-18 years). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Guyer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.

The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epochal changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

At least over the last century and a half, up to the last 2-4 decades, a process of epochal acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation became larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and extended to many populations of modern humans (although not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes were surprisingly similar for completely different groups population.

From about the second half of the 20th century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deceleration).

18. DECISION

Under the term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological characteristics (racial characteristics). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a specific geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the very characteristics by which racial classification is carried out.

Classic racial signs include appearance features - color and shape of eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, overall facial structure, head shape. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial characteristics. Signs of body structure are used as auxiliary signs - height, weight, build, proportions. However, the characteristics of the body structure are much more variable within any group than the characteristics of the head structure and, in addition, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial studies as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial characteristics:

Signs of physical structure;

Traits that are inherited;

Traits, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;

Signs associated with a specific habitat - distribution zone;

Signs that distinguish one territorial group person from another.

The unification of people on the basis of common self-awareness, self-determination is called ethnic group(ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

When determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. Higher level social organization called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.

A nation unites people absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.

19. RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS

There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the underlying characteristics. Various racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:

Created based on a limited set of features;

Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.

Many of the early systems belong to the first version of classifications. These are the schemes of: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races based on skin color;

P. Topinard (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;

A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in a combination of chronological characteristics. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, the small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. In this case, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can come together randomly.

The second type of classification includes most racial schemes. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical location of the races. First, the main ones are identified (the so-called large races, or races of the first order), occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to different morphological characteristics, small races (or second-order races) are distinguished. Sometimes races of smaller levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called an anthropological type).

Existing open racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes identifying a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes highlighting a large number of basic types.

In group 1 schemes, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in group 2 schemes their number is 6-8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems several options are always repeated, and the increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

Almost all schemes necessarily highlight at least three general groups(three large races): Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20. EQUATORIAL LARGE RACE

The equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin color, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low middle bridge, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large mouth slit, and thick lips. Before the era of European colonization, the habitat of representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high nose bridge, average cheekbone diameter, above average and tall height;

2) Veddoid: poor hair development, less wide nose, smaller head and face, shorter height;

3) Melanesian (including Negrito types), unlike the previous two, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in terms of the abundant development of tertiary hair and strongly protruding brow ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in its composition the Melanesian race is much more variegated than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Veddoid races (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) by very pronounced curly hair; It differs from the Melanesian in its thicker lips, lower bridge of the nose and flatter bridge of the nose, slightly higher eye orbits, slightly protruding sub-brow ridges and, in general, higher stature;

5) the Negrillian (Central African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in its very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of tertiary hair, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) The Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, a narrower nose, a flatter face, a very flattened bridge of the nose, small face size and steatopygia (deposition of fat in the buttock region).

21. EURASIAN GREAT RACE

The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by light or dark skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant growth of a beard and mustache, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, a high bridge of the nose, a sagittal arrangement of the nostrils, a small oral slit, and thin lips.

Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, Northern India. The Caucasoid race is divided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: fair skin, blond hair and eyes, long nose, tall height;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, slightly shorter height;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloring of hair and eyes, dark skin, wavy hair, an even longer nose than in previous races, a slightly more convex bridge of the nose, a very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, convex nose, very abundant development of tertiary hair, relatively short and very wide face, tall;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and average height.

22. ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) large race is distinguished by dark or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, weak or very weak beard and mustache growth, average width of the nose, low or medium-height nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in American ones, average thickness of lips, flattened face, strong protrusion of cheekbones, large face size, presence of epicanthus.

The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is divided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and very flattened face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, weak beard growth, low nose bridge, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - with variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian race in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, lower frequency of epicanthus, slightly smaller zygomatic width, narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, high bridge of the nose and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) The Far Eastern race, compared to the North Asian race, is characterized by coarser hair, darker skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. It is characterized by a large skull height but a small face;

4) The South Asian race is characterized by an even more pronounced expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian race - greater dark skin, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and shorter stature;

5) The American race, varying greatly in many characteristics, is generally closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. Thus, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by large facial dimensions and noticeably less flattening.

23. INTERMEDIATE RACES

Races intermediate between the three great races:

- Ethiopian (East African) the race occupies a middle position between the Equatorial and Eurasian great races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is often curly, but less spirally curled than that of blacks. Beard growth is weak or average, lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. Thus, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, height is above average, and an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

- South Indian The (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but is distinguished by straighter hair and somewhat shorter stature; the face is a little smaller and a little wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate place between the Veddoid and Indo-Mediterranean races;

- Ural the race, in many respects, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; A concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;

- South Siberian The (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American great races. The percentage of mixed races is significant. However, with the general mild expression of Mongolian features, very large facial dimensions are observed in this race, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose and medium-thick lips are characteristic;

- Polynesian race, according to many systematic characteristics, occupies a neutral position; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hair, a moderately protruding nose, and somewhat thicker lips than those of Europeans; rather prominent cheekbones; very tall, large face size, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, significantly smaller than that of blacks and larger than that of Europeans; Kuril The (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the larger races are more clearly expressed in it. In terms of very strong hair development, it ranks one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, shallow depth of the canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; short stature.

24. HEREDITY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is the source of human diversity because it was it that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

The external variability of a person is a product of society: sexual and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to “birth”, “property” or “ability”.

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the “program” of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments in its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in teaching practice. They boil down to statements like: A) genes determine phenotype; b) genes determine the limiting capabilities and V) genes determine predispositions.

It is erroneous to say that genes determine phenotype i.e. that the genotype can accurately determine the phenotype of an organism. It is upbringing, the place and nature of work, and social experience that determine differences in phenotypes. It is also wrong to say that genes determine the maximum capabilities of a person(organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of “empty cells”: the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can only act as “depleted” or “enriched” from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.

The provision that genotypes determine an organism's predispositions(personality), is also quite erroneous. The idea of ​​a predisposition (for example, to be fat or thin) assumes that a tendency occurs under normal conditions. In relation to humans, “normal environmental conditions” look extremely vague, and even average values ​​for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25. THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.

Under physiological division refers to the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by gender and age. The expressions “women’s work” and “men’s work” speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of “child labor” (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

Technological the division of labor is by its nature infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate component parts due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing the product.

Division of human labor means the division of labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Mental labor (technology development, education, advanced training of workers and their upbringing) is an increasingly expanding area.

Public division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between social groups of society. To which group and how does this or that life “share” fall in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

Term "the main division of labor" first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic through labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the strength, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, comes into the sphere of possession, disposal and use of private individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of ownership of the past labor of the entire society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the ability to do it also acts as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26. SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

The initial basic need of a person, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety- the next most important basic human need. Here is concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is also a lack of anxiety for personal safety, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into system” the world and determine our place in it.

Need to belong(to one or another community), involvement and attachment is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This includes love, sympathy, friendship, and other forms of strictly human communication, personal intimacy; this is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, and victory. The need for affection and belonging is the flip side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of dissatisfaction with this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, and uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication (belonging, involvement, affection) is very important for a fulfilling life.

Need for esteem and self-esteem- another basic human need. A person needs to be valued - for skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., so that his achievements, successes, and merits are seen and recognized. Here considerations of prestige, reputation, and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is not yet enough - it is important to respect yourself, have self-esteem, believe in your uniqueness, indispensability, and feel that you are busy with necessary and useful work. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of dissatisfaction with this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization- the last, final, according to A. Maslow, basic human need. However, it is final only according to classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become everything that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. A person’s work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the need in question.

27. SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS

In the very wide context, a synonym for the word “culture” is “civilization”. IN narrow In the sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, this is a characteristic way of life, thought, action, system of values ​​and norms for a given society, person. Culture unites people into integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and impulses that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented or established, but arise gradually from Everyday life and social practices of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value development of reality. Active activity of a person and a society to satisfy their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities; without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in mentality.

The fundamental basis of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with the help of which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture preserves only what corresponds to its logic and mentality. National culture always strives to impart a national flavor to new cultural acquisitions - both its own and those of others. Culture actively resists elements alien to it. Relatively painlessly updating peripheral, secondary elements, culture exhibits a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This is what explains the diversity of national cultures and national identity.

28. CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY

The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society one can distinguish high culture (elite) and folk culture (folklore). Development of funds mass media led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in semantic and artistic terms, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, can displace both high and folk culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of a society’s culture, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, and Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, owning things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, avoidance real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture There is also a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values ​​of national culture are being supplanted or replaced by examples of mass culture, focused on achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and simplified perception.

Many Russians, and especially young people, are characterized by a lack of ethnocultural or national self-identification; they cease to perceive themselves as Russians and lose their Russianness. The socialization of youth takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of Westernized values ​​into the youth environment.

29. SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, working with various social, gender, age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

In the context of changes in many ideas about the nature of social assistance to the population, greater demands began to be placed both on the content of social work practice and on the training of professional workers for social sphere. Great importance acquire knowledge in those areas that allow a specialist to consider the content of social work through its functions.

A social worker needs knowledge of integrative socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical areas, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, social work. This includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation sciences and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationships with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to probabilistic laws of development, requires an integrated approach when studying and analyzing all spheres of human life.

Training specialists in the field of social work is impossible without a broad social education, correct prioritization of universal human values, scientific substantiation of the concept of social work, taking into account the relationship between the biological and the social in a person, without scientific understanding and assessment of the nature of socialization, the study of its components, the structure and connections of the entire system.

30. BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized into a phenotype under the influence and interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of body features and other characteristics that we have considered. Each person has a unique composition of biologically active substances and compounds - proteins, hormones, percentage which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds cyclicality. In terms of the scale of variability, it is biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of a person’s biochemical status and the role of this special aspect of variability in the vital processes of the body under normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem largely owes to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences and even mood.

Based on data from numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:

The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types in humans is substantiated (the relatively small number of encountered models of the endocrine formula compared to their possible number);

The types of endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

These options are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.

31. MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO E. KRETCHMER

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a rounded figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.

The exact opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow, thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal imbalances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy extreme position in this row. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another “edge” are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic character traits or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymic. They seem to display in a hidden and smoothed form the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, and cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, exhibit the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizothymics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizotimics are uncommunicative, withdrawn, and self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to internal experiences. People with an athletic constitution are ixothymic; they are leisurely, calm, not very eager to communicate, but do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average standard of health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: using clinic orderlies as the “norm” absolutely does not reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) connections between mental characteristics and body features were not found.

32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON

Quite strict connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was performed at a different methodological level and deserves greater confidence. When describing temperament, the author did not use a discrete type, but components, just as was done in his constitutional system: 50 traits were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he identified three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 traits . Each characteristic was assessed on a seven-point scale, and GPA the entire component was determined by 12 criteria (the analogy with the constitutional system is obvious here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia. Having examined 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and “mental” signs showed a weak relationship, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with a viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and, in many ways, psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a tendency to adventure. Although sufficiently sociable, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant connection between somatotonic temperament and mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the trend towards decreased sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is characterized by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and constraint in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33. CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES

Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.

Morphological traits are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has probably been studied the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with a hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the mode of inheritance of most of these traits is not precisely known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional characteristics, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie food, but the tendency of this connection between the level of nutrition and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a pattern. But the availability of food and genetics are two different things.

Physiological the characters are apparently somewhat less determined genetically than morphologically. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them in general. Obviously, some of them are inherited using a single gene, while others are characterized by polygenic inheritance. Some depend little on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, for example, heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the heredity factor will rather play the role of a determining probabilistic force. Using the example of heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to rapid heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. Another person under these conditions will be less prone to heart palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

Base neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;

- psychodynamic level - properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broad sense of the word);

- actually psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, etc. - depends to the greatest extent on upbringing, living conditions, and the attitude of the people around him towards a person.

34. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development means “a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength.”

P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional, although applicable in practice, concept. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - i.e., characteristics that determine the “structural and mechanical properties” of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Broca's index and Pignier index), as well as weight-height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the "ideal" weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to a certain idea of the ideal ratio of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to length bodies minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas only work for some people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been used. Standards for physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and regularly updated.

Assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account biological age, etc.

By assessing a complex of constitutional characteristics, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is not and cannot be a direct “fatal” relationship between body type and a certain disease.

35. ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE

To date, accumulated big number information on the frequency of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

Thus, people of asthenic build have a tendency to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low reserve of physical strength,” but most likely it is simply due to less thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more susceptible to digestive system disorders - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, a greater risk of neuroses and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic one, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, and myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of cancer.

The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less studied. It is possible that muscular people are more susceptible to stress and related illnesses.

A significant conclusion from studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about “bad” or “good” variants. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only under certain environmental conditions. Thus, the likelihood of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than in an asthenic person in New Guinea. And an asthenic person working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic person working as a school teacher. An asthenic person will feel much better at the forge of a steelworks or in a greenhouse than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic person and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show better results in sports or working as a loader.

36. TARDE'S THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by an individual) of values ​​and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is a principle that forms the basis of the socialization process, and it is based both on physiological needs and the resulting desires of people, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Typical social attitude Tarde recognized the teacher-student relationship. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most general personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities regulated by the role structure of society. Education social roles occurs in the form of imitation. General values ​​and norms are acquired by the individual in the process of communication with “significant others,” as a result of which normative standards become part of the structure of the individual’s needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of social system. A socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values ​​and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by S. Freud, brought into action through reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (repression) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the student are based on feelings of love and respect (for the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the teacher’s purposeful influence on the child being educated, aimed at developing the desired traits in him.

37. LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically tested, as evidenced by I. Cohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The pre-moral level is characteristic of relationships between children and parents, based on the external dyad “suffering - pleasure”, the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; The moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg suggests distinguishing seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of an individual’s own moral system. Many people do not reach the moral level in their development. In this regard, the term “moral pragmatism” appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people’s business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of “situational morality”, the motto of which is: “What is moral is what is useful in a given situation.”

In childhood, a child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, and authorities (“significant others”) play a big role.

The teenager already feels his own individuality, as a result of which he strives to “be like everyone else, but better than everyone else.” The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, and the desire to stand out in the group, not differing in principle from everyone else. The teenager is very normative, but in his own environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire to “be different from everyone else.” A clear scale of values ​​emerges that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at any cost often leads to nonconformism, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their line of behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, and forms its own subculture, language, tastes, and fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity, is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through a role structure and a value system verified by culture. What becomes significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - loved ones, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38. THEORY OF VIOLENCE

The focus of theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. Let us note at least four areas of research and explanations of human aggressiveness:

- ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) They explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of an individual's freedom without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called “lawlessness” - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;

- Freudianism, neo-Freudianism and existentialism argue that human aggressiveness is the result of frustration of an alienated personality. Aggression is caused by social reasons (Freudianism removes it from the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

- interactionism sees the reason for people’s aggressiveness in a “conflict of interest”, incompatibility of goals;

Representatives cognitivism They believe that a person’s aggressiveness is the result of “cognitive dissonance,” i.e., a discrepancy in the subject’s cognitive sphere. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggressiveness, or more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, human genetics tries to explain in its own way.

39. DEVIANT AND DELIQUENT BEHAVIOR

There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general normative requirements. When a person violates norms, rules of behavior, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant(deviant) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent(criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations vary greatly: from omissions school activities(deviant behavior), to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, it means that he committed serious violation. Some actions are considered offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusing to drink alcohol in certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of accepted norms of behavior.

The seriousness of an offense depends not only on the significance of the norm violated, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student leaves the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought before the police can be forgiven for even a serious violation of the law, while a person who already has a criminal record faces severe punishment for a minor offense.

In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually study the category of offenders who break the law because they pose a threat to society. The more burglaries there are, the more people fear for their property; the more murders there are, the more we fear for our lives.

40. E. DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF ANOMY

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes involving conscious choice.

The theory of anomie (disregulation) occupies an important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior. E. Durkheim, exploring the causes of suicide, considered the main reason to be a phenomenon he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms guide their behavior; people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes life experience doesn't help much. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his basic idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is considered generally accepted.

Rise social disorganization not necessarily related to the economic crisis or inflation. It can also be observed when high level migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Note that crime rates are always higher where there is high population migration. The theory of anomie was developed in the work of other sociologists. In particular, ideas were formulated about “social hoops,” i.e., the level of social (sedentism) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41. THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Structural tension theory explains many offenses by personal disappointment. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel inferior and may use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of ​​social investment is simple and to a certain extent related to the theory of tension. The more effort a person has spent to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work and much more), the more he risks losing if he breaks the laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degenerate people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, he usually steals huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. Such conformity helps maintain appreciation and respect for us and protects our reputation.

Stigma or labeling theory-

this is the ability of influential groups in society to label certain social or national groups as deviants: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled as a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Proponents of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows a person to be labeled a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42. CONTROL IN SOCIETY

Any society, for the purpose of self-preservation, establishes certain norms, rules of behavior and appropriate control over their implementation.

There are three main forms of control possible:

Isolation - excommunication from society for hardened criminals, up to and including the death penalty;

Isolation - restriction of contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, psychiatric hospital;

Rehabilitation - preparation for returning to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile offenders. Control can be formal or informal.

System formal control- organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees rigidity: tax inspectorate and tax police, police and riot police, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal laws, etc.

Informal control- this is unofficial social pressure from others, the press. Punishment through criticism and ostracism is possible; threat of physical harm.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that require each person to fulfill the requirements and responsibilities necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled primarily through socialization in such a way that they perform most their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, for social control, rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups. A system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of conduct is being formed on a society-wide scale, and group control is being applied. government agencies management on behalf of the entire society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the laws, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality; norms-rules are regulated by laws and law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. A norm-expectation can turn into a norm-rule, and vice versa.

ETHNIC ANTHROPOLOGY (racial studies) is a scientific discipline formed at the intersection of ethnography (ethnology) and anthropology, dealing mainly with the study problems of the origin of ethnic groups, the history of formation and specifics of biological variability of ethno-territorial human groups, and their genetic relationships.

· ANTHROPOLOGY (from ancient Greek. anthropos- a person, and logos– mind, knowledge) – the science of the origin and evolution of man.

· ETHNOGRAPHY (from ancient Greek. etnos- tribe, people and grapo- writing; letters – folk description) - A descriptive study of an ethnic group or, more broadly, a group of people considered from the point of view of its cultural and behavioral characteristics.

Ethnic anthropology is usually understood as description anthropological features ethnic groups . In many cases, anthropological data contain important (and sometimes decisive) information about the ways of formation of a particular ethnic group - about ethnogenesis. Ethnicity is determined by:
* self-awareness,
* tongue,
* self-name and
* some behavioral characteristics.

Anthropological signs play a certain role in ethnic divisions. They are indicators that distinguish one ethnic group from another.

Object of study of ethnic anthropology - areal communities of people (populations) that differ according to racial characteristics. Ethnic anthropology is closely related to genogeography, since characteristics with well-studied heredity often serve as marks (markers) reflecting the history of the formation, settlement and cross-breeding of populations and the races that have developed on their basis. The external similarity of many hereditary physical characteristics in different individuals or entire groups of people serves as direct evidence of their common origin, or genetic relationship.

The main anthropological characteristics of ethnic groups are characteristics that are unconsciously recognized by the ethnic group itself.:

1) features body structure– skeleton and soft parts:
a) body proportions - the ratio of the length of the limbs and the length of the body, the width of the shoulders and pelvis;
b) head parameters – ratio of head width to length;

2) eye color(color of the iris: dark - black, brown, yellow; mixed colors - yellow-green, green, gray; light: light gray, blue, blue);

3) color of the skin(from pale pink to dark brown and almost black);

4) type of face, nose and lips;

5) hair type: tertiary hairline (beard and mustache for a man: from 1 to 5 points) + hair density + skin surface area that it occupies;

6) hair shape: rigidity and tortuosity (straight, wide-wavy, narrow-wavy, curly of varying degrees);

7) hair color(black, dark brown, light brown, blond, red);

8) height.

Anthropological data play an important role in determining those ethnic elements from which a given people was formed. If the mass of the population, almost homogeneous in anthropological composition, is divided into ethnic groups speaking different languages, then their genetic commonality should be sought in the historical past of these groups. However, here it is natural that the boundaries of anthropological types coincide with historical and ethnographic areas.

Anthropological characteristics of the Russian ethnos:

According to three anthropological characteristics (head width, nose width, lip thickness), Russian populations do not reliably differ from Western European ones. In other dimensions of the head and face, they are close to the central European variant, characterized by medium size.
The Russian population is characterized by the absence of epicanthus (a special fold at the inner corner of the eye, more or less covering the lacrimal tubercle).
The incidence of a straight nose profile among Russians is 75%, which is higher than the European average (70%). The occurrence of a concave nose profile among Russians is 9%, which is close to the average values ​​for Western and Central Europe (10 %).
Relatively light pigmentation. The proportion of light (about 30%) and medium shades of hair, light shades of eyes (45-49%) is increased, the proportion of dark shades is reduced;
Average eyebrow and beard growth
Moderate face width;
The predominance of an average horizontal profile and a medium-high nose bridge;
Less slope of the forehead and weaker development of the brow.

Anthropology is a set of scientific disciplines involved in the study of man, his origin, development, existence in the natural (natural) and cultural (artificial) environments.

In short, the subject of anthropology is man.

1) as a general science about man, combining knowledge of various natural sciences and humanities;

2) as a science that studies human biological diversity.

Soviet anthropology, according to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, consisted of the following main sections: human morphology, the doctrine of anthropogenesis and racial studies.

Human morphology is divided into somatology and merology. Somatology studies patterns of individual variability human body in general, sexual dimorphism in body structure, age-related changes in size and proportions from the embryonic period to old age, the influence of various biological and social conditions on the structure of the body, the constitution of a person. This section is most closely related to medicine and is essential for establishing standards for physical development and growth rates, for gerontology, etc.

Merology studies variations in individual parts of an organism. Comparative anatomical studies, part of merology, are devoted to elucidating the similarities and differences of each organ of the body and each organ system of humans in comparison with other vertebrates, mainly mammals and most importantly primates. As a result of these studies, the family ties of man with other creatures and his place in the animal world are clarified. Paleoanthropology studies the bone remains of fossil humans and close relatives of humans - higher primates. Comparative anatomy and paleoanthropology, as well as embryology, serve to clarify the problem of the origin of man and his evolution, as a result of which they are included in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, which is closely connected with philosophy, as well as with Paleolithic archeology, Pleistocene geology, higher physiology nervous activity humans and primates, psychology and zoopsychology, etc. This section of Anthropology examines such issues as the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relationship as a zoological species to other primates, the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates took place, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, identifying stages in the process of human evolution, studying the conditions and reasons for the formation of a modern type of man.

Racial studies - the branch of Anthropology that studies human races, is sometimes not quite accurately called “ethnic” Anthropology; the latter refers, strictly speaking, only to the study racial composition individual ethnic groups, i.e. tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities. Racial studies, in addition to the above-mentioned problems, also studies the classification of races, the history of their formation and such factors of their occurrence as selective processes, isolation, mixing and migration, influence climatic conditions and the geographic environment in general for racial characteristics. In that part of racial research that is aimed at studying ethnogenesis, Anthropology conducts research together with linguistics, history, and archeology. When studying driving forces race formation Anthropology comes into close contact with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of speciation. The study of race in Anthropology has implications for many problems. It is important for resolving the question of the ancestral home of man modern look, the use of anthropological material as a historical source, coverage of problems of systematics, mainly small systematic units, knowledge of the laws of population genetics (See Population genetics), clarification of some issues of medical science. geography. Race studies are important in the scientific basis of the fight against racism.

Biological anthropology studies the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties - anthropological characteristics.

The subject of study of biological (or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. The task of biological anthropology is to identify and scientifically describe the variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological characteristics and systems of these (anthropological) characteristics, as well as to identify the reasons that determine this diversity.

Levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical anthropology has several main sections - areas of study of human biology. We can talk about historical anthropology, which studies the history and prehistory of human diversity, and geographical anthropology, which studies the geographic variability of humans.

History of anthropology

Physical anthropology took shape as an independent scientific discipline in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously, the first scientific anthropological societies were established in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, and the first special anthropological works began to be published. The founders of scientific anthropology are P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, ​​A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin.

The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and specific anthropological methods, specific terminology and the very principles of research are formed, the accumulation and systematization of materials concerning issues of origin, ethnic history, and racial diversity of humans as a biological species take place.

Russian anthropological science already by the beginning of the 20th century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the “birth” of anthropology in Russia is considered to be 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanov (1834–1896), the Anthropological Department of the Society of Lovers of Natural History (later renamed the Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography - OLEAE) was organized. The origins of anthropological research in Russia are associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th–19th centuries.

One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792–1876) is also known as one of the largest anthropologists of his time, as the organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. His work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822) develops the view of the origin of humanity from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of different natural conditions in their habitat areas .

The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846–1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much with his work in this area as with his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other areas of the South Pacific.

Development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. XIX century called the “Bogdanov period”. Moscow University professor A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural History Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural historical knowledge. The program of work of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a comprehensive science about the physical type of man and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

The first major work by D. Anuchin (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic monkeys and represented a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the “Soviet period” of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE OF DISCIPLINE “ANTHROPOLOGY”

The general goal of anthropology is the study of the origins and historical existence of man.

Anthropology views man as a kind of social animal, on the one hand, having strong biological roots in the past, on the other, having received, in the course of evolution, great differences from animals, associated, first of all, with the strongly expressed social character of the human psyche.

Anthropological knowledge is necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They allow us to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of man and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish man from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his existence, etc.

The task of anthropology is to trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, to assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; study the polymorphism of human types due to gender, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; to trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in the conditions of a specific cultural system.

Students must study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the interrelation and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; learn the basics of constitutional and developmental anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; master the concepts of raceogenesis, ethnogenesis and know the genetic problems of modern human populations; know the basic needs, interests and values ​​of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the “person - personality - individuality” system in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors must be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4.PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology is the biological science of the structure of the human body and the diversity of its forms.

The diversity of a person in time and space consists of the manifestations of a large number of very different traits and characteristics. An anthropological characteristic is any feature that has a specific state (variant), which reveals similarities or differences between individuals.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of traits; morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual – population level.

The objectives of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern humans and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.

Methods of anthropological research:

a) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

c) demographic (relationship of demography with population genetics);

d) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

e) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

f) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and family);

g) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all branches of anthropology).

Anthropology studies the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological characteristics). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the range of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it clearly belongs to the field of biology.

Also, historically, physical anthropology has been divided into three relatively independent areas of research:

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) is an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is human morphology viewed over time measured on a geological scale;

Race and ethnic anthropology, which studies the similarities and differences between groups of human populations of different orders. Essentially, this is the same morphology, but considered on a scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by humans;

Morphology itself, which studies variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5.POPULATION AND ITS TYPES

A population (literally, population) is understood as an isolated collection of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species, inhabiting a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group, over a large number of generations, turns out to be isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

The main population criteria are:

Unity of habitat or geographical location (area);

Unity of origin of the group;

The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);

Free crossing within the group and adherence to the principle of panmixia, i.e., equal probability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for self-reproduction of the group.

All of the above biological definitions are equally valid for humans. But since anthropology has a dual focus - biological and historical, two important consequences can be drawn from the presented formulations:

The biological consequence: individuals belonging to a population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity to each other than to individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and territory occupied, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

The corollary is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of an individual human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still undeveloped hierarchical structure, subdividing into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time being part of larger population systems (including ethno-territorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .

6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origins of man and the process of his development.

A set of approaches to studying the past of humanity includes:

1) biological sciences:

Human biology – morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

Primatology – paleontology of primates;

Paleontology – vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

General biology – embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

Geology – geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

Taphonomy (the science of burial of fossil remains);

Dating methods – decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) social sciences:

Archeology – Paleolithic archeology, archeology of later times;

Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;

Psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two – the theories of evolutionism (which arose on the basis of the theories of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism (which arose on the basis of the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions have been raging between proponents of these two different theories in biology and natural science.

According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the order of modern primates is as follows:

1) suborder of prosimians: sections lemuromorphic, lorimorphic, tarsimorphic;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

a) section of broad-nosed monkeys: family of marmosets and capuchins;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

Superfamily Cercopithecoidae, family Marmosetaceae (inferior narrow-nosed): subfamily of Marmosetaceae and slender-bodied;

Superfamily hominoids (higher narrow-nosed):

Family of gibbons (gibbons, siamangs);

Pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest relatives of humans;

Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.

7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1

Currently, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: Dryopithecus - Ramapithecus - Australopithecus - Homo habilis - Homo erectus - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropus) - Neoanthropus (this is already a modern type of man, homo sapiens).

Dryopithecus appeared 17–18 million years ago and went extinct about 8 million years ago, living in tropical forests. These are early apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and ate their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapithecus (Rama - the hero of the Indian epic). It is believed that Ramapithecus appeared 14 million years ago and went extinct about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from jaw fragments found in the Siwalik Mountains in India. It is not yet possible to establish whether these creatures were upright.

Australopithecines, which inhabited Africa 1.5–5.5 million years ago, were the link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecines did not have such natural defenses as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and were inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as weapons for defense and attack allowed Australopithecines to defend themselves from enemies.

In the 60–70s. XX century in Africa, the remains of creatures were discovered whose cranial cavity volume was 650 cm3 (significantly less than that of a human). The most primitive pebble tools were discovered in the immediate vicinity of the discovery site. Scientists suggested that this creature could be classified as a member of the genus Homo, and gave it the name Homo habilis - a skilled man, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found, dating from 2–1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired significant similarities with Homo erectus.

One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erectus, discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed from approximately 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The most ancient people have similar characteristics: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, a low sloping forehead has a supraorbital ridge, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies between 800-1400 cm3. Along with obtaining plant food, Pithecanthropus engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in their places of life of bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffalo.

8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2

The most ancient people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals (at the place of their first discovery in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).

Neanderthals lived during the Ice Age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of glaciated Europe testifies to their significant progress in comparison with the most ancient people: ancient people knew how to not only maintain, but also make fire, they already had speech, the volume of their brain is equal to the volume of the brain of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in shape and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.

The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: caring for the wounded or sick. Burials are found for the first time among Neanderthals.

Collective actions already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality among children and adults, and better overcome difficult living conditions won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals became increasingly stronger.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), who replaced ancient people, occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed the entire complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries also have.

9.EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

An important and still unresolved question in science is the reconciliation of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to reconcile the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living things and further through the gradual development of the simplest single-celled organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into man, in whom there is not only biological but also spiritual life, with the second law of thermodynamics, which Is it so universal in nature that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), operating in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The simultaneous existence of universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is resolved by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite sufficient to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious fact that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of large amounts of thermal solar energy into the earth’s biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build, organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the earth’s biosphere, and about such a global, complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work for the spontaneous emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms that are still unknown to science.

10.PREREQUISITES OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM

Among the basic premises of the doctrine of evolutionism are the following:

1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate to living matter). – Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of living things in non-living things. – Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. – Nothing confirmed;

4) single-celled organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. – Nothing confirmed;

5) there should be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the “general law of evolution”;

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted within very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). – Very controversial;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of rows of fossils.

The corresponding counter-presuppositions of the doctrine of creationism are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent and factually consistent explanation:

1) the entire Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created, according to a reasonable plan, both unicellular and multicellular organisms and, in general, all types of organisms of flora and fauna, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings occurred once, since they can then reproduce themselves;

4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted within short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in ideological premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.

11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS

The general constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” ability to respond in a certain way to environmental influences, without disturbing the connection between the individual characteristics of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all individual characteristics of a subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

The private constitution refers to individual morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (external appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, that is, they are characterized by functional unity. This complex should include:

Morphological characteristics of the body (physique);

Physiological indicators;

Mental properties of personality.

In anthropology, particular morphological constitutions are most developed.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manouvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Shtefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Chtetsov, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

Functional diagrams in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the body.

12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES OF E. KRETSCHMER AND V. BUNAKA

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most later classifications. The types he identifies under other names can be recognized in many diagrams, even if the principles of their construction differ. Obviously, this is a consequence of reflecting the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), picnic and athletic.

Similar, but without many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from E. Kretschmer’s scheme is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The diagram is built according to two coordinates of the physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of muscle development. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal area and back. V. Bunak’s scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the characteristics of the main types. They were identified by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the expression of the features underlying the scheme is not entirely clear and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author identified two more body types as undefined, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME B. DERYABINA

Having analyzed the entire range of available constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than were considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of ​​what body types there are. Based on this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those characteristics or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of constitutional schemes we have examined;

The a posteriori approach does not involve simply superimposing the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of the fixed scale of variability, taking into account its patterns. With this approach, theoretically, objective patterns of morphofunctional connections and correlation of traits will be better taken into account. The subjectivity of the typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60 years, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

The first axis describes the variability of overall body size (overall skeletal dimensions) along the macro- and microsomia coordinate. One of its poles is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the shape of the musculoskeletal system) and has a variation from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscle component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (inverse ratio of components);

The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposis (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposis (strong fat deposition). The “constitutional space” is open on all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6–7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12–13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. Based on these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is determined.

14.ONTOGENESIS

Ontogenesis (from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or life cycle is one of the key biological concepts. This is life before and after birth, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should in no case be represented as a simple increase in size. Human biological development is a complex morphogenetic event; it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, the formation of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four large stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) – an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;

3) determination and differentiation of cells; Deterministic cells are those that have “chosen” a program for further development. During this development, cells specialize to perform certain functions, that is, they differentiate into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of the mentioned processes is the formation of cellular systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to changes in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, the whole organism. Even if obvious quantitative changes (growth itself) are not observed, qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. The transformations occurring in the process of ontogenesis are associated with the “emergence” of all types of variability in human biological characteristics, including those discussed earlier.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.

15.FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

Human ontogenetic development can be characterized by a number of general features:

Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not infinite; it follows a so-called limited type. The final values ​​of each trait are determined genetically, that is, there is a reaction norm;

Graduality and irreversibility; The continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those structural features that were already evident at previous stages;

Cyclicality; Although ontogenesis is a continuous process, the pace of development (the rate of changes in characteristics) can vary significantly over time. A person has periods of growth activation and inhibition. There is a cyclicity associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight in the fall), as well as a daily cycle and a number of others;

Heterochrony, or multitemporality (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different body systems and different traits within the same system. Naturally, in the first stages of ontogenesis the most important, vital systems mature;

Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take developmental processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is maintained by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the genetic control itself, implemented at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

Sexual dimorphism is the most striking characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Let us remind you once again that the differences caused by the “gender factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice neutralizes the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogenesis is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of ontogenetic development of an individual person is unique.

16.STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

The process of ontogenetic development is logically divided into two stages:

The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment of formation of the zygote as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.

The maximum increase in body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21–25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4–5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5–8 years of age, a weak growth spurt is sometimes observed. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13–15 years in boys, a clearly pronounced acceleration of growth is observed - a growth spurt: the rate of growth in body length is about 8-10 cm per year in boys and 7-9 cm per year in girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.

The maximum rate of fetal growth is characteristic of the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is observed more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development are the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of “regionalization” and histogenesis (cell differentiation with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to differential cell growth and cell migrations, parts of the body acquire certain outlines, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - continues actively until adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are visible already at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the rate of fetal growth slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - at a time when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, mechanisms of growth retardation contribute to a successful birth, but this does not always happen. The weight and body size of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother’s body.

Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the rate of body length growth increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16–17 years and in boys aged 18–19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years of age, a decrease in body length occurs.

17.PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS

The oldest periodizations of ontogenesis go back to antiquity:

Pythagoras (VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20–40 years), autumn (40–60 years) and winter (60–80 years). These periods correspond to formation, youth, the prime of life and its decline. Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:

The younger generation – minors (from birth to 5 years old) and children (6-15 years old);

Blooming generation - young (16–30 years old), mature (30–45 years old) and elderly (45–60 years old);

The fading generation is old (61–75 years old) and long-lived (75–100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner (1854–1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:

Infancy (birth to 9 months);

Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);

Late childhood (from 8 to 13–14 years);

Adolescence (from 14–15 to 19–21 years);

Maturity (41–50 years old);

Old age (50–70 years);

Honorable old age (over 70 years old).

In pedagogy, the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-preschool age (1–3 years), preschool age (3–7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11–12 years), and middle school is often used. age (up to 15 years) and high school age (up to 17–18 years). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Guyer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.

The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epochal changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

At least over the last century and a half, up to the last 2–4 decades, a process of epochal acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation became larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This surprising trend reached significant proportions and extended to many modern human populations (though not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes were surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.

From about the second half of the 20th century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deceleration).

18.DECISION

The term “race” refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological characteristics (racial characteristics). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a specific geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the very characteristics by which racial classification is carried out.

Classic racial characteristics include appearance features - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, overall facial structure, and head shape. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial characteristics. Signs of body structure are used as auxiliary signs - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the characteristics of the body structure are much more variable within any group than the characteristics of the head structure and, in addition, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial studies as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial characteristics:

Signs of physical structure;

Traits that are inherited;

Traits, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;

Signs associated with a specific habitat - distribution zone;

Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.

A union of people based on a common identity and self-determination is called an ethnos (ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

When determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.

A nation unites people absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.

19.RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS

There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the underlying characteristics. Various racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:

Created based on a limited set of features;

Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.

Many of the early systems belong to the first version of classifications. These are the schemes of: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races based on skin color;

P. Topinard (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;

A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in a combination of chronological characteristics. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, the small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. In this case, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can come together randomly.

The second type of classification includes most racial schemes. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical location of the races. First, the main ones are identified (the so-called large races, or races of the first order), occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characteristics, and small races (or second-order races) are identified. Sometimes races of smaller levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called an anthropological type).

Existing open racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes that distinguish a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes that distinguish a large number of basic types.

In group 1 schemes, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in group 2 schemes their number is 6–8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems several options are always repeated, and the increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20.EQUATORIAL LARGE RACE

The equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin color, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low middle bridge, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large mouth slit, and thick lips. Before the era of European colonization, the habitat of representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high nose bridge, average cheekbone diameter, above average and tall height;

2) Veddoid: poor hair development, less wide nose, smaller head and face, shorter height;

3) Melanesian (including Negrito types), unlike the previous two, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in terms of the abundant development of tertiary hair and strongly protruding brow ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in its composition the Melanesian race is much more variegated than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Veddoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) in very pronounced curly hair; It differs from the Melanesian in its thicker lips, lower bridge of the nose and flatter bridge of the nose, slightly higher eye orbits, slightly protruding sub-brow ridges and, in general, higher stature;

5) the Negrillian (Central African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in its very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of tertiary hair, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, a narrower nose, a flatter face, a very flattened bridge of the nose, small face size and steatopygia (deposition of fat in the buttock region).

21.EURASIAN GREAT RACE

The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by light or dark skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant growth of a beard and mustache, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, a high bridge of the nose, a sagittal arrangement of the nostrils, a small oral slit, and thin lips.

Distribution area: Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, Northern India. The Caucasoid race is divided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: light skin, light hair and eyes, long nose, tall;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, slightly shorter height;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloring of hair and eyes, dark skin, wavy hair, an even longer nose than in previous races, a slightly more convex bridge of the nose, a very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, convex nose, very abundant development of tertiary hair, relatively short and very wide face, tall;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and average height.

22.ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) large race is distinguished by dark or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, weak or very weak beard and mustache growth, average width of the nose, low or medium-height nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in American ones, average thickness of lips, flattened face, strong protrusion of cheekbones, large face size, presence of epicanthus.

The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is divided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and very flattened face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, weak beard growth, low nose bridge, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian race in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, lower frequency of epicanthus, slightly smaller zygomatic width, narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, high bridge of the nose and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) the Far Eastern race, compared to the North Asian race, is characterized by coarser hair, darker skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. It is characterized by a large skull height but a small face;

4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even more pronounced expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian race - greater dark skin, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and shorter stature;

5) the American race, varying greatly in many characteristics, is generally closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. Thus, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by large facial dimensions and noticeably less flattening.

23.INTERMEDIATE RACES

Races intermediate between the three great races:

The Ethiopian (East African) race occupies a middle position between the Equatorial and Eurasian great races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is often curly, but less spirally curled than that of blacks. Beard growth is weak or average, lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. Thus, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, height is above average, and an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

The South Indian (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but is distinguished by straighter hair and somewhat shorter stature; the face is a little smaller and a little wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate place between the Veddoid and Indo-Mediterranean races;

The Ural race, in many respects, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; A concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;

The South Siberian (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American large races. The percentage of mixed races is significant. However, with the general mild expression of Mongolian features, very large facial dimensions are observed in this race, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose and medium-thick lips are characteristic;

The Polynesian race, according to many systematic characteristics, occupies a neutral position; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hair, a moderately protruding nose, and somewhat thicker lips than those of Europeans; rather prominent cheekbones; very tall, large face size, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, significantly smaller than that of blacks and larger than that of Europeans; the Kuril (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the larger races are more clearly expressed in it. In terms of very strong hair development, it ranks one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, shallow depth of the canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; short stature.

24.HEREDITARY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is the source of human diversity because it was it that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

The external variability of a person is a product of society: sexual and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to “birth”, “property” or “abilities”.

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the “program” of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments in its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in teaching practice. They boil down to statements like: a) genes determine the phenotype; b) genes determine limiting capabilities and c) genes determine predispositions.

It is a mistake to assert that genes determine the phenotype, i.e. that the genotype can accurately determine the phenotype of an organism. It is upbringing, the place and nature of work, and social experience that determine differences in phenotypes. It is also erroneous to assert that genes determine the maximum capabilities of a person (organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of “empty cells”: the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can only act as “depleted” or “enriched” from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.

The idea that genotypes determine the predispositions of an organism (person) is also quite erroneous. The idea of ​​a predisposition (for example, to be fat or thin) assumes that a tendency occurs under normal conditions. In relation to humans, “normal environmental conditions” look extremely vague, and even average values ​​for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25.THEORY OF DIVISION OF LABOR

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.

Physiological division refers to the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by sex and age. The expressions “women’s work” and “men’s work” speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of “child labor” (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

The technological division of labor is by its nature infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate component parts due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing the product.

The division of human labor means the division of the labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Mental labor (technology development, education, advanced training of workers and their upbringing) is an increasingly expanding area.

The social division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between social groups of society. To which group and how does this or that life “share” fall in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of labor distribution in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

The term “main division of labor” was first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic through labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the strength, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, comes into the sphere of possession, disposal and use of private individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of ownership of the past labor of the entire society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the ability to do it also acts as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26.SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

The initial basic need of a person, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety are the next most important basic human need. Here is concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is also a lack of anxiety for personal safety, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into system” the world and determine our place in it.

The need for belonging (to a particular community), involvement and affection is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This includes love, sympathy, friendship, and other forms of strictly human communication, personal intimacy; this is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, and victory. The need for affection and belonging is the flip side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of dissatisfaction with this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, and uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication (belonging, involvement, affection) is very important for a fulfilling life.

The need for respect and self-esteem is another basic human need. A person needs to be valued - for his skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., so that his achievements, successes, and merits are seen and recognized. Here considerations of prestige, reputation, and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is not enough - it is important to respect yourself, have self-esteem, believe in your uniqueness, indispensability, and feel that you are busy with necessary and useful work. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of dissatisfaction with this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization is the last, final, according to A. Maslow, basic human need. However, it is final only according to classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become everything that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. A person’s work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the need in question.

27.SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS

In the broadest context, a synonym for the word “culture” is “civilization.” In the narrow sense of the word, this term refers to artistic and spiritual culture. In a sociological context, this is a characteristic way of life, thought, action, system of values ​​and norms for a given society, person. Culture unites people into integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and impulses that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented or established, but arise gradually from the everyday life and social practice of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value development of reality. The active activity of a person and society to satisfy their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities; without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in mentality.

The fundamental basis of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with the help of which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture preserves only what corresponds to its logic and mentality. National culture always strives to impart a national flavor to new cultural acquisitions - both its own and those of others. Culture actively resists elements alien to it. Relatively painlessly updating peripheral, secondary elements, culture exhibits a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This is what explains the diversity of national cultures and national identity.

28.CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY

The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society one can distinguish high culture (elite) and folk culture (folklore). The development of the media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in semantic and artistic terms, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, can displace both high and folk culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of a society’s culture, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, and Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, owning things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, escape from real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values ​​of national culture are being supplanted or replaced by examples of mass culture, focused on achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and simplified perception.

Many Russians, and especially young people, are characterized by a lack of ethnocultural or national self-identification; they cease to perceive themselves as Russians and lose their Russianness. The socialization of youth takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of Westernized values ​​into the youth environment.

29.SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at working with various social, gender, age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

A social worker needs knowledge of integrative socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical areas, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, social work. This includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation sciences and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationships with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to probabilistic laws of development, requires an integrated approach when studying and analyzing all spheres of human life.

30.BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized into a phenotype under the influence and interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of body features and other characteristics that we have considered. Each person has a unique composition of biologically active substances and compounds - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various types of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of a person’s biochemical status and the role of this special aspect of variability in the vital processes of the body under normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem largely owes to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences and even mood.

Based on data from numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:

The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types in humans is substantiated (the relatively small number of encountered models of the endocrine formula compared to their possible number);

The types of endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

These options are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.

31. MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO E. KRETCHMER

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a rounded figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.

The exact opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow, thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal imbalances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another “edge” are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic character traits or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymic. They seem to display in a hidden and smoothed form the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, and cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, exhibit the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizothymics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizotimics are uncommunicative, withdrawn, and self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to internal experiences. People with an athletic constitution are ixothymic; they are leisurely, calm, not very eager to communicate, but do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average standard of health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: using clinic orderlies as the “norm” absolutely does not reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) connections between mental characteristics and body features were not found.

32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON

Quite strict connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was performed at a different methodological level and deserves greater confidence. When describing temperament, the author did not use a discrete type, but components, just as was done in his constitutional system: 50 traits were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he identified three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 traits . Each feature was assessed on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 features determined the entire component (the analogy with the constitutional system is obvious here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia. Having examined 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and “mental” signs showed a weak relationship, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with a viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and, in many ways, psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a tendency to adventure. Although sufficiently sociable, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant connection between somatotonic temperament and mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the trend towards decreased sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is characterized by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and constraint in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33.CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES

Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.

Morphological characteristics are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has probably been studied the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with a hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the mode of inheritance of most of these traits is not precisely known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional characteristics, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie food, but the tendency of this connection between the level of nutrition and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a pattern. But the availability of food and genetics are two different things.

Physiological characteristics are apparently somewhat less genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them in general. Obviously, some of them are inherited using a single gene, while others are characterized by polygenic inheritance. Some depend little on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, for example, heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the heredity factor will rather play the role of a determining probabilistic force. Using the example of heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to rapid heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. Another person under these conditions will be less prone to heart palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

The basic neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;

The psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broad sense of the word);

Actually psychological level– characteristics of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, etc. – depends to the greatest extent on upbringing, living conditions, and the attitude of the people around him towards a person.

34.PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development means “a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength.”

P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional, although applicable in practice, concept. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - i.e., characteristics that determine the “structural and mechanical properties” of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Broca's index and Pignier index), as well as weight-height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the “ideal” weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to a certain idea of the ideal ratio of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas only work for some people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been used. Standards for physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and regularly updated.

Assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account biological age, etc.

By assessing a complex of constitutional characteristics, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is not and cannot be a direct “fatal” relationship between body type and a certain disease.

35.ASTHENIC AND PICNIC TYPE

To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

Thus, people of asthenic build have a tendency to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low reserve of physical strength,” but most likely it is simply due to less thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more susceptible to digestive system disorders - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, a greater risk of neuroses and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic one, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, and myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of cancer.

The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less studied. It is possible that muscular people are more susceptible to stress and related illnesses.

A significant conclusion from studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about “bad” or “good” variants. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only under certain environmental conditions. Thus, the likelihood of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than in an asthenic person in New Guinea. And an asthenic person working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic person working as a school teacher. An asthenic person will feel much better at the forge of a steelworks or in a greenhouse than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic person and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show better results in sports or working as a loader.

36.TARDE'S THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by an individual) of values ​​and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is a principle that forms the basis of the socialization process, and it is based both on physiological needs and the resulting desires of people, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Tarde recognized the “teacher-student” relationship as a typical social relationship. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most general personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles takes place in the form of imitation. General values ​​and norms are acquired by the individual in the process of communication with “significant others”, as a result of which normative standards become part of the structure of the individual’s needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the social system. A socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values ​​and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by S. Freud, brought into action through reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (repression) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the student are based on feelings of love and respect (for the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the teacher’s purposeful influence on the child being educated, aimed at developing the desired traits in him.

37.LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically tested, as evidenced by I. Cohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The pre-moral level is characteristic of relationships between children and parents, based on the external dyad “suffering - pleasure”, the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; The moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg suggests distinguishing seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of an individual’s own moral system. Many people do not reach the moral level in their development. In this regard, the term “moral pragmatism” appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people’s business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of “situational morality”, the motto of which is: “What is moral is what is useful in a given situation.”

In childhood, a child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, and authorities (“significant others”) play a big role.

The teenager already feels his own individuality, as a result of which he strives to “be like everyone else, but better than everyone else.” The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, and the desire to stand out in the group, not differing in principle from everyone else. The teenager is very normative, but in his own environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire to “be different from everyone else.” A clear scale of values ​​emerges that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at any cost often leads to nonconformism, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their line of behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, and forms its own subculture, language, tastes, and fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity, is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through a role structure and a value system verified by culture. What becomes significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - loved ones, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38.THEORY OF VIOLENCE

The focus of theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. Let us note at least four areas of research and explanations of human aggressiveness:

Ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of an individual's freedom without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called “lawlessness” - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;

Freudianism, neo-Freudianism and existentialism argue that human aggressiveness results from the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggression is caused by social reasons (Freudianism removes it from the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

Interactionism sees the reason for people’s aggressiveness in a “conflict of interests”, incompatibility of goals;

Representatives of cognitivism believe that human aggressiveness is the result of “cognitive dissonance,” i.e., inconsistency in the subject’s cognitive sphere. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggressiveness, or more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, human genetics tries to explain in its own way.

39.DEVIANT AND DELIQUENT BEHAVIOR

There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general normative requirements. When a person violates norms, rules of behavior, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviant) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from absenteeism from school (deviant behavior) to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, it means that he has committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusing to drink alcohol in certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of accepted norms of behavior.

The seriousness of an offense depends not only on the significance of the norm violated, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student leaves the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought before the police can be forgiven for even a serious violation of the law, while a person who already has a criminal record faces severe punishment for a minor offense.

In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually study the category of offenders who break the law because they pose a threat to society. The more burglaries there are, the more people fear for their property; the more murders there are, the more we fear for our lives.

40. THEORY OF ANOMY E. DURKHEIM

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes that involve conscious choice.

The theory of anomie (disregulation) occupies an important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior. E. Durkheim, exploring the causes of suicide, considered the main reason to be a phenomenon he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms guide their behavior; people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, and radical social changes, life experience helps little. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his basic idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is considered generally accepted.

The increase in social disorganization is not necessarily associated with the economic crisis or inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Note that crime rates are always higher where there is high population migration. The theory of anomie was developed in the work of other sociologists. In particular, ideas about “social hoops” were formulated, i.e. the level of social (settled life) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41.THEORIES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Structural strain theory explains many delinquency by personality frustration. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel inferior and may use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of ​​social investing is simple and somewhat related to tension theory. The more effort a person has spent to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work and much more), the more he risks losing if he breaks the laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degenerate people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, he usually steals huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. Such conformity helps maintain appreciation and respect for us and protects our reputation.

The theory of stigma, or labeling, -

this is the ability of influential groups in society to label certain social or national groups as deviants: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled as a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Proponents of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows a person to be labeled a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42.CONTROL IN SOCIETY

Any society, for the purpose of self-preservation, establishes certain norms, rules of behavior and appropriate control over their implementation.

There are three main forms of control possible:

Isolation – excommunication from society for hardened criminals, up to and including the death penalty;

Isolation - limiting contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;

Rehabilitation – preparation for returning to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, and juvenile offenders. Control can be formal or informal.

System of formal control - organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of severity: tax inspectorate and tax police, police and riot police, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal laws, etc.

Informal control is unofficial social pressure from others, the press. Punishment through criticism and ostracism is possible; threat of physical harm.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that require each person to fulfill the requirements and responsibilities necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, by virtue of habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the entire society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of behavior is being formed, and group control is being applied by state governing bodies on behalf of the entire society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the laws, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality; norms-rules are regulated by laws and law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. A norm-expectation can turn into a norm-rule, and vice versa.

Anthropology (or anthropological science) in a broad sense is a field of knowledge whose subject of study is man. It is typical for the present time ambiguous understanding of the content anthropology: 1) as a general science about man, combining knowledge of various natural sciences and humanities; 2) as a science that studies human biological diversity. Biological anthropology itself deals with the study of historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological characteristics).

Subject studying biological(or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. Task biological anthropology - identification and scientific description of variability (polymorphism) of a number of human biological characteristics and systems of these (anthropological) characteristics, as well as identification of the reasons that determine this diversity.

Levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical anthropology has several main sections - areas of study of human biology. With a large degree of convention, we can talk about the existence of anthropology historical(studies the history and prehistory of human diversity) and geographic anthropology (studies the geographic variability of humans).

Physical anthropology took shape as an independent scientific discipline in the second half of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously, the first scientific anthropological societies were established in Western Europe and Russia and the first special anthropological works began to be published. Among the founders of scientific anthropology are outstanding scientists of their time: P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, ​​A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin and others.

The period of formation of physical anthropology includes the development of general and specific anthropological methods, specific terminology and the very principles of research are formed, the accumulation and systematization of materials concerning issues of origin, ethnic history, and racial diversity of humans as a biological species take place.

Russian anthropological science already by the beginning of the 20th century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to the study of man.

2. Anthropology in Russia

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the “birth” of anthropology in Russia is considered to be 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanova(1834–1896) the Anthropological Department of the Society of Lovers of Natural History was organized (later renamed the Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography - OLEAE). Origins Anthropological research in Russia is associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th–19th centuries.

One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792–1876) is also known as one of the largest anthropologists of his time, as the organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. His work “On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes” (1822) develops the view of the origin of humanity from a common “root”, that the differences between human races developed after their settlement from a common center, under the influence of different natural conditions in their habitat areas .

The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846–1888) are of great importance. Being a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much with his work in this area as with his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other areas of the South Pacific.

Development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. XIX century called the “Bogdanov period”. Moscow University professor A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural History Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural historical knowledge. The program of work of the Anthropological Department included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a comprehensive science about the physical type of man and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

The first major work by D. Anuchin (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic monkeys and represented a very valuable summary of the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all the activities of D. Anuchin was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the “Soviet period” of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. Goals and objectives of the course in the discipline “Anthropology”

common goal Anthropology can be formulated as the study of the origin and historical existence of man.

Anthropological knowledge is, of course, necessary for students of psychological, pedagogical, medical and social specialties and all specialists working in the field of human studies. They allow us to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of man and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish man from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his existence, etc.

The task of the discipline– to trace the process of interaction between biological patterns of development and social patterns in human history, to assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; study the polymorphism of human types due to gender, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions, etc.; to trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in the conditions of a specific cultural system.

Upon completion of the course, students must master the basic concepts of anthropology, understand its place in the system of sciences and practice; study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the interrelation and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; know the basics of constitutional and developmental anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; master the concepts of raceogenesis, ethnogenesis and know the genetic problems of modern human populations; know the basic needs, interests and values ​​of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the “person - personality - individuality” system in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors must be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4. Physical anthropology

Physical anthropology is the biological science of the structure of the human body and the diversity of its forms.

The diversity of a person in time and space consists of the manifestations of a large number of very different traits and characteristics. Anthropological sign- this is any feature that has a specific state (variant), which reveals similarities or differences between individuals.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of traits; morphology is studied at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is studied at the supra-individual – population level.

The objectives of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern humans and the interpretation of the causes of this diversity.

Research methods:

A) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

V) demographic (relationship of demography with population genetics);

G) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

d) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

e) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and family);

and) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all branches of anthropology).

Anthropology studies the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological characteristics). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the range of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it clearly belongs to the field of biology.

Also, historically, physical anthropology has been divided into three relatively independent areas of research:

anthropogenesis(from Greek anthropos- Human, genesis– development) is an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is human morphology viewed over time measured on a geological scale;

race studies And ethnic anthropology, studying the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. Essentially, this is the same morphology, but considered on a scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by humans;

actual morphology, studying variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5. Population and its types

Under population(literally – population) is understood as an isolated collection of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time quite numerous self-reproducing group of one species, inhabiting a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group, over a large number of generations, turns out to be isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

Basic population criteria- This:

Unity of habitat or geographical location (area);

Unity of origin of the group;

The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (presence of interpopulation barriers);

Free crossing within the group and adherence to the principle of panmixia, i.e., equal probability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (absence of significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for self-reproduction of the group.

All of the above biological definitions are equally valid for humans. But since anthropology has a dual focus - biological and historical, two important consequences can be drawn from the presented formulations:

The biological consequence: individuals belonging to a population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity to each other than to individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and territory occupied, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

The corollary is historical: the human population is a special category of populations that has its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of an individual human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The vast majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still undeveloped hierarchical structure, subdividing into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time being part of larger population systems (including ethno-territorial communities, racial groups, etc.) .

6. Anthropogenesis: basic theories

Anthropogenesis(from Greek anthropos- Human, genesis– development) – the process of development of modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origins of man and the process of his development.

A set of approaches to studying the past of humanity includes:

1) biological sciences:

Human biology – morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

Primatology – paleontology of primates;

Paleontology – vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

General biology – embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

Geology – geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

Taphonomy (the science of burial of fossil remains);

Dating methods – decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) Social sciencies:

Archeology – Paleolithic archeology, archeology of later times;

Ethnoarchaeology, comparative ethnology;

Psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two: theories of evolutionism(arising from the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism(derived from the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions have been raging between proponents of these two different theories in biology and natural science.

According to evolutionary theory, man evolved from apes. The place of man in the order of modern primates is as follows:

1) suborder of prosimians: sections lemuromorphic, lorimorphic, tarsimorphic;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

A) section of broad-nosed monkeys: family of marmosets and capuchins;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

Superfamily Cercopithecoidae, family Marmosetaceae (inferior narrow-nosed): subfamily of Marmosetaceae and slender-bodied;

Superfamily hominoids (higher narrow-nosed):

Family of gibbons (gibbons, siamangs);

Pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest relatives of humans;

Hominid family. Man is its only modern representative.

7. The main stages of human evolution: Part 1

Currently, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: Dryopithecus - Ramapithecus - Australopithecus - Homo habilis - Homo erectus - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropus) - Neoanthropus (this is a modern type of man, homo sapiens).

Dryopithecus appeared 17–18 million years ago and died out about 8 million years ago, lived in tropical forests. These are early apes that probably originated in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric Tethys Sea. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and ate their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapithecus(Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). It is believed that Ramapithecus appeared 14 million years ago and went extinct about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from jaw fragments found in the Siwalik Mountains in India. It is not yet possible to establish whether these creatures were upright.

Australopithecus, inhabited Africa 1.5–5.5 million years ago, were a link between the animal world and the first people. Australopithecines did not have such natural defenses as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and were inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as weapons for defense and attack allowed Australopithecines to defend themselves from enemies.

In the 60–70s. XX century in Africa, the remains of creatures were discovered whose cranial cavity volume was 650 cm 3 (significantly less than that of a human). The most primitive pebble tools were discovered in the immediate vicinity of the discovery site. Scientists have suggested that this creature can be classified as a genus Homo, and gave it a name Homo habilis– skillful person emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the remains found, dating from 2–1.5 million years ago, Homo habilis existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolving until it acquired significant similarities with Homo erectus.

One of the most remarkable was the discovery of the first Pithecanthropus, or homo erectus (Homo erectus), discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed approximately from 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The most ancient people have similar characteristics: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, a low sloping forehead has a supraorbital ridge, the height of the skull is small compared to the skull of a modern person, but the volume of the brain varies between 800-1400 cm 3 . Along with obtaining plant food, Pithecanthropus engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in their places of life of bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffalo.

8. Main stages of human evolution: Part 2

The most ancient people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals(at the place of their first discovery in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).

Neanderthals lived during the Ice Age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The wide distribution of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of glaciated Europe testifies to their significant progress in comparison with the most ancient people: ancient people knew how to not only maintain, but also make fire, they already had speech, the volume of their brain is equal to the volume of the brain of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in shape and served for a variety of purposes - hunting animals, butchering carcasses, building a home.

The emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals was revealed: caring for the wounded or sick. Burials are found for the first time among Neanderthals.

Collective actions already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality among children and adults, and better overcome difficult living conditions won. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals became increasingly stronger.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), replaced the ancient people, happened relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed the entire complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries also have.

9. Evolution and the second law of thermodynamics

An important and still unresolved question in science is the reconciliation of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to reconcile the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to the spontaneous generation of living things and further through the gradual development of the simplest single-celled organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into man, in whom there is not only biological but also spiritual life, with the second law of thermodynamics, which Is it so universal in nature that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), operating in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has been able to solve this fundamental problem. The simultaneous existence of universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is resolved by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite sufficient to stimulate universal evolution over a vast geological time. But such an assumption ignores the obvious fact that the influx of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of large amounts of thermal solar energy into the earth’s biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build, organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the earth’s biosphere, and about such a global, complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work for the spontaneous emergence of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms that are still unknown to science.

10. Prerequisites for evolutionism and creationism

Among the basic premises of the doctrine evolutionism the following are available:

1) hypothesis about universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate to living matter). – Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of living things in non-living things. – Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation occurred only once. – Nothing confirmed;

4) single-celled organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. – Nothing confirmed;

5) there must be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the “general law of evolution”;

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered sufficient to explain the development from the simplest forms to highly developed ones (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted over very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). – Very controversial;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of rows of fossils.

Relevant counter-presuppositions of the doctrine creationism are also based on faith, but have a self-consistent explanation that does not contradict the facts:

1) the entire Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This position is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created, according to a reasonable plan, both unicellular and multicellular organisms and, in general, all types of organisms of flora and fauna, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings happened once, since they can then reproduce themselves;

4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the single plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted within short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in ideological premises: what underlies life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be tested in scientific laboratories.

11. Constitutional anthropology: basic concepts

Under general The constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” property of reacting in a certain way to environmental influences, without disturbing the connection between the individual characteristics of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all individual characteristics of a subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

Under private constitution refers to individual morphological and (or) functional complexes of the body that contribute to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habitus (external appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, that is, they are characterized by functional unity. This complex should include:

Morphological characteristics of the body (physique);

Physiological indicators;

Mental properties of personality.

In anthropology, particular morphological constitutions are most developed.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manouvrier, K. Seago, I. Galant, V. Shtefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Chtetsov, M Utkina and N. Lutovinova, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

Functional diagrams in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the body.

12. Constitutional schemes of E. Kretschmer and V. Bunak

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most later classifications. The types he identifies under other names can be recognized in many diagrams, even if the principles of their construction differ. Obviously, this is a consequence of reflecting the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), picnic and athletic.

Similar, but without many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from E. Kretschmer’s scheme is a strict definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The diagram is built according to two coordinates of the physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of muscle development. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdominal area and back. V. Bunak’s scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three main and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the characteristics of the main types. They were identified by V. Bunak, since in practice very often the expression of the features underlying the scheme is not entirely clear and features of different types are often combined with each other. The author identified two more body types as undefined, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. Constitutional scheme of V. Deryabin

Having analyzed the entire range of available constitutional schemes (and there are many more of them than were considered), the domestic anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

With an a priori approach, the author of the scheme, even before its creation, has his own idea of ​​what body types there are. Based on this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those characteristics or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the vast majority of constitutional schemes we have examined;

The a posteriori approach does not involve simply superimposing the scheme of individual morphological diversity on objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of the fixed scale of variability, taking into account its patterns. With this approach, theoretically, objective patterns of morphofunctional connections and correlation of traits will be better taken into account. The subjectivity of the typology is also reduced to a minimum. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60 years, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

The first axis describes the variability of overall body size (overall skeletal dimensions) along the macro- and microsomia coordinate. One of its poles is people with small overall sizes (microsomia); the other is individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the shape of the musculoskeletal system) and has a variation from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscle component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachysomy (inverse ratio of components);

The third axis describes the variability in the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposis (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposis (strong fat deposition). The “constitutional space” is open on all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6–7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12–13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. Based on these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is determined.

14. Ontogenesis

Ontogenesis(from Greek ontos– creature and genesis– origin), or life cycle, is one of the key biological concepts. This is life before and after birth, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the body, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should in no case be represented as a simple increase in size. Human biological development is a complex morphogenetic event; it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, the formation of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four large stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, protoplasm synthesis, etc.;

3) cell determination and differentiation; Deterministic cells are those that have “chosen” a program for further development. During this development, cells specialize to perform certain functions, that is, they differentiate into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of the mentioned processes is the formation of cellular systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes occurring at the cellular level lead to changes in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, the whole organism. Even if obvious quantitative changes (growth itself) are not observed, qualitative changes are constantly taking place in the body at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the body as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. The transformations occurring in the process of ontogenesis are associated with the “emergence” of all types of variability in human biological characteristics, including those discussed earlier.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, developmental psychology and other disciplines.

15. Features of human ontogenetic development

Human ontogenetic development can be characterized by a number of general features:

Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not infinite; it follows a so-called limited type. The final values ​​of each trait are determined genetically, that is, there is a reaction norm;

Graduality and irreversibility; The continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those structural features that were already evident at previous stages;

Cyclicality; Although ontogenesis is a continuous process, the pace of development (the rate of changes in characteristics) can vary significantly over time. A person has periods of growth activation and inhibition. There is a cyclicity associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight in the fall), as well as a daily cycle and a number of others;

Heterochrony, or multitemporality (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different body systems and different traits within the same system. Naturally, in the first stages of ontogenesis the most important, vital systems mature;

Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or activated under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take developmental processes beyond the boundaries of a broad norm of reaction determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the development process is maintained by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the genetic control itself, implemented at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

Sexual dimorphism is the most striking characteristic of human development, manifesting itself at all stages of its ontogenesis. Let us remind you once again that the differences caused by the “gender factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice neutralizes the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogenesis is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of ontogenetic development of an individual person is unique.

16. Stages of ontogenetic development

The process of ontogenetic development is logically divided into two stages:

The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage, lasting from the moment of formation of the zygote as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.

The maximum increase in body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21–25 cm per year). In the period from 1 year to 4–5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5–8 years of age, a weak growth spurt is sometimes observed. At the age of 10-13 years in girls and 13–15 years in boys, a clearly pronounced acceleration of growth is observed - a growth spurt: the rate of growth in body length is about 8-10 cm per year in boys and 7-9 cm per year in girls. Between these periods, a decrease in growth rates is recorded.

The maximum rate of fetal growth is characteristic of the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is observed more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development are the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of “regionalization” and histogenesis (cell differentiation with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to differential cell growth and cell migrations, parts of the body acquire certain outlines, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - continues actively until adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are visible already at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the rate of fetal growth slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - at a time when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large child develops in the uterus of a woman of small stature, mechanisms of growth retardation contribute to a successful birth, but this does not always happen. The weight and body size of a newborn are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother’s body.

Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm in boys and 49.7-52.2 in girls. Immediately after birth, the rate of body length growth increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

Currently, body length growth slows down significantly in girls aged 16–17 years and in boys aged 18–19 years, and up to 60 years, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years of age, a decrease in body length occurs.

17. Periodization of ontogenesis

The oldest periodizations of ontogenesis go back to antiquity:

Pythagoras(VI century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20–40 years), autumn (40–60 years) and winter (60–80 years). These periods correspond to formation, youth, the prime of life and its decline. Hippocrates(V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:

The younger generation – minors (from birth to 5 years old) and children (6-15 years old);

Blooming generation - young (16–30 years old), mature (30–45 years old) and elderly (45–60 years old);

The fading generation is old (61–75 years old) and long-lived (75–100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by a German physiologist M. Rubner(1854–1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:

Infancy (birth to 9 months);

Early childhood (from 10 months to 7 years);

Late childhood (from 8 to 13–14 years);

Adolescence (from 14–15 to 19–21 years);

Maturity (41–50 years old);

Old age (50–70 years);

Honorable old age (over 70 years old).

In pedagogy, the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), pre-preschool age (1–3 years), preschool age (3–7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11–12 years), and middle school is often used. age (up to 15 years) and high school age (up to 17–18 years). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Guyer and other scientists, from 3 to 15 stages and periods are distinguished.

The pace of development can vary among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epochal changes in the pace of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

At least over the last century and a half, up to the last 2–4 decades, a process of epochal acceleration of development has been observed. Simply put, the children of each successive generation became larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved were maintained at all ages. This surprising trend reached significant proportions and extended to many modern human populations (though not all), and the dynamics of the resulting changes were surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.

From about the second half of the 20th century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades we are increasingly talking about stabilizing the pace of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deceleration).

18. Race studies

Under the term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological characteristics (racial characteristics). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a specific geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the very characteristics by which racial classification is carried out.

Classic racial signs include appearance features - color and shape of eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, overall facial structure, head shape. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial characteristics. Signs of body structure are used as auxiliary signs - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the characteristics of the body structure are much more variable within any group than the characteristics of the head structure and, in addition, often strongly depend on environmental conditions - both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in racial studies as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial characteristics:

Signs of physical structure;

Traits that are inherited;

Traits, the severity of which during ontogenesis depends little on environmental factors;

Signs associated with a specific habitat - distribution zone;

Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.

The unification of people on the basis of common self-awareness, self-determination is called ethnic group(ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

When determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is a tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which unite into nations. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are relatives to one degree or another. Representatives of one people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within the same large race.

A nation unites people absolutely regardless of their race, since it includes different peoples.

19. Racial classifications

There are a large number of racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the underlying characteristics. Various racial schemes can be divided into two large groups:

Created based on a limited set of features;

Open, the number of features in which can vary arbitrarily.

Many of the early systems belong to the first version of classifications. These are the schemes of: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races based on skin color;

P. Topinard (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined the width of the nose in addition to pigmentation;

A. Retzius (1844), whose four races differed in a combination of chronological characteristics. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, the small number of features used and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. In this case, very distant groups that differ sharply in many other characteristics can come together randomly.

The second type of classification includes most racial schemes. The most important principle of their creation is the geographical location of the races. First, the main ones are identified (the so-called large races, or races of the first order), occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to various morphological characteristics, and small races (or second-order races) are identified. Sometimes races of smaller levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called an anthropological type).

Existing open racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes identifying a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes highlighting a large number of basic types.

In group 1 schemes, the number of main types ranges from two to five; in group 2 schemes their number is 6–8 or more. It should be noted that in all these systems several options are always repeated, and the increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20. Equatorial large race

The equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin color, wavy or curly hair, a wide nose, a low middle bridge, a slightly protruding nose, a transverse nostril, a large mouth slit, and thick lips. Before the era of European colonization, the habitat of representatives of the equatorial great race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The large equatorial race is divided into a number of small races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high nose bridge, average cheekbone diameter, above average and tall height;

2) Veddoid: poor hair development, less wide nose, smaller head and face, shorter height;

3) Melanesian (including Negrito types), unlike the previous two, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; in terms of the abundant development of tertiary hair and strongly protruding brow ridges, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; in its composition the Melanesian race is much more variegated than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Veddoid races (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) by very pronounced curly hair; It differs from the Melanesian in its thicker lips, lower bridge of the nose and flatter bridge of the nose, slightly higher eye orbits, slightly protruding sub-brow ridges and, in general, higher stature;

5) the Negrillian (Central African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in its very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of tertiary hair, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) The Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid race not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, a narrower nose, a flatter face, a very flattened bridge of the nose, small face size and steatopygia (deposition of fat in the buttock region).

21. Eurasian large race

The Eurasian (or Caucasoid) large race is characterized by light or dark skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant growth of a beard and mustache, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, a high bridge of the nose, a sagittal arrangement of the nostrils, a small oral slit, and thin lips.

Distribution area: Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, Northern India. The Caucasoid race is divided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: fair skin, blond hair and eyes, long nose, tall height;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, slightly shorter height;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark coloring of hair and eyes, dark skin, wavy hair, an even longer nose than in previous races, a slightly more convex bridge of the nose, a very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, convex nose, very abundant development of tertiary hair, relatively short and very wide face, tall;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but somewhat more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and average height.

22. Asian-American race

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) large race is distinguished by dark or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, weak or very weak beard and mustache growth, average width of the nose, low or medium-height nose bridge, slightly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in American ones, average thickness of lips, flattened face, strong protrusion of cheekbones, large face size, presence of epicanthus.

The range of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, and America. The Asian-American race is divided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and very flattened face. As part of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - Baikal and Central Asian, which differ significantly from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, weak beard growth, low nose bridge, and thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - to variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian race in coarser hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, lower frequency of epicanthus, slightly smaller zygomatic width, narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, high bridge of the nose and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) The Far Eastern race, compared to the North Asian race, is characterized by coarser hair, darker skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. It is characterized by a large skull height but a small face;

4) The South Asian race is characterized by an even more pronounced expression of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian race - greater dark skin, thicker lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in having a less flattened face and shorter stature;

5) The American race, varying greatly in many characteristics, is generally closest to the Arctic, but possesses some of its features in an even more pronounced form. Thus, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by large facial dimensions and noticeably less flattening.

23. Intermediate races

Races intermediate between the three great races:

Ethiopian (East African) the race occupies a middle position between the Equatorial and Eurasian great races in skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is often curly, but less spirally curled than that of blacks. Beard growth is weak or average, lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. Thus, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, a flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, height is above average, and an elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

South Indian The (Dravidian) race is in general very similar to the Ethiopian, but is distinguished by straighter hair and somewhat shorter stature; the face is a little smaller and a little wider; the South Indian race occupies an intermediate place between the Veddoid and Indo-Mediterranean races;

Ural the race, in many respects, occupies a middle position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; A concave bridge of the nose is very characteristic of this race;

South Siberian The (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American great races. The percentage of mixed races is significant. However, with the general mild expression of Mongolian features, very large facial dimensions are observed in this race, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight bridge of the nose and medium-thick lips are characteristic;

Polynesian race, according to many systematic characteristics, occupies a neutral position; she is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, moderately developed tertiary hair, a moderately protruding nose, and somewhat thicker lips than those of Europeans; rather prominent cheekbones; very tall, large face size, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, significantly smaller than that of blacks and larger than that of Europeans; Kuril The (Ainu) race, in its neutral position among the races of the globe, resembles the Polynesian; however, some features of the larger races are more clearly expressed in it. In terms of very strong hair development, it ranks one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, shallow depth of the canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; short stature.

24. Heredity and social environment

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is the source of human diversity because it was it that determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

The external variability of a person is a product of society: sexual and geographical, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people according to “birth”, “property” or “abilities”.

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding its nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the “program” of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments in its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in teaching practice. They boil down to statements like: A) genes determine phenotype; b) genes determine the limiting capabilities and V) genes determine predispositions.

It is erroneous to say that genes determine phenotype i.e. that the genotype can accurately determine the phenotype of an organism. It is upbringing, the place and nature of work, and social experience that determine differences in phenotypes. It is also wrong to say that genes determine the maximum capabilities of a person(organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of “empty cells”: the genotype determines the number and size of cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can only act as “depleted” or “enriched” from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells specified in advance at birth.

The provision that genotypes determine an organism's predispositions(personality), is also quite erroneous. The idea of ​​a predisposition (for example, to be fat or thin) assumes that a tendency occurs under normal conditions. In relation to humans, “normal environmental conditions” look extremely vague, and even average values ​​for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25. The theory of division of labor

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly.

Under physiological division refers to the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by gender and age. The expressions “women’s work” and “men’s work” speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of “child labor” (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

Technological the division of labor is by its nature infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate component parts due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing the product.

Division of human labor means the division of labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Mental labor (technology development, education, advanced training of workers and their upbringing) is an increasingly expanding area.

Public division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between social groups of society. To which group and how does this or that life “share” fall in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of labor distribution in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

Term "the main division of labor" first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic through labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the strength, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, comes into the sphere of possession, disposal and use of private individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of ownership of the past labor of the entire society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the ability to do it also acts as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26. System of basic human needs

The initial basic need of a person, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfying these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety– the next most important basic human need. Here is concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, there is also a lack of anxiety for personal safety, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into system” the world and determine our place in it.

Need to belong(to one or another community), involvement and attachment is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This includes love, sympathy, friendship, and other forms of strictly human communication, personal intimacy; this is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, misfortune will be shared, and also, of course, the hope for success, joy, and victory. The need for affection and belonging is the flip side of a person's openness or trust in being - both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of dissatisfaction with this need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, and uselessness. Satisfying the need for communication (belonging, involvement, affection) is very important for a fulfilling life.

Need for esteem and self-esteem– another basic human need. A person needs to be valued - for his skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., so that his achievements, successes, and merits are seen and recognized. Here considerations of prestige, reputation, and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is not enough - it is important to respect yourself, have self-esteem, believe in your uniqueness, indispensability, and feel that you are busy with necessary and useful work. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of dissatisfaction with this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization– the last, final, according to A. Maslow, basic human need. However, it is final only according to classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, truly human, humanistically self-sufficient development of a person begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become everything that he can and (according to his internal, free, but responsible motivation) should become. A person’s work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the need in question.

27. Socio-cultural aspects of anthropogenesis

In the very wide context, a synonym for the word “culture” is “civilization”. IN narrow In the sense of the word, this term refers to artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, this is a characteristic way of life, thought, action, system of values ​​and norms for a given society, person. Culture unites people into integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying human inclinations and impulses that are harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms that affect the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces us that moral norms are not invented or established, but arise gradually from the everyday life and social practice of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value development of reality. The active activity of a person and society to satisfy their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities; without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is monitored in relation to the world, in the assessment of real phenomena, and is expressed in mentality.

The fundamental basis of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain combination of sounds is given a certain meaning. Only a person is able to use symbols with the help of which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (sustainability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture preserves only what corresponds to its logic and mentality. National culture always strives to impart a national flavor to new cultural acquisitions - both its own and those of others. Culture actively resists elements alien to it. Relatively painlessly updating peripheral, secondary elements, culture exhibits a strong reaction of rejection when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This is what explains the diversity of national cultures and national identity.

28. Culture of modern society

The culture of modern society is a combination of different layers of culture, i.e. the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society one can distinguish high culture (elite) and folk culture (folklore). The development of the media has led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in semantic and artistic terms, technologically accessible to everyone. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, can displace both high and folk culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of a society’s culture, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, and Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, owning things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, escape from real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, the personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Modern Russian culture is also characterized by a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups. The values ​​of national culture are being supplanted or replaced by examples of mass culture, focused on achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and simplified perception.

Many Russians, and especially young people, are characterized by a lack of ethnocultural or national self-identification; they cease to perceive themselves as Russians and lose their Russianness. The socialization of youth takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of Westernized values ​​into the youth environment.

29. Social problems of anthropology

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, at working with various social, gender, age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

In the context of changes in many ideas about the nature of social assistance to the population, greater demands began to be placed both on the content of social work practice and on the training of professional workers for the social sphere. Knowledge in those areas that allow a specialist to consider the content of social work through its functions is of great importance.

A social worker needs knowledge of integrative socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical areas, which allows him to provide practical assistance to needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a body of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social sciences and humanities as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, social work. This includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitation sciences and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationships with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to probabilistic laws of development, requires an integrated approach when studying and analyzing all spheres of human life.

Training of specialists in the field of social work is impossible without broad social education, correct prioritization of universal human values, scientific substantiation of the concept of social work, taking into account the relationship between biological and social in a person, without scientific understanding and assessment of the nature of socialization, the study of its components, the structure and connections of the entire system .

30. Biochemical individuality

Each person has a unique genotype, which in the process of growth and development is realized into a phenotype under the influence and interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of body features and other characteristics that we have considered. Each person has a unique composition of biologically active substances and compounds - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various types of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of a person’s biochemical status and the role of this special aspect of variability in the vital processes of the body under normal conditions and in the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem largely owes to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of cardiac activity, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences and even mood.

Based on data from numerous studies, the possibility of using a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of human hormonal status has been established:

The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types in humans is substantiated (the relatively small number of encountered models of the endocrine formula compared to their possible number);

The types of endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

These options are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

Finally, the hormonal basis of different types of constitution was established.

31. Mental characteristics according to E. Kretschmer

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a picnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a rounded figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop baldness early.

The exact opposite set of external signs is usually present in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow, thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes people with schizophrenia have pronounced hormonal imbalances: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Athletes are less common among such patients. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (the norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another “edge” are expressed in the stable manifestation of schizothymic or cyclothymic character traits or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymic. They seem to display in a hidden and smoothed form the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, and cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, exhibit the opposite set of mental traits and are called schizothymics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizotimics are uncommunicative, withdrawn, and self-absorbed. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to internal experiences. People with an athletic constitution are ixothymic; they are leisurely, calm, not very eager to communicate, but do not avoid it either. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average standard of health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: using clinic orderlies as the “norm” absolutely does not reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more carefully conducted studies, such obvious (unambiguous) connections between mental characteristics and body features were not found.

32. Characteristics of temperament according to W. Sheldon

Quite strict connections between morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was performed at a different methodological level and deserves greater confidence. When describing temperament, the author did not use a discrete type, but components, just as was done in his constitutional system: 50 traits were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he identified three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 traits . Each feature was assessed on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 features determined the entire component (the analogy with the constitutional system is obvious here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia. Having examined 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While individual somatic and “mental” signs showed a weak relationship, constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of about 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with a viscerotonic temperament are characterized by relaxed movements, sociability, and, in many ways, psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by energy, some coldness in communication, and a tendency to adventure. Although sufficiently sociable, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon obtained a significant connection between somatotonic temperament and mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the trend towards decreased sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is characterized by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and constraint in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33. Constitutional features

Constitutional signs are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological signs.

Morphological traits are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has probably been studied the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with a hereditary factor compared to the other two groups. However, the mode of inheritance of most of these traits is not precisely known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional characteristics, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of excess high-calorie food, but the tendency of this connection between the level of nutrition and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a pattern. But the availability of food and genetics are two different things.

Physiological the characters are apparently somewhat less determined genetically than morphologically. Due to the huge qualitative diversity of signs combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them in general. Obviously, some of them are inherited using a single gene, while others are characterized by polygenic inheritance. Some depend little on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, for example, heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the heredity factor will rather play the role of a determining probabilistic force. Using the example of heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to rapid heartbeat, say, in a tense situation. Another person under these conditions will be less prone to heart palpitations. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

Base neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics to the greatest extent;

psychodynamic level - properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broad sense of the word);

actually psychological level – features of perception, intelligence, motivation, nature of relationships, etc. – depends to the greatest extent on upbringing, living conditions, and the attitude of the people around him towards a person.

34. Physical development

Physical development means “a complex of properties of an organism that determines the reserve of its physical strength.”

P. Bashkirov quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional, although applicable in practice, concept. As a result of research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - i.e., characteristics that determine the “structural and mechanical properties” of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Broca's index and Pignier index), as well as weight-height indicators (Rohrer index and Quetelet index) and the “ideal” weight formula, which is the ratio of weight and body length, corresponding to a certain idea of the ideal ratio of these parameters. For example, a common formula is that body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas only work for some people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. A universal formula cannot exist even theoretically. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales have been used. Standards for physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and regularly updated.

Assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the level of metabolism, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, skeletal muscle tone, taking into account biological age, etc.

By assessing a complex of constitutional characteristics, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is not and cannot be a direct “fatal” relationship between body type and a certain disease.

35. Asthenic and picnic type

To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence of morbidity in people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

Thus, people of asthenic build have a tendency to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low reserve of physical strength,” but most likely it is simply due to less thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more susceptible to digestive system disorders - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, a greater risk of neuroses and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic one, has its own risks of disease. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, and myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of cancer.

The association of muscular type with pathologies has been much less studied. It is possible that muscular people are more susceptible to stress and related illnesses.

A significant conclusion from studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to talk about “bad” or “good” variants. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types appear only under certain environmental conditions. Thus, the likelihood of getting pneumonia in an athletic person in Russia is much greater than in an asthenic person in New Guinea. And an asthenic person working in a flower shop or archive is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic person working as a school teacher. An asthenic person will feel much better at the forge of a steelworks or in a greenhouse than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic person and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show better results in sports or working as a loader.

36. Tarde's theory of socialization

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (acquisition by an individual) of values ​​and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tarde, is a principle that forms the basis of the socialization process, and it is based both on physiological needs and the resulting desires of people, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Tarde recognized the “teacher-student” relationship as a typical social relationship. In modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most general personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles takes place in the form of imitation. General values ​​and norms are acquired by the individual in the process of communication with “significant others”, as a result of which normative standards become part of the structure of the individual’s needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the social system. A socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values ​​and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by S. Freud, brought into action through reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (repression) and transfer. Imitation and identification of the student are based on feelings of love and respect (for the teacher, father, mother, family as a whole, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by education, i.e., the teacher’s purposeful influence on the child being educated, aimed at developing the desired traits in him.

37. Levels of socialization

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been empirically tested, as evidenced by I. Cohn, in 32 countries): pre-moral, conventional and moral. The pre-moral level is characteristic of relationships between children and parents, based on the external dyad “suffering - pleasure”, the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; The moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg suggests distinguishing seven gradations at this level, up to the formation of an individual’s own moral system. Many people do not reach the moral level in their development. In this regard, the term “moral pragmatism” appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in people’s business relations. Society is gradually sliding down to the level of “situational morality”, the motto of which is: “What is moral is what is useful in a given situation.”

In childhood, a child wants to be like everyone else, so imitation, identification, and authorities (“significant others”) play a big role.

The teenager already feels his own individuality, as a result of which he strives to “be like everyone else, but better than everyone else.” The energy of self-affirmation results in the formation of courage, strength, and the desire to stand out in the group, not differing in principle from everyone else. The teenager is very normative, but in his own environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire to “be different from everyone else.” A clear scale of values ​​emerges that is not demonstrated verbally. The desire to stand out at any cost often leads to nonconformism, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer authorities for their children, unconditionally dictating their line of behavior. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often due to the denial of the usual parental existence, and forms its own subculture, language, tastes, and fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity, is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through a role structure and a value system verified by culture. What becomes significant for him is the desire to continue himself through others - loved ones, a group, society and even humanity. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38. Theory of violence

The focus of theories of violence is the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. Let us note at least four areas of research and explanations of human aggressiveness:

ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) They explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of an individual's freedom without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation was called “lawlessness” - absolute lawlessness in the relations of people and in the actions of the authorities;

Freudianism, neo-Freudianism and existentialism argue that human aggressiveness is the result of frustration of an alienated personality. Aggression is caused by social reasons (Freudianism removes it from the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

interactionism sees the reason for people’s aggressiveness in a “conflict of interest”, incompatibility of goals;

Representatives cognitivism They believe that a person’s aggressiveness is the result of “cognitive dissonance,” i.e., a discrepancy in the subject’s cognitive sphere. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Human aggressiveness, or more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, human genetics tries to explain in its own way.

39. Deviant and delinquent behavior

There is hardly a society in which all its members behave in accordance with general normative requirements. When a person violates norms, rules of behavior, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviant) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from absenteeism from school (deviant behavior) to theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, it means that he has committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society condones the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious offense in many Islamic countries, and refusing to drink alcohol in certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of accepted norms of behavior.

The seriousness of an offense depends not only on the significance of the norm violated, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student leaves the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought before the police can be forgiven for even a serious violation of the law, while a person who already has a criminal record faces severe punishment for a minor offense.

In modern society, the most significant norms of behavior that affect the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually study the category of offenders who break the law because they pose a threat to society. The more burglaries there are, the more people fear for their property; the more murders there are, the more we fear for our lives.

40. E. Durkheim's theory of anomie

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to crimes that involve conscious choice.

The theory of anomie (disregulation) occupies an important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior. E. Durkheim, exploring the causes of suicide, considered the main reason to be a phenomenon he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms guide their behavior; people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, and radical social changes, life experience helps little. People are in a state of confusion and disorganization. Social norms are being destroyed, people are losing their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his basic idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is considered generally accepted.

The increase in social disorganization is not necessarily associated with the economic crisis or inflation. It can also be observed with a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Note that crime rates are always higher where there is high population migration. The theory of anomie was developed in the work of other sociologists. In particular, ideas about “social hoops” were formulated, i.e. the level of social (settled life) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41. Theories of deviant behavior

Structural tension theory explains many offenses by personal disappointment. Declining living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve his goals by legal means, then sooner or later he will experience disappointment, tension, he begins to feel inferior and may use deviant, illegal methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of ​​social investment is simple and to a certain extent related to the theory of tension. The more effort a person has spent to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work and much more), the more he risks losing if he breaks the laws. An unemployed person has little to lose if he gets caught robbing a store. There are certain categories of degenerate people who specifically try to get into prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, he usually steals huge sums, which, as it seems to him, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all have a tendency to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. Such conformity helps maintain appreciation and respect for us and protects our reputation.

Stigma or labeling theory -

this is the ability of influential groups in society to label certain social or national groups as deviants: representatives of certain nationalities, the homeless, etc. If a person is labeled as a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Proponents of this theory distinguish between primary (personal behavior that allows a person to be labeled a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move around a lot, then social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42. Control in society

Any society, for the purpose of self-preservation, establishes certain norms, rules of behavior and appropriate control over their implementation.

There are three main forms of control possible:

Isolation – excommunication from society for hardened criminals, up to and including the death penalty;

Isolation - limiting contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;

Rehabilitation – preparation for returning to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, and juvenile offenders. Control can be formal or informal.

System formal control- organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of severity: tax inspectorate and tax police, police and riot police, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal laws, etc.

Informal control– this is unofficial social pressure from others, the press. Punishment through criticism and ostracism is possible; threat of physical harm.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules that require each person to fulfill the requirements and responsibilities necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled primarily through socialization in such a way that they carry out most of their with social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups are not enough for social control. On the scale of the entire society, a system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of behavior is being formed, and group control is being applied by state governing bodies on behalf of the entire society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the laws, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality; norms-rules are regulated by laws and law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. A norm-expectation can turn into a norm-rule, and vice versa.