Fundamental science is a field of knowledge that deals with theoretical and experimental scientific research into the fundamental phenomena of nature - phenomena that only the human mind can comprehend. Its goal is to search for patterns responsible for the form, structure, composition, structure and properties of natural phenomena, the course and development of the processes caused by them. Fundamental science touches on the basic principles of the philosophical worldview and understanding of the world, which includes both humanities and natural sciences, and serves to expand theoretical, conceptual ideas about the surrounding world, about the universe as such in all its manifestations, including those covering intellectual spheres, spiritual and social.
The tasks of fundamental science do not include the rapid practical implementation of its achievements. It is engaged in promising research, the impact of which does not come immediately, which is its fundamental difference from applied science. However, the results of fundamental research always find relevant application, and constantly adjust the development of any scientific and technical field and discipline, which is generally unthinkable without the development of fundamental sections - any discoveries and technologies are certainly based on the provisions of fundamental science by definition.
In case of contradictions between new scientific discoveries and currently accepted “classical” ideas, not only the modification of fundamental science is stimulated, but also new in-depth research is required for a full understanding of the processes and mechanisms underlying this or that phenomenon, for further improvement of methods or principles of their studying.
Traditionally basic research are more correlated with natural science, at the same time all forms scientific knowledge rely on systems of generalizations that are their basis; Thus, all the humanities possess or strive to possess an apparatus capable of embracing and formulating general fundamental principles of research and methods of their interpretation.
UNESCO assigns the status of fundamental research to such work that contributes to the discovery of the laws of nature and the understanding of the mechanisms of interaction between phenomena and objects of reality.
The main functions of basic research include cognitive activity; The immediate task is to obtain specific ideas about the laws of nature that have characteristic generality and stability.
The main features of fundamentality include:
a) conceptual universality;
b) spatio-temporal community.
However, this does not allow us to draw the conclusion that a distinctive feature of fundamentality is the lack of practical orientation and applicability, since in the process of solving fundamental problems, new prospects, opportunities and methods for solving practical problems naturally open up.
A state that has sufficient scientific potential and strives for its development must certainly contribute to the support and development of fundamental research, despite the fact that it is often not immediately profitable.
Thus, Article 2 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation of August 23, 1996 No. 127-FZ “On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy” gives the following definition of fundamental research: “Experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of structure, functioning and development of man, society, and the natural environment.”
The most a shining example, illustrating characteristics fundamental science, can serve as a history of research related to the structure of matter, in particular, the structure of the atom. These studies found practical implementation only hundreds of years after the emergence of the initial ideas of atomism, and dozens after the formulation of the theory of atomic structure.
A similar process is observed in every field of knowledge, when from the primary empirical substrate, through hypothesis, experiment and its theoretical understanding, with their corresponding development, expansion and improvement of methodology, science comes to certain postulates.
These provisions contribute to the search and formation of new quantitatively expressed postulates, which are theoretical basis for further research, which allows us to formulate the tasks of applied science.
Improving the instrumental base, both theoretical and experimental-practical, serves to improve the method. Any fundamental discipline and any applied area are capable of mutually participating in the development of understanding and solving independent and general problems: applied science expands the capabilities of research tools, both practical and theoretical, of fundamental science, which, in turn, provides a theoretical tool with the results of its research and a basis for the development of applications on relevant topics. This is one of the main reasons for the need to support fundamental science, which, as a rule, does not have sufficient self-financing capabilities.
The rapid development of engineering and technology (in relation to the implementation of results obtained and long ago “predicted” by fundamental science) creates conditions for such a classification of scientific research, when a new direction, belonging to the field of interdisciplinary research, is regarded as a success in mastering the technological base, or vice versa, seems only in the form of a line of development - fundamental sciences. At the same time, these scientific studies owe their origin to the fundamental sciences, but at present they are already more related to applied research, and only indirectly serve the development of fundamental science.
An example of this is nanotechnology, the foundation of which, relatively recently, in terms of the development of science, was laid, among many other areas, precisely by fundamental research in the field natural sciences– many branches of physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science, electronics, synergetics, theory complex systems, systems analysis. Special mention should also be made of colloidal chemistry, dispersed systems and dissipative structures.
However, this does not mean that the fundamental research underlying a particular new technology should be completely subordinated to it, absorbing the support of other areas that are designed to engage in fundamental research of a fairly wide range.
Fundamental science is science for science's sake. It is part of a research activity without specific commercial or other practical purposes.
Natural science is an example of fundamental science. It is aimed at understanding nature as it is in itself, regardless of what application its discoveries will receive: space exploration or pollution environment. And natural science does not pursue any other goal. This is science for science's sake, i.e. knowledge of the surrounding world, the discovery of the fundamental laws of existence and the increase in fundamental knowledge. See→
Applied science is a science aimed at obtaining specific scientific result, which is actually or potentially used to satisfy private or public needs. See→
Interrelation of fundamental and applied sciences
Everything is different
Fundamental and applied science have different methods and subjects of research, different approaches and angles of view on social reality. Each of them has its own quality criteria, its own techniques and methodology, its own understanding of the functions of a scientist, its own own story and even its own ideology. In other words, your own world and your own subculture.How much does fundamental science give to practice?
Fundamental and applied sciences are two completely different types of activity. In the beginning, and this happened in ancient times, the distance between them was insignificant and almost everything that was discovered in the field of fundamental science immediately or in a short time found application in practice.
Archimedes discovered the law of leverage, which was immediately used in warfare and engineering. And the ancient Egyptians discovered geometric axioms, in literally without leaving the ground, since geometric science arose from the needs of agriculture.
The distance gradually increased and today reached its maximum. In practice, less than 1% of the discoveries made in pure science are implemented.
In the 1980s, Americans conducted an evaluation study (the purpose of such research is to assess the practical significance scientific developments, their effectiveness). For more than 8 years, a dozen research groups analyzed 700 technological innovations in weapons systems. The results stunned the public: 91% of inventions had previous applied technology as their source, and only 9% had achievements in the field of science. Moreover, of these, only 0.3% have a source in the area of pure (fundamental) research. (For more details, see: http://science.ng.ru/printed/polemics/2000-04-19/3_status.html).
Do they converge or diverge?
IN different time Fundamental and applied science come closer and then diverge.
As for applied sociology, for example, as G. Mauksch believes (Mauksch H.O. Teaching applied sociology: opportunities and obstacles // Applied sociology: roles and activities of sociologists in diverse settings / Ed. by H.E. Freeman, Dynes R.R., Rossi P.H. and Whyte W.F. - San Francisco etc.: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1983.р.312-313.), at the beginning of the twentieth century, the teaching of applied sociology was better than at the end. At that time, academic sociology, due to the underdevelopment or lack of sophistication of its methodological apparatus, was not strictly distinguished from applied sociology. Both were called social research. But gradually the gap between the two branches of sociology widened. Alienation grew as the academic sphere enjoyed more and less prestige, and the applied one enjoyed less and less prestige. However, in the 70s there was a turn, many academic sociologists actively took up applied projects and began to teach applied sociology to their students. If previously applied sociology was viewed as a temporary career, now it is viewed as a permanent and promising occupation.
Man, being a part of nature and having some similarities with animals, especially primates, however, has absolutely unique property. His brain can perform actions that are called cognitive in psychology - cognitive. Man's ability for abstract thinking, associated with the development of the cerebral cortex, led him to a targeted comprehension of the patterns underlying the evolution of nature and society. As a result, such a phenomenon of cognition arose as basic science.
In this article we will look at the ways of development of its various branches, and we will also find out how theoretical research differs from practical forms of cognitive processes.
General knowledge - what is it?
Part cognitive activity, which studies the basic principles of the structure and mechanisms of the universe, and also touches on the cause-and-effect relationships that arise as a result of the interactions of objects of the material world - this is fundamental science.
She is called upon to study theoretical aspects both natural and mathematical disciplines and humanities. The special structure of the United Nations dealing with issues of science, education and culture - UNESCO - classifies as fundamental research precisely those that lead to the discovery of new laws of the universe, as well as to the establishment of connections between natural phenomena and objects of physical matter.
Why we need to support theoretical research
One of the distinctive features inherent in highly developed states is high level development of general knowledge and generous funding scientific schools involved in global projects. As a rule, they do not provide immediate material benefits and are often time-consuming and expensive. However, it is fundamental science that is the basis on which further practical experiments and the implementation of the results obtained in industrial production, agriculture, medicine and other sectors of human activity are based.
Fundamental and applied science is the driving force of progress
So, global knowledge of the essence of being in all forms of its manifestation is a product of the analytical and synthetic functions of the human brain. The empirical assumptions of ancient philosophers about the discreteness of matter led to the emergence of a hypothesis about the existence of the smallest particles - atoms, voiced, for example, in the poem “On the Nature of Things” by Lucretius Cara. The ingenious research of M.V. Lomonosov and D. Dalton led to the creation of an outstanding atomic-molecular theory.
The postulates that basic science provided served as the basis for subsequent applied research carried out by practicing scientists.
From theory to practice
The path from the office of a theoretical scientist to a research laboratory can take many years, or it can be rapid and full of new discoveries. For example, Russian scientists D. D. Ivanenko and E. M. Gapon in 1932 discovered the composition in laboratory conditions atomic nuclei, and soon Professor A.P. Zhdanov proved the existence inside the nucleus of extremely strong forces that bind protons and neutrons into a single whole. They were called nuclear, and the applied discipline - nuclear physics - found use for them in cyclophasotrons (one of the first was created in 1960 in Dubna), in nuclear power plant reactors (in 1964 in Obninsk), and in the military industry. All the examples we have given above clearly show how fundamental and applied science are interconnected.
The role of theoretical research in understanding the evolution of the material world
It is no coincidence that the beginning of the formation of universal human knowledge is associated with the development, first of all, of the system of natural disciplines. Our society initially tried not only to understand the laws of material reality, but also to gain total power over them. Enough to remember famous aphorism I. V. Michurina: “We cannot wait for favors from nature; taking them from her is our task.” To illustrate, let's look at how basic physical science developed. Examples confirming human genius can be found in the discoveries that led to the formulation
Where is knowledge of the law of gravity used?
It all started with the experiments of Galileo Galilei, who proved that the weight of a body does not affect the speed with which it falls to the ground. Then Isaac Newton formulated a postulate of universal significance - the law of universal gravitation.
Humanity successfully applies the theoretical knowledge acquired by fundamental physics in modern methods geological exploration, in making forecasts of ocean tides. used in motion calculations artificial satellites Earth and intergalactic stations.
Biology - fundamental science
Perhaps in no other branch of human knowledge is there such an abundance of facts that serve as a striking example of the unique development of cognitive processes in the biological species Homo sapiens. The postulates of natural science formulated by Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel, Thomas Morgan, I. P. Pavlov, I. I. Mechnikov and other scientists radically influenced the development of modern evolutionary theory, medicine, selection, genetics and Agriculture. Below we will give examples that confirm the fact that in the field of biology, fundamental and applied science are closely interconnected.
From modest experiments in garden beds to genetic engineering
IN mid-19th centuries in a small town in the south of the Czech Republic, G. Mendel conducted experiments on crossing several varieties of peas with each other, which differed in color and seed shape. From the resulting hybrid plants, Mendel collected fruits and counted seeds with different characteristics. Thanks to his extreme thoroughness and pedantry, the experimenter conducted several thousand experiments, the results of which he presented in a report.
Fellow scientists, having listened politely, ignored him. But in vain. Almost a hundred years have passed, and several scientists at once - De Vries, Chermak and Correns - announced the discovery of the laws of heredity and the creation of a new biological discipline - genetics. But the laurels of championship did not go to them.
The time factor in understanding theoretical knowledge
As it turned out later, they duplicated the experiments of G. Mendel, taking only other objects for their research. By the middle of the 20th century, new discoveries in the field of genetics began to pour in, such as De Vries creating his mutation theory, T. Morgan - the chromosomal theory of heredity, Watson and Crick deciphering the structure of DNA.
However, the three main postulates formulated by G. Mendel still remain the cornerstone on which biology stands. Basic science in Once again has proven that its results are never in vain. They're just waiting right time, when humanity is ready to understand and evaluate new knowledge as it deserves.
The role of humanities disciplines in the development of global knowledge about the world order
History is one of the very first branches of human knowledge, which originated in ancient times. Herodotus is considered its founder, and the first theoretical work is the treatise “History”, written by him. To this day, this science continues to study the events of the past, and also identifies possible cause-and-effect relationships between them on the scale of both human evolution and in the development of individual states.
The outstanding studies of O. Comte, M. Weber, G. Spencer served as strong evidence in favor of the statement that history is a fundamental science designed to establish the laws of development of human society at various stages of its development.
Its applied branches are economic history, archeology, history of state and law - deepen our understanding of the principles of organization and evolution of society in the context of the development of civilizations.
Jurisprudence and its place in the system of theoretical sciences
How the state functions, what patterns can be identified in the process of its development, what are the principles of interaction between the state and law - these questions are answered by the fundamental It contains the most common categories and concepts for all applied branches of jurisprudence. They are then successfully used in their work by criminology, forensic medicine, and legal psychology.
Jurisprudence ensures compliance with legal norms and laws, which is the most important condition preservation and prosperity of the state.
The role of computer science in globalization processes
To imagine how in demand this science is in modern world, let us present the following figures: more than 60% of all jobs in the world are equipped with computer technology, and in high-tech industries the figure increases to 95%. The erasing of information barriers between states and their populations, the creation of global trade and economic monopolies, and the formation of international communication networks is impossible without IT technologies.
Computer science as a fundamental science creates a set of principles and methods that ensure the computerization of control mechanisms for any objects and processes occurring in society. Its most promising application areas are network development, economic computer science, and computer-aided production control.
Economics and its place in the world scientific potential
Economic fundamental science is the basis for modern interstate industrial production. It reveals cause-and-effect relationships between all subjects economic activity society, and also develops the methodology of a single economic space on the scale of modern human civilization.
Originating in the works of A. Smith and D. Ricardo, having absorbed the ideas of monetarism, modern economic science widely uses the concepts of neoclassics and the mainstream. On their basis, applied industries were formed: regional and post-industrial economics. They study both the principles of rational production location and the consequences of the scientific and technological revolution.
In this article we found out what role fundamental science plays in the development of society. The examples given above confirm its paramount importance in understanding the laws and principles of the functioning of the material world.
Applied sciences represent a field of human activity that is used to apply existing scientific knowledge to develop practical applications, for example: technologies or inventions.
Fundamental and applied knowledge systems
Science can be fundamental or basic theoretical and applied. The goal of the theoretical is to understand how things work: be it a single cell, an organism of trillions of cells, or an entire ecosystem. Scientists working in basic science expand human knowledge about nature and the world around us. The knowledge gained through the study of the fields of life sciences is mainly fundamental.
Basic sciences are the source of most scientific theories. For example, a scientist who is trying to figure out how the body makes cholesterol, or what causes a particular disease, is defined by basic science. This is also known as theoretical research. Additional examples of basic research will investigate how glucose is converted into cellular energy or how harmful increased level blood glucose.
Cell study ( cell biology), the study of heredity (genetics), the study of molecules (molecular biology), the study of microorganisms and viruses (microbiology and virology), the study of tissues and organs (physiology). All types of basic research have collected a lot of information that is applicable to humans.
Applied sciences use scientific discoveries through theoretical research to solve practical problems. For example, medicine, and everything that is known about how to treat patients is applied based on basic research. The doctor, having administered the drug, determines the cholesterol level, this is an example of applied knowledge.
Applied sciences create new technologies based on fundamental knowledge. For example, designing a wind turbine to harness wind energy is an applied science. However, this technology is based on basic science. Research into wind patterns and bird migration patterns helps determine the best placement for a wind turbine.
Relationship between fundamental and applied knowledge systems
During research, both fundamental and applied science are used. Inventions are carefully planned, but it is important to note that some discoveries are made by chance; that is, by chance, as a happy surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming forgot a cup of staphylococcus bacteria. Unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing off pathogenic bacteria. The mold turned out to be and thus a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in a highly organized world, luck, combined with a careful, inquisitive mind, can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.
Epidemiology, which studies the patterns, causes, consequences, and health conditions of disease in a given population, is the application of the formal sciences of statistics and probability theory. Genetic epidemiology applies both biological and statistical methods related to different types of sciences.
Thus, the line between theoretical and practical human activity is very arbitrary.
Examples of applied knowledge systems
Some people may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.”
A careful look at history, however, shows that basic knowledge entails many wonderful applications having great importance. Many scientists believe that a basic understanding is necessary before developing an application.
Thus, applied science relies on the results obtained through theoretical research.
Other scientists think it is time to move from theory to practice instead of finding solutions to current problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that require immediate practical attention. However, many solutions are found only with the help of a broad base of acquired fundamental knowledge.
One example of how basic and applied sciences can work together to solve practical problems occurred with the discovery of the structure of DNA, which led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate DNA replication. Strands of DNA are unique to each person and are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions needed to live. During DNA replication, it makes new copies shortly before cell division. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication has allowed scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify, e.g. genetic diseases or identify persons who were at the crime scene or determine paternity.
Without fundamental or theoretical training, it is unlikely that applied science will exist.
Another example of the connection between basic and applied research is the project, a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and compared to determine the exact sequence of DNA subunits and the exact location of each gene (a gene is the basic unit of heredity, the complete set of genes is a genome). Less complex organisms were also studied as part of this project in order to better understand human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project relied on fundamental research on simple organisms, which later led to the description of the human genome. An important end goal was to use applied research data to find treatments and early diagnosis of genetically determined diseases. The Human Genome Project was the result of 13 years of collaboration between researchers working in different fields. The project, which sequenced the entire human genome, was completed in 2003.
Thus, fundamental and applied human activity are inseparable and depend on each other.
It is known that sciences are divided into natural and social, fundamental and applied, exact and descriptive, physical and mathematical, chemical, biological, technical, medical, pedagogical, military, agricultural and many, many others.
By what criteria are sciences classified? Why is this necessary? What trends are observed in the classification of sciences? The problem of classification of sciences is dealt with by many people: from philosophers to production managers and public life. Why is this so important? Because the consequences of classification are important. The independent status of science is its relative independence - material, financial, organizational, and the latter circumstances always play an important role in the life of everyone, especially among managers. At the same time, the problem of classification of sciences also performs a cognitive function. Correctly performed classification allows you to see solved and unresolved problems, key areas of development.
Let us note right away that there is no established classification of sciences. Throughout the history of the development of science, there have been discussions on this issue. In the 19th century, F. Engels managed to propose a classification of sciences that satisfied many people. It was proposed as such a sign forms of matter motion. Engels proposed the following ordered series of forms of motion of matter: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social. This led to the classification of sciences by areas of research: processes of mechanical movement - mechanics, physical processes - physics, chemical processes - chemistry, biological processes - biology, social processes - social Sciences.
However, science developed rapidly and discovered new levels of matter itself, discovered stages of the evolution of matter. In this regard, the above and newly discovered forms of motion of matter began to be classified according to the stages of development of matter: in inorganic nature; in living nature; in man; in society.
During the discussions, two groups of sciences emerged that study all forms of matter movement natural Sciences(as if there are “unnatural” ones, as the physicist Landau joked about this obviously unfortunate term), the field of study of which is considered to be nature and social Sciences or in some sources they are called humanities and history, the field of study of which is considered to be man, society and thinking. Figure 5 shows a list of the main sciences of these two groups.
Figure 5 - List of natural and social sciences
The search for the most acceptable classification was accompanied by attempts ranking of sciences. Which of them are the initial prerequisites for the development of others? This is how the division of all sciences into two more groups appeared: fundamental and applied. It is believed that fundamental sciences discover fundamental laws and facts, and applied sciences, using the results of fundamental sciences, obtain knowledge for the purposeful transformation of reality. In turn, fundamental sciences are divided into two more groups: species sciences(area of research - knowledge of one stage, one type or one form of motion of matter); range-species science (field of research - knowledge of a certain range of stages, types, forms of motion of matter, but on a limited range of issues). This is how a new list of sciences appears, much more significant than the one given earlier (see Figure 6).
Figure 6 - List of fundamental and applied sciences
The considered features of the classification of sciences, however, do not in any way address the problems of the methods and schemes for studying phenomena used in them. Although it has long been known from scientific practice that there are different methods and research schemes in certain groups of sciences. On this basis, it is customary to distinguish three groups of sciences: descriptive sciences; exact sciences; humanitarian sciences. A list of these basic sciences is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 - List of descriptive, precise and humanities
The presented classification of sciences plays an important ideological role in determining the object of a specific study, forming the subject of research and choosing adequate research methods. These issues are discussed in the second chapter.
Along with the classification considered, there is now formally a departmental regulatory document - Classifier of directions and specialties of higher education. vocational education with a list of master's programs (specializations). It identifies 4 groups of sciences within which master’s theses should be prepared:
1. Natural sciences and mathematics (mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.).
2. Humanities and socio-economic sciences (cultural studies, theology, philology, philosophy, linguistics, journalism, bibliology, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, regional studies, management, economics, art, Physical Culture, commerce, agricultural economics, statistics, art, law, etc.).
3. Technical science(construction, printing, telecommunications, metallurgy, mining, electronics and microelectronics, geodesy, radio engineering, architecture, etc.).
4. Agricultural sciences (agronomy, animal science, veterinary medicine, agricultural engineering, forestry, fisheries, etc.).
It is clear that master's theses in the field government controlled should be developed within the framework of the second group of sciences - the humanities and socio-economics.
Each group of sciences indicated above has its own area of research, has own methods research and schemes of knowledge, received its own laws, patterns and conclusions. At the same time, a tendency towards rapid differentiation (separation) of sciences is clearly visible. In ancient times, under Aristotle, there was only one science - philosophy. In the 11th century, six sciences were already distinguished, in the 17th century - eleven sciences, in the 19th century - thirty-two sciences, in the middle of the 20th century - more than a hundred sciences. But along with this, in last years The negative consequences of differentiation are becoming increasingly recognized. After all the world is united, and differentiation is based on the fact that each science studies its own piece of this world. Open laws have a limited scope. And humanity has reached a point in its practical activities when knowledge about the world as a whole is urgently needed. There is a search for a unifying science, like the one that mathematics once became. Mathematics unites natural, social, fundamental and applied sciences, but is their servant and at the same time is not able to adequately, without distortion, display a significant number of processes. Perhaps systemology is currently claiming this role ( systems approach, system analysis), which tries to take the place of the methodology of all sciences.
There is another tendency as a consequence of the division of sciences and their relatively independent development. The natural sciences are ahead of the social sciences in terms of their level of development and age. That's how history turned out. And very often one can see how young social sciences borrow methods and research schemes of the natural sciences. This does not take into account the fundamentally different nature of the phenomena under study. This was the case, for example, in cases of the spread of the laws of biological and physical processes, for some social processes. Thus, in our opinion, there has been a wide spread of the dependencies of probability theory in the field of research into relationships between people. This is true in many other cases.
Thus, summing up the consideration of the classification of sciences, we can draw the following conclusions.
The classification of sciences is a complex and practically important problem that has not yet been completely resolved. Sciences are classified on different grounds: according to the studied forms of motion of matter; according to the stages of development of matter; according to the degree of their fundamentality; according to the applied methods and schemes of cognition.