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India after the Second World War Prepared by a history teacher at KSU “Uritskaya” high school No. 1" Ivanova Olga Nikolaevna.

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Until the mid-20th century, India consisted of principalities dependent on Great Britain and territories that were British colonies. India was considered by Great Britain as a source of raw materials (coal, ore, cotton, etc.). British India and the native princely states in 1909

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Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak - Indian radical nationalist, social reformer and independence fighter. Nationality: Marathi. The first leader of the Indian independence movement - the Indian National Congress (1885) Swaraj "law" is a synonym for the concept of self-government, used by Mahatma Gandhi. Usually associated with the concept of Indian independence from Great Britain introduced by Gandhi. Swaraj basically involves political decentralization and governance not through government but through members of society and public meetings.

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The national liberation movement in India, the largest British colony, intensified after World War II. It was led by two parties - the Indian National Congress (INC), whose leader was Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The INC stood for preserving the integrity of the country, and the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan - an independent Muslim state. The British tried unsuccessfully to reconcile the positions of both sides. In June 1947, a plan was developed according to which the territory of the country was to be divided along religious lines into 2 states - India and Pakistan. The plan served as the basis for the Indian Independence Act passed by Great Britain. On August 15, 1947, British troops withdrew from Indian territory. Two new states emerged on the world map - the Indian Union (India) and Pakistan. National liberation movement in India Jawaharlal Nehru Muhammad Ali Jinnah

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The borders between the newly formed states did not reflect the characteristics of the national composition, which led to armed conflicts between India and Pakistan. It is estimated that more than 6 million Muslims and 4.5 million Hindus migrated. Almost 700 thousand people died in Hindu-Muslim clashes. Mahatma Gandhi spoke out sharply against Hindu-Muslim hostility by going on a hunger strike in protest. However, his position was not shared by extremists from both parties. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was mortally wounded during one of the rallies. His death forced the leaders of the INC and the Muslim League to seek opportunities for compromise and reconciliation. In 1947-1949. 555 Indian principalities (out of 601) were annexed to India, the rest became part of Pakistan.

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On November 26, 1949, a new constitution of India was adopted, which came into force on January 26, 1950. India is a parliamentary federal republic. The head of state is the president, elected for a 5-year term by a college of voters. The highest legislative body is parliament, consisting of two chambers - the People's House and the Council of States. The Government of India - the Council of Ministers - is formed by the parliamentary faction of the party that won the elections to the House of the People. The Prime Minister and the Government of India exercise considerable power. The judiciary, as the third branch of government, functions independently.

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Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India. J. Nehru's economic policy provided for the division of industry. Thus, Indian industry consisted of three sectors: - state - heavy industry, energy, vehicles, communications; mixed - modern sectors of the economy; private - light and food industries. Western countries shared their technical experience with India, provided loans, and invested in Indian industry. Since 1955, economic relations between India and the USSR began to develop at an accelerated pace. In December 1953, the first Soviet-Indian agreement was signed on the participation of the USSR in construction in the city of Bhilai metallurgical plant with a capacity of 1 million tons of steel.

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Reforms of Jawaharlal Nehru. Development of state capitalism (mixed economy) Agrarian transformations Improvement of the health care and education system Comprehensive development of relations with all states of the world Administrative and political reforms (law on the reorganization of states)

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New modern industries began to develop in the country - aerospace, instrument making, petrochemicals. In the agricultural sector of the economy, the situation was much worse. home social problem Indian village - small plots of land for the majority of rural workers - was solved with enormous difficulties. The government eliminated the institution of intermediaries who rented land from landowners and then subleased it to the peasants, had a fixed rent, bought part of the landowners' lands and transferred it to the peasants. However, the essence of the INC's agricultural policy was to support the development of large, highly productive farms. In the growth of grain production, the “green revolution” played a certain role - a set of agrotechnical measures for the use of high-yielding varieties of crops, fertilizers, and modern agricultural equipment. However, the “green revolution” was limited.

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INK in 1947-1964 took a clear position on such fundamental issues as the struggle for peace, security and cooperation with other countries, countering aggression, colonialism and racism. J. Nehru and his country stood at the origins of the non-aligned movement. At the initiative of India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia, the First Conference of the Heads of State and Government of 25 non-aligned countries was held in Belgrade in September 1961. However, at that time relations between India and China became seriously complicated. In the late 50s and early 60s, the PRC laid claim to some areas in the Himalayas. This caused the Dalai Lama, the “living god” of all Buddhists, to escape from Tibet to India. The Indian government's support for the Dalai Lama worsened relations between states, which led to armed conflict. Chinese troops have captured part of Indian territory in the Himalayas. These troubles had a detrimental effect on the health of J. Nehru, and in May 1964 he died.

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In mid-1973 - early 1974, as a result of the global energy crisis, the cost of importing oil increased many times over, which covered 2/3 of India's needs for this type of raw material. The level of production in the energy industry has sharply decreased. Due to inflation, prices rose. A terrible drought caused enormous damage to agriculture. The standard of living of the population, already low, was declining. Despite the policy announced by the Indira Gandhi government to achieve economic independence, India was forced to take out large foreign loans. In the context of the economic crisis, resistance to the opposition grew. In this situation, on June 26, 1975, the government declared a state of emergency in the country.

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Ticket number 16.India after World War II

During World War II, India officially took the side of the countries anti-Hitler coalition, but her politicians behaved differently. The Indian National Congress presented claims to the English government: they promised to support England in the war only on the condition that the British government officially recognized India's right to self-determination, convened a constituent assembly and formed a responsible government (they demanded independent government). The British government did not agree and from 42 to 44 the Indian National Congress was banned. => during these years the Indian National Congress fought on two fronts both against Hitler and against the British government. By the end of World War II, England's position was softening. The main problem remained the relationship between the Congress and the Muslim League (the point of divergence between them was the sequence of granting independence. The Indian National Congress demanded first to grant independence, and then to carry out territorial delimitation between Muslims and Hindus, the Muslim League, on the contrary, was afraid to remain part of India without an English presence)

In 1944 Congress begins normal political activity. After the end of World War II, in June the Viceroy Archibald Wavell provides a plan to grant India independence (effectively a protectorate):

1. 1. Dominion status
2. 2. The right of Hindus to have their own constitution
3. 3. Granting Indians all seats in the executive council (government), except for the post of viceroy (head of the council) and commander-in-chief (The troops are under the authority of the archdiocese)
4. 4. Law of external relations
5. 5. Separate representation in the Caste Hindu Council

Nobody liked this plan. The Indian National Congress demanded representation for caste Hindus. The Muslim League demanded that only it should represent the Muslims, without recognizing the right of representation of the Muslims to the Indian National Congress. (Further, the new Labor government is trying in every possible way to speed up the granting of independence, but the Hindus cannot distribute the sequence of obtaining it)

In 1946, there is a division into various zones in which voting on the creation of various states should take place. East-west (present Pakistan and Bangladesh) - Muslim majority and north (Hindustan, Rajputana, Bidar, Bengal) center (Deccan) south. It is assumed that the first two zones (west and east) will be united into one state, and the rest will be a separate Hindu state. But several problems arise:

• · The problem of Punjab (it is half Muslim and half Hindu)
• · Problem of Jamma and Kashmir
• · The problem of Hyderabad (a significant part is assimilated by Muslims)

Attlee (Prime Minister of Great Britain, Viceroy of India) cannot resolve these issues. In February 1947, he issued the third declaration, which spoke of the departure of England no later than 1948.

In March 1947, Attlee was replaced by Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India). He provides Mountbatten's plan (If within 47 Hindus and Muslims do not agree among themselves, then he will transfer power to the provinces) => they begin to move, 1947 - the formation of 2 dominions: Pakistan (existed until 1956) and India (existed until 1950).

On August 15, 1947, the Mountbatten Plan for Indian Independence came into force. The English king continues to remain the head of India for 3 years, and Jawaharlal Nehru becomes prime minister.

From 1947 to 1949, 555 (there were 601 in total) principalities joined India, they entered on different grounds. But in general, not the most favorable period for India (+ a period of clashes, hostilities between Muslims and Hindus, who wandered around problem areas and did not know where to settle). The princes of the problem territories were left with the right to decide on the issue of annexation independently Hyderabad problem: the ruler of Hyderabad had to decide whether he would join India or Pakistan, so Indian troops stood around the perimeter of Hyderabad and asked them to quickly decide => the Rajah of Hyderabad decided to join India. Jamma and Kashmir problem: The Rajah was Hindu, and the population was Muslim. Indian troops entered Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan considered this an act of aggression => a war began that continues to this day.

India is a multi-ethnic country - it was decided that for 15 years the official language, along with Hindi, would be English (it remains so to this day). In 1950, a constitution was adopted, according to which 3 groups of states with different legal status were created in India:

1. Former provinces of British India. Governance: State governor, state government and local bicameral parliament.
2. Former principalities. Governance: the prince became governor and had a unicameral assembly
3. The former commissary provinces—provinces that had government—reported directly to the central government. Governance: State Governor or Presidential Commissioner appointed by the government.

India became independent in 1950 . The leading political force is the Indian National Congress; there are various currents within it. The main current was Jawaharlal Nehru(left and center wing) - formally mixed economy (in fact, dominance of the public sector), planned economy, implementation of agrarian reform. In foreign policy there is formal neutrality, a real inclination towards political direction Soviet Union. Right wing - represented by Deputy Prime Minister Patel + powerful figure - Congress Chairman Tandon - free enterprise, creation modern market, integration into the international capitalist system.

After independence was declared, various parties began to branch off from the Indian National Congress:

• Peasant Labor Party
• Congress Socialists => Socialist Party
• Jawaharlal Nehru dominates - Congress socialism and Gandhian socialism

In the first elections of 1951 The Indian National Congress was opposed by the Jan Sangh (people's alliance). The Jan Sangh is an ally of the communalist party (traditional Hindu organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya swayamsevak sanghan) - defended the interests Hindus . The head is Mukherjee. The program is the construction of true nationalism (the slogan of the Indian National Congress was secularism - the separation of religion from the state) and the demand for a change in secularist policies, patronage for Hindus and ensuring their priority. The Indian National Congress wins the elections (they received 75 seats in parliament).

Nehru's course begins to be implemented:

1. Providing ourselves with everything we need, creating an import-substituting industry.
2. The program of the national congress provided for the creation of ethnolinguistic states. In 1956, a state reorganization law was passed, according to which homogeneous ethnolinguistic communities should exist in 19 states and union territories (which again raised the problem of a single language - it became clear that the introduction of Hindi as state language postponed)
3. In the first term of the Indian National Congress, sub-Congress socialism emerged - the limitation of acquisitive instincts and proprietary aspirations
4. They believed that it was necessary to fight against caste restrictions (abolition of untouchables)
5. Creating conditions for the development of backward peoples and tribes
6. Emphasis on statism and mixed economy

In the second elections of 1957 - again a victory for the Indian National Congress, but with less popular support (it decreased especially in regional areas). These elections also demonstrated the strengthening of the Jan Sangh.

In 1959, a group left the Congress that was dissatisfied with Nehru’s course - Swatantra (a more right-wing organization), which adjoins the Jan Sangh, they are also going to build true Hindu socialism.

In 1957, the Republican Party was created, which expresses the interests of low-caste and non-caste Indians.

Parties are created on the basis of various sects: Rajputs, Brahmins.

1962 – third elections . A significant loss of authority of the Indian National Congress is visible (6 million voters were lost). The right-wing Swatantra and Jan Sangh are strengthening. A factional struggle is unfolding in the Indian National Congress; if earlier Jawaharlal Nehru represented both the left and the centrists, now only the centrists. The left gets its new leader - Mallavia, Patel and Desai remain on the right. => factions within the Indian National Congress oppose the officially nominated candidates for the Congress. In 1963, Morarji Desai and Patel formed a group within the Congress, which was called the Syndicate, and in 1969 they left the Indian National Congress.

Jawaharlal Nehru dies in 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minister– cannot overcome differences within the Congress, disintegration continues.

In India actually 5 communist parties:

• · Communist Party
• · Marxist Communist Party
• · Centrist Party of Marxist Intellectuals
• · Marxist-Leninist Communist Party
• · Naxalite movement

At this time, 1964-65 war with Pakistan. Reconciliation of the parties takes place in Tashkent. In 1967, Lal Bahadur Shastri realized that he could not cope with the management of the Indian National Congress and with India => gradually removed himself from the role. In 1967, as a result of internal political struggle, Indira Gandhi came to power in the Indian National Congress.

1967 – fourth elections , in which the Indian National Congress loses a significant number of seats in parliament (19 seats in the House of the People). In 1969 Morarji Desai came out and a split occurred:

• Indian National Congress with Indira
• Indian National Congress Syndicate (organization) with Desai

At this time, on the one hand, the state is developing in the country. sector and heavy industry is being created, the latest technologies are being created, agrarian reform is taking place (due to the redistribution of land between large landowners and the poor), and at the same time there is extreme poverty in the country, 70% of the country is in extreme poverty. All economic success takes place in a smaller part of the population.

Fifth elections 1971-72 passed against the backdrop of India's strong foreign policy success, a split occurred in India's traditional enemy, Pakistan (in 1971, Pakistan lost its eastern half and Bangladesh was formed). => The Indian National Congress received an absolute majority and the ability to change the constitution.

Against the backdrop of the successes of the Indian National Congress, the opposition forces are uniting: Swatantra, Jan Sangh, Indian National Congress Syndicate, United Socialist Party and Regional Congress are trying to resist the Indian Congress.

1974-75: the situation worsens, the Indian People's Party (agrarian) is formed, which is based on the expression of the interests of the rich sections of the village (dissatisfied with the agrarian reform)

In 1975, a trial was initiated against Indira Gandhi, she was accused of rigging elections and violating state laws. Ram is nominated for the post of Prime Minister. In 1975, a state of emergency was introduced in India; the Indian National Congress, with the help of emergency measures, tried to stabilize its social base. A youth movement led by Indira’s son, Sanjay Gandhi, enters the political arena; a supporter of tough methods of solving problems => puts forward a program:

1. Elimination of illiteracy (going to the people, educating the masses + simultaneously explaining to them how good Indira Gandhi’s policies are)
2. Fight against casteism (elimination of untouchability) - upliftment of lower castes
3. Abolition of dowry
4. The fight for clean streets (demolition of old houses and construction of new ones from which they made a profit)
5. The fight against fertility was reduced to the sterilization of the male population.

In January 1977, the state of emergency was lifted and elections were scheduled for March. The apposition created a popular front (Jarata Front) led by Morarji Desi, whose main task was:

1. Restoration of democratic freedoms (Indira was accused of authoritarianism)
2. Carrying out agrarian reform not of a social nature, but carrying out a “green revolution” and introducing new technologies to increase productivity.
3. Securing employment
4. Limitation of the public sector and granting more freedom to entrepreneurs (+ there were even privatization projects in the lans of the Popular Front)

Sixth Election 1977 - First defeat of the Indian National Congress. The Jarat front is in power, represented by a conglomerate of various parties. They tried to make a party out of the front => May 1977 - Jarata Party, but as soon as they united they began to struggle. Various parties begin to emerge from the Jarata Front =>in fact, it disintegrates. All this leads to destabilization and disruption of control. =>

In the seventh elections 1980 Indian National Congress wins again. (During this time, changes occurred within the Congress - there was a desire to deviate somewhat from the course of Gandhian socialism)

At this time, national apposition movements are intensifying in the country:

• · Sikhs – announce their desire to create their own state, Khalistan
• · Tamils ​​- trying to form an independent state of Tamil Eelam
• · Jammu and Kashmir - open and covert military operations are underway

Internal struggle leads to severe consequences. Indira Gandhi's bodyguard consisted of Sikhs => October 1984 - they killed Indira.

In the eighth elections 1984 Indian National Congress wins led by Rajiv Gandhi (he completely changes the political course):

1. Retreats from Gandhian socialism
2. Privatization begins, the state share decreases. sectors
3. India is leaning towards the USA, Germany and Japan - the internal and external course is changing sharply

At the same time, Rajiv Gandhi's government is under attack for corruption, which has severely undermined faith in the Indian National Congress. A group of members emerges from it again in 1988.

Ninth elections 1989 – second defeat of Congress. The Congress government resigns and the National Front (Rashtriya Morcha) comes to power led by Vishwanath Pratap Singh. => There is no stability, from 1989 to 1991 various political forces continue to fight (from among the right: a pariah is formed on the basis of the Jarata Front - Bharatiya Janata Party).

1991 tenth election (Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated between rounds of elections) => compassionate Hindus vote for the Indian National Congress. In India, the new prime minister is Narasimha Rao, in his program:

1. Denationalization
2. Changing the import-substituting economy to a licensed one

1990s – sharp growth and modernization of the economy. In the eleventh elections 1996 Indian National Congress loses(the problem of privatization, enrichment, transition to friendship with America is not the original policy of Congress, there are those who do it better).

In the twelfth elections 1996 winsBharatiya Janata Party. Comes to powerAtal Bihari Vajpayee (occupies the post of Prime Minister for a short time - May 16, 1996 - June 1, 1996 )

+ A new organization has emerged - the United Front ( headed by Deve Gowda,which with On June 1, 1996, he served as Prime Minister of India from the United Front (a coalition of 13 center and left parties). The Deve Gowda government resigned on April 21, 1997 ) – technocrats, people representing mainly regional interests (focused on settling relations with China). In fact, they carried out the policy that they pursued Indian National Congress in 1991-95, but they did it better and with more certainty - they are following the path of capitalist development (private enterprises are being sold, privatization is underway). But they lack certainty (either Gandhian socialism or true nationalism) => The result of a parliamentary compromise between the Congress and the United Front, who did not want to hold early general parliamentary elections after the resignation of the government of H.D. Deve Gowda, became the government of I.K. Gujrala (Janata Dal Party - Prime Minister April 21, 1997 - March 19, 1998).

Thirteenth elections 1998 – again the success of the Bharatiya Janata Party. PremierAtal Bihari Vajpayee, V During Vajpayee's premiership, India held its first nuclear tests at a training ground in the state of Rajasthan (Sharp economic growth, development zones are being identified - India is becoming one of the leading countries) All this cannot but worry that part of society that is committed to the ideas of Gandhism (the Gandhi family at that time was headed by the Italian Sonia Gandhi, Rajib’s wife.

Fourteenth elections 2004 - victory Indian National Congress and the problem arises whether to make an Italian prime minister or to act differently. As a result, a Hindu becomes prime minister - Manmohan Singh.

In June 1947, a final agreement was reached that allowed the British Parliament to pass the Indian Independence Act, which came into force on August 15, 1947. This document set out the principles of partition, according to which a number of areas were given the opportunity to decide whether to join the Indian Union or Pakistan and declared the right of everyone of these dominions to self-government with the right to secede from the Commonwealth. The suzerainty of the English monarchy over the Indian principalities, as well as the validity of the treaties concluded with them, also ceased. The population of East Bengal and West Punjab chose Pakistan, and the residents of West Bengal and East Punjab spoke in favor of joining the Indian Union. Declaration of Independence India after independence

Immediately after independence, a government was formed in India headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. The country witnessed unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was a massive migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus to India. Added to the communal hostility and clashes were the economic and political hardships caused by partition. Iron and car roads and irrigation canal systems were cut off by state borders, industrial enterprises were cut off from sources of raw materials, civil services, police and army, necessary to ensure normal governance of the country and the safety of citizens, were separated. On January 30, 1948, when the disturbances in public order began to decline, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic. Consequences of Jawaharlal Nehru's partition

The rulers of 555 princely states had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan. The peaceful integration of the vast majority of small principalities did not cause complications. But the Muslims, who stood at the head of the richest and most populous principality of Hyderabad, where Hindus numerically predominated, declared their desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948, Indian troops were brought into Hyderabad, and under pressure from the central Indian government, the Nizam signed an agreement to join the Indian Union. Consequences of the partition of the Principality of Hyderabad

A serious situation also arose in the north, where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, a territory with a predominantly Muslim population, was a Hindu maharaja. Pakistan put economic pressure on the princely state to achieve its annexation. In October 1947, about 5,000 armed Muslims entered Kashmir. The Maharaja, who was in dire need of help, signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the issue of Kashmir for discussion to the UN Security Council. The UN decided to recognize the actual ceasefire line as of January 1, 1949 as a demarcation line. On November 17, 1956, the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir adopted the Constitution, according to which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared an integral part of India. Consequences of the partition of the Disputed Territory of Kashmir

Relations with Pakistan have become a major issue foreign policy India. The protracted dispute over Kashmir has prevented India from taking a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. When Indian Prime Minister John Nehru refused to cooperate with the United States in the fight against Soviet expansion, the Americans entered into a military alliance with Pakistan. This forced the Indian leadership to expand contacts with China and the USSR. Indian-Soviet ties noticeably strengthened after the conclusion of a major trade agreement in 1953 and the exchange of visits by the leaders of the two states. The USSR welcomed India's policy of non-alignment, which coincided with its strategic line of limiting US influence in the Afro-Asian region. Consequences of the 1954 partition. Meeting of J. Nehru. On the left is I.M. Kharchenko.

On January 26, 1950, India was declared a republic. The constitution of 1950 reflected the cautious position of the leadership and enshrined achievements achieved during the country's independent development. The relatively simple procedure for amending the constitution based on decisions of the majority in parliament expanded the possibilities for further implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru, who was also the head of the Planning Commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy focused on creating a mixed economy and opened up prospects for cooperation with private capital, although only state ownership was allowed in leading industries. This rule affected enterprises in the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, mining, etc. Development and reforms Flag of India Emblem of India

The policy of stimulating industrial development was combined with a policy of cautious reforms in the agricultural sector. The Planning Commission strongly recommended that the states legislatively guarantee the protection of the rights of land users, in particular, limit rental rates, set a “ceiling” on the area of ​​​​individual land holdings and reorganize the credit and marketing system on a cooperative basis, and, in the more distant future, possibly agricultural production. Since 1953, the implementation of a community development program began, which set, in particular, the task of organizing a network of institutions to disseminate advanced agricultural experience in the village, as well as the creation of cooperative associations and panchayats in the village. Development and reforms Peasants

The government delayed reaching a compromise on the issue of reorganizing the territorial-administrative division on a linguistic basis, and when in 1956 14 states were formed on the basis of the dominant languages, discontent of other ethnic communities manifested itself. In 1960, serious unrest in the state of Bombay forced central authorities meet demands for its division into two new states - Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Sikhs succeeded when in 1965 Punjab was divided into the state of Punjab, in which Sikhs formed the majority, and the state of Haryana, with a predominantly Hindu population. The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in the northeastern border strip, where some local tribes demanded independence and raised armed uprisings for this purpose. Borders of the moderate course New administrative-territorial divisions

The compromise with the leading castes seriously limited the government's ability to carry out social transformation in the village. The laws on agrarian reform that were approved in the states contained significant gaps that made it possible, on the one hand, to drive tenants off the land, and on the other, to circumvent the provision on upper limit land holding areas. The slow rollout of reforms has led to chronic shortages of agricultural products, rising food prices and cuts in government subsidies. In the early 1960s, the financial crisis deepened. Economic stagnation, in turn, limited the INC's ability to maneuver. The limits of a moderate course The classical model of caste hierarchy

Nehru's authority in October 1962 was significantly undermined after the invasion of Chinese troops into the territory of the North-East Frontier Agency and into the Ladakh mountains in Kashmir. In an effort to ensure connections between Xinjiang Uyghur and Tibet autonomous regions, China tried to force India to give up rights to the strategically important Aksai Chin plain in eastern Ladakh in Kashmir. The armed forces of the People's Republic of China launched several attacks on the Indian army and occupied an area of ​​37,5 thousand square meters. km. By the time China announced the withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas except Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced to turn to the United States for military assistance. Borders of Ladakh temperate course on map of India

Sastri, who succeeded Nehru as Prime Minister, was nominated for this post by a group of party leaders called the "syndicate", which was supported by large landowners and entrepreneurs. In 1965, World Bank experts conditioned the provision of financial assistance on the implementation of a set of economic reforms. During his one and a half year tenure as Prime Minister, Shastri made decisions to reorient the main stream of government investment from heavy industry to Agriculture; emphasis on intensive farming and land reclamation; stimulation through a price system and the allocation of subsidies to village farms capable of modernizing production; increasing the role of private and foreign investment in industry. The economy became especially dependent on foreign financial receipts when the country was burdened with additional military expenditures during the second war with Pakistan in 1965. Nehru's successors Lal Bahadur Shastri

The losses suffered by the INC in the parliamentary elections in 1967 did not deprive it of a narrow victory at the national level, but led to defeat in 8 states. In the states of Kerala and West Bengal, the INC was removed from power by a coalition led by the Communist Party of India. In both states, left-wing governments restricted the activities of the police, and there there were protests by tenants and the agricultural proletariat against landowners and factory workers - against the management of enterprises. Revolutionary-minded communists supported armed peasant revolts in several states where the CPI operated. In the late 1960s, they organized protests by small peoples in Andhra Pradesh and members of the scheduled tribes and castes in West Bengal, which were suppressed by the army. Nehru's successors Parliament House in India

The country's next prime minister, Indira Gandhi, could no longer rely on the old party leaders and teamed up with a small youth group of socialists and former communists. The prime minister's decisive actions to nationalize the largest commercial banks connected her name with new policy oriented towards helping the poor. The prime minister's popularity reached its zenith in 1971 as a result of victory in the third Indo-Pakistani war. With the emergence of Bangladesh, India found itself in a dominant position in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974 it conducted nuclear tests, demonstrating the country's increased military power. Indira Gandhi

In 1971, the government restored the right of parliament to amend the Constitution, abolished in 1967 by a ruling of the Supreme Court. The adopted 26th Amendment stated that any law must comply with the fundamental articles of the Constitution, based on the principles of social and economic justice. When the amendment was rejected by the Supreme Court in April 1973, the government removed the three oldest judges who voted against it and appointed one of its members, who spoke in favor of the amendment, as chairman of the court. The leaders of all opposition forces, except the CPI, saw in this act a threat to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. The leader of the opposition was J. Narayan, the oldest follower of Mahatma Gandhi. Narayan launched an agitation campaign in Gujarat, which led in January 1974 to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution of the state legislature. An equally vigorous campaign was carried out in Bihar. Political crisis Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi's charge of "corrupt practices" on June 2, 1975 gave her opponents the opportunity to organize a movement to remove the Prime Minister. In response, Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India, which resulted in mass arrests of political opponents and widespread censorship. In the parliamentary elections in March 1977, the new Janata Party, which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory and repealed the emergency law. However, the Janata government soon became a victim of internal intrigues. Its head, M. Desai, resigned in June 1979, and in the parliamentary elections held in January 1980, Gandhi again came to power. Political crisis of Morarji Desai

Electoral participation in the 1980 elections dropped to approximately 55% with an increase in conflicts during the election campaign. In West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, the CPI won. The central government was faced with a resurgence of separatist movements in the northeast and a series of communal riots in Uttar Pradesh. In all cases, to restore order it was necessary to resort to military force. In June 1984, following an outbreak of Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army troops stormed the Sikh sanctuary, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, leading to the death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of his followers who had taken refuge in the temple. Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but it turned the Sikhs against the prime minister. On October 31, 1984, I. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh guards. She was replaced as head of government and as leader of the INC by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who scheduled parliamentary elections for the end of 1984 and won a landslide victory. Political crisis Rajiv Gandhi

In the 1989 elections, parties opposed to the INC (I) united around former minister finance V. P. Singh, who then headed the minority government. Singh's government relied on the Janata Dal party, created in 1988, and was supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and two communist parties. The coalition collapsed in November 1990 when the BJP left it. The next government of Chandra Sekhar resigned four months later because the INC(I) did not approve the state budget proposal. Political crisis BDP coat of arms

Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrown by a Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May 1991. It was an act of revenge for the entry of Indian troops into northern Sri Lanka in 1987 to counter Tamil separatists. The new Prime Minister Narasimha Rao carried out decisive economic reforms in 1992 designed to modernize the country's industrial, scientific and technological base. Less successful was the Rao government's efforts to prevent communal violence following the destruction of a mosque in Uttar Pradesh by orthodox Hindus in December 1992. Narasimha Rao's political crisis

Elections in April-May 1996 led to the distribution of seats in parliament between three main factions: the INC (136 parliamentary seats), the BDP (160) and a left-wing coalition called the United Front (111 seats). After the BJP refused to join the majority government, the new Prime Minister HD Deve Gowda brought in the INC. The basis of the government was made up of representatives of regional and leftist parties. Political crisis Sonia Gandhi, leader of the INC

In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Gowda, and the prime minister was forced to resign. His place was taken by Inder Kumar Gujral, appointed by the president and approved by parliament, who continued his predecessor’s course of economic liberalization and growth of economic indicators, but refused to further reduce spending on social sphere. India's foreign policy dialogue with Pakistan and China has intensified. The resignation of the Gujral government led to early parliamentary elections in March 1998. A coalition of 18 parties came to power, in which the BJP occupied a leading position. Political crisis Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers of China, India and Russia

The main task of the new Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was to maintain the coalition government led by the BJP. In April 1999, a government crisis occurred and the government was forced to resign. The lower house of parliament was dissolved. New parliamentary elections took place in October 1999. Despite Active participation In the election campaign of the Indian National Congress, the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, won a majority in parliament. Vajpayee became Prime Minister again. India's nuclear tests have complicated its relations with most countries of the world. In today's unstable situation, the factor of stability remains the figure of the president, who in 1997, for the first time in the history of the country, elected a representative of the former “untouchable” caste, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who previously served as vice president under S. D. Sharma, who belonged to the Brahmin caste. Political crisis Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Conclusion After independence, India faced many paths of national development. The effective development of the state was hampered by a number of internal problems: strong social differentiation, the presence of castes and dogmas, the problem of national minorities, the struggle between Hindus and Muslims. But despite the difficulties and obstacles in development, India has managed to reform and strengthen the social, economic and other spheres of society. Now India is a modern, dynamically developing state, actively participating in solving international problems.

After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.

Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens and the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:

The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan, “the land of the pure.”

The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the Inc. program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.

The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, the Muslim quarters of the city went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, escalating into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.

In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.

A huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims remaining in India. This caused attacks and accusations of betraying the interests of Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the religious organizations.

On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League became the head of the government of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.

When dividing the territories, neither economic ties between regions, neither geographical boundaries, nor national composition. 90% of all mineral reserves, textiles and sugar industries remain in Indian territory. Most of areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.

A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But the western part of the principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.

In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. XX century INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.

In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs and the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of Prime Minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These murders are associated with the intensification of nationalist and separatist movements in the country

movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. INC lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the generally successful development of the country, continue.

Declaration of Independence
June
1947
was
achieved
final
agreement,
allowing
British
parliament
pass the Indian Independence Act,
which came into force on August 15, 1947.
this document set out the principles
section, according to a number of areas
was provided
opportunity
decide - to join the Indian Union
or Pakistan and the right of each of these dominions to self-government was declared
with the right to withdraw from the Commonwealth.
stopped
Also
suzerainty
English monarchy over Indian
principalities,
A
Also
action
contracts concluded with them. Population
East Bengal and West Punjab
made a choice in favor of Pakistan, and
residents of West Bengal and East
Punjab supported joining
composition of the Indian Union.
Proclamation
independence
India after independence

Consequences of partition

Immediately after gaining independence in
India
was
formed
government headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. happened in the country
unprecedented clashes between
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.
What happened
massive
resettlement
Muslims to Pakistan, and Hindus to
India. To intercommunal hostility and
economic collisions have been added
And
political
difficulties,
caused by
section.
Iron
And
highways and systems
irrigation canals were cut
state
borders,
industrial enterprises are torn off
from
sources
raw materials
disunited
civil services, police and army,
necessary
For
provision
normal governance of the country and
security of citizens January 30, 1948
when public order is violated
let's go downhill, I was a Hindu fanatic
Gandhi was killed.
Consequences
section
Jawaharlal Nehru

Consequences of partition

The rulers of the 555 principalities were supposed to
decide whether to join India
or Pakistan. Peaceful integration
the vast majority of small
principalities did not cause any complications. But
Muslim deputy, who stood at the head
the richest and most populous
the principality of Hyderabad, where numerically
dominated by the Hindus, declared his
desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948
Hyderabad were introduced Indian
troops, and under pressure from the central
Indian government nizam
signed an agreement to join
composition of the Indian Union.
Principality of Hyderabad

Consequences of partition

A serious situation arose in the north,
where is the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir,
territories
With
mainly
Muslim
population,
was
Hindu Maharajah.
Pakistan
provided
economic pressure on the principality,
to achieve its accession. IN
October 1947 about 5,000 armed
Muslims entered Kashmir.
The Maharajah, who was in dire need of help,
signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused
the Pakistani side in aggression and
referred the issue of Kashmir for discussion to
UN Security Council. At the UN there was
decided
admit
V
quality
actual demarcation line
ceasefire line according to its condition
on January 1, 1949. November 17, 1956
The Constituent Assembly of Kashmir was
The Constitution was adopted in accordance with
which declared the state of Jammu and Kashmir to be an integral part of India.
Consequences of partition
Disputed territory of Kashmir

Consequences of partition

Relations with Pakistan have become central
Indian foreign policy issue.
The protracted dispute over Kashmir has prevented
India to take a leadership role in the Movement
non-alignment. When the Prime Minister
India J. Nehru refused to cooperate with
USA in the fight against Soviet expansion,
Americans entered into a military alliance with
Pakistan. This made the Indian
management to expand contacts with
China and the USSR. India-Soviet relations
noticeably
got stronger
after
conclusions
major trade agreement of 1953 and
exchange of visits by the leaders of the two
states
USSR
welcomed
Indian policy of non-alignment,
which coincided with his strategic
line to limit US influence in
African-Asian region.
Consequences of partition
1954 Meeting with J. Nehru.
On the left is I.M. Kharchenko.

Development and reforms

On January 26, 1950, India was proclaimed
republic. The constitution of 1950 reflected
careful
position
manuals
And
achievements achieved over time are consolidated
independent
development
countries.
Relatively
simple
procedure
amending the constitution based on
majority decisions in parliament
expanded
possibilities
further
implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru,
who was also the head of the planning commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy
focused on creating a mixed
economy and opened up prospects for
cooperation with private capital,
although in the leading
industries were allowed
only state property.
This rule affected enterprises in the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering,
mining, etc.
Development and
reforms
Flag of India
India emblem

Development and reforms

Well
on
stimulation
development
industry combined with politics
careful reforms in the agricultural sector.
Planned
commission
us-really
recommended to states legislatively
guarantee
for-shield
rights
land users,
V
in particular
limit rental rates,
install
"ceiling"
For
area
individual
land holdings
And
reorganize on a cooperative basis
credit and sales system, and more
remote
in the future,
Maybe,
And
agricultural production.
WITH
1953
started
implementation of the community development program,
which set, in particular, the task of organizing
network of distribution institutions in
village of advanced agricultural
experience, as well as the creation in rural areas
cooperative associations and panchayats.
Development and
reforms
Peasants

10. Boundaries of a moderate course

The government delayed the achievement
compromise on the issue of reorganization
territorial-administrative
divisions on a linguistic basis, and
when in 1956 based on dominant languages
14 states were formed, it became evident
dissatisfaction with other ethnic communities. IN
1960 serious riots in Bombay State
forced the central authorities to go
towards demands for its division
into two new states - Gujarat and
Maharashtra. The Sikhs managed to achieve
success when Punjab was divided in 1965
to the state of Punjab, in which the Sikhs
formed the majority, and the state of Haryana with
predominantly Hindu population.
The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in
north-eastern border strip, where
some local tribes demanded
independence and raised for this purpose
armed uprisings.
Temperate limits
course
New administrative-territorial divisions

11. Boundaries of a moderate course

Compromise with the leading castes is serious
limited the government's ability to
carrying out social transformations in
village. Laws on agrarian reform,
received approval in the states, contained
significant gaps that allowed, with one
hand, drive tenants off the land, and from
the other is to bypass the position of the upper
the limit of the area of ​​land holdings. Slow
the unfolding of transformations led to
chronic shortage of agricultural products,
increasing food prices and reducing government subsidies. At first
In the 1960s, the financial crisis deepened.
Economic stagnation, in turn,
limited maneuverability for
INC.
Classic caste model
hierarchy

12. Boundaries of a moderate course

Nehru's authority in October 1962 was
significantly undermined after the invasion
Chinese troops into the territory of the Northeast Border Agency and into
limits of the Ladakh mountains in Kashmir. Striving
ensure connections between Xinjiang-Uyghur
And
Tibetan
autonomous
areas, China tried to force
India
refuse
from
rights
on
strategically important Aksai Chin plain
in the east of Ladakh in Kashmir.
The PRC armed forces inflicted several
strikes by the Indian army and occupied
territory area 37.5 thousand square meters. km.
By the time China announced
withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas,
except for Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced
seek military assistance from the United States.
Temperate limits
course
Ladakh
Ladakh on the map of India

13. Nehru's successors

He replaced Nehru as
Prime Minister Shastri was ousted
for this post by a group of party leaders
called "cindy-kat", which
supported by large landowners and
entrepreneurs.
IN
1965
experts
World
jar
determined
provision
financial
help
carrying out
complex
economic
reforms. During one and a half years of stay at
Shastri assumed the post of Prime Minister
decisions to reorient the main flow
public investment with heavy
agriculture industry; accent
for intensive farming and land reclamation;
stimulation through a price system and
discharge
sub-sidium
rustic
farms capable of modernizing
production; increasing the role of private and
foreign investment in industry. The economy has become especially
dependent on financial receipts from abroad, when the country was under pressure
additional burden of military expenditures during
during the second war with Pakistan in 1965.
Nehru's successors
Lal Bahadur Shastri

14. Nehru's successors

Losses suffered by the INC at parliamentary
elections in 1967, did not deprive him of victory since
a slight advantage in the national
level, but led to defeat in 8
states. In the states of Kerala and Western
Bengal INC was removed from power
coalition led by the Communist
party of India. Leftists in both states
governments have limited activities
police, and demonstrations took place there
tenants
And
agricultural
the proletariat against the landowners and
factory workers - against management
enterprises. Revolutionary-minded
communists supported armed
peasant riots in several states,
where the KPI operated. Late 1960s
they organized performances by small
peoples in the state of Andhra Pradesh and members
scheduled tribes and castes in
Western
Bengal,
which
were
suppressed by the army.
Nehru's successors
Parliament building in India

15. Indira Gandhi

The country's next Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi could no longer rely on the old
party leaders and teamed up with
small in number
youth
group
socialists and former communists.
Decisive
actions
premiere
By
nationalization of the largest commercial
banks associated her name with the new policy,
focused on helping the poor
population. Popularity of the Prime Minister
reached its climax in 1971 as a result of the victory
in the third Indo-Pakistani war. WITH
the emergence of Bangladesh, India turned out to be
in dominant positions in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974
she
spent
nuclear
tests,
demonstrating increased military
the power of the country.
Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi

16. Political crisis

In 1971 the government restored the right
parliament
bring in
changes
V
Constitution,
canceled
V
1967
resolution
Supreme
court.
IN
The 26th Amendment stated that
any law must comply
fundamental articles of the Constitution,
based on the principles of social and
economic justice. When in
April 1973 amendment was rejected
Supreme Court, the government removed
the three oldest judges who voted
against her, and appointed chairman
the court of one of its members, who
spoke in favor of adopting the amendment. Leaders
all opposition forces, except the CPI, were seen
in this act the threat of establishing
authoritarian
modes
Leader
opposition became J. Nara-yan, the oldest
follower of Mahatma Gandhi. Narayan
launched a propaganda campaign in
Gujarat, which led in January 1974
to the resignation of ministers and dissolution
state legislature. So
the same energetic campaign was carried out in
Bi-hare.
Political
a crisis
Mahatma Gandhi

17. Political crisis

The accusation against Gandhi made on June 2, 1975
"corrupt
practice"
gave
her
opponents the opportunity to organize
movement to remove the prime minister.
In response, Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India.
a situation that resulted in mass arrests
political opponents and wider
censorship. In the parliamentary elections in
March 1977 new Janata Party,
which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory
and repealed the emergency law
position However, soon the government
Janata became a victim of internal
intrigue. Its head M. De-sai filed a
resignation in June 1979, and held in
January 1980 parliamentary elections Gandhi
came to power again.
Political
a crisis
Morarji Desai

18. Political crisis

Electoral participation in the 1980 elections
decreased to approximately 55% with an increase in the number of conflicts during
electoral
campaigns.
IN
Western
Bengal, Kerala and Tripura won
KPI.
Central
government
encountered
With
revival
separatist movements in the northeast,
with a number of religious and communal unrest in
Uttar Pradesh. In all cases for
to restore order had to resort to
military force. In June 1984, after the outbreak
Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army
units stormed the Sikh shrine -
Golden Temple in Amritsar, which led to
death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds
his followers, who took refuge in the temple.
Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but
turned the Sikhs against the prime minister. 31
October 1984 I. Gandhi was assassinated by two
by their Sikh guards. At the post
head of government and as a leader
INC was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who
scheduled parliamentary elections for the end
1984 and won a convincing victory there.
Political
a crisis
Rajiv Gandhi

19. Political crisis

In the 1989 elections, the parties that stood
against INC (I), united around
former Finance Minister V.P. Singh,
who then headed the government
minorities. Singh Government
relied on the party created in 1988
Janata Dal and supported by Hindu
nationalist Bharatiya Janata
party (BJP) and two communist
in batches. The coalition collapsed in November
1990 when the BJP left. Following
Chandra Sekhara's government went into
resignation four months later,
since INC (I) did not approve the project
state budget.
Political
a crisis
BDP coat of arms

20. Political crisis

Rajiv Gandhi died from a bomb thrown
Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May
1991. It was an act of revenge for the input
Indian troops to the north of Sri Lanka in
1987 for anti-Tamil
separatis there. New Prime Minister
Nara-simha
Rao
spent
V
1992
decisive economic reforms,
called up
modernize
production and scientific-technical
base of the country. Was less successful
activities of the Rao government on
prevention
intercommunal
collisions,
arose
after
destruction by orthodox Hindus
mosque in Uttar Prada in December 1992.
Political
a crisis
Narasimha Rao

21. Political crisis

Elections in April-May 1996 led to
distribution of seats in parliament
between three main factions: INC
(136 parliamentary seats), BDP (160) and
coalition
left
orientation,
dubbed the United
front (111 mandates). After
BJP refused to join the government
majority, new prime minister
H.D. Deve Gowda was recruited to participate in it
INC. The basis of the government was
representatives of regional and left
parties.
Sonia Gandhi, leader of the INC

22. Political crisis

In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Govda, and
the Prime Minister was forced to file a
resignation. His place was taken by the appointed
president
And
approved
Parliament Inder Kumar Gujral,
which
continued
well
his
predecessor
on
liberalization
economy
And
height
economic
indicators, but refused further
cutting social spending.
Intensified
foreign policy
India's dialogue with Pakistan and China. Care
resignation of the Gujral government
led to early parliamentary
elections in March 1998. Came to power
a coalition consisting of 18 parties, in which the BJP occupied a leading position.
Political
a crisis
Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers
China, India and Russia

23. Political crisis

The main task of the new prime minister
Atal Bihari Vajpayee was saving
coalition government led by
BDP.
IN
April
1999
happened
government
a crisis,
And
the government was forced to withdraw
resignation. The lower house was dissolved
parliament. New parliamentary elections
took place in October 1999. Despite
active participation in the election campaign
Indian
national
congress,
majority
V
parliament
received
National Democratic Alliance,
led by the BJP. Prime Minister
became Vajpayee again. Conducted by India
nuclear
tests
os-false
her
relations with most states
peace.
IN
modern
unstable
situation
factor
stability
remains the figure of the president, who in
1997 was elected for the first time in the country's history
representative of the former “untouchable” caste Kocheril Raman Narayanan, formerly
served as vice-president under
S.D. Sharma, who belonged to the caste
Brahmins.
Political
a crisis
Atal Bihari Vajpayee

24. Conclusion

Post-independence before India
Many paths of national development emerged. Effective development of the state
was hampered by a number of internal problems: strong social
differentiation, presence of castes and dogmas, problem
national minorities, the struggle of Hindus and
Muslims But despite the difficulties and obstacles in
development, India has managed to reform and strengthen
social, economic and other spheres
society. Now India is modern,
dynamically developing state, actively
involved in solving international problems.