Difficult sentence has properties common to the properties of a simple sentence, and in addition, specific features that distinguish it from a simple sentence.
General properties:
- Communicative purpose (message)
- Intonation and word order
A complex sentence differs from a simple sentence
- by structure
- by the nature of the message
Unlike a simple sentence, a complex sentence is a grammatically formulated combination of predicative parts (in school sentence grammar), one way or another adapted to each other. Predicative parts in a complex sentence are characterized by intonation and grammatical interconnectedness and interdependence of content. In communicative terms, the differences between a simple sentence and a complex sentence boil down to differences in the volume of messages they convey. For example, a simple sentence reports about one situation (The cat was adopted. The students are happy), a complex sentence reports about several situations and the relationships between them, or about one situation and the attitude towards it on the part of its participants or the speaker. (When the cat was adopted, the students were happy).
According to the AG-80 definition, a complex sentence is an integral syntactic unit, which is a grammatically designed combination of sentences and functions as a message about two or more situations and the relationships between them.
A complex sentence is opposed to a simple one, just as a polypredicative structure is opposed to a monopredicative structure. In addition, a complex sentence is the carrier of several modal-temporal complexes. The predicativeness of the remainder remains...the grammatical meaning of the predicative part of the joint venture.
Women should wish (unreal modality) that all men know them as well (unreal) as (real) me, because I love them a hundred times more (real), since I am not afraid of them and have understood their small weaknesses (real). (Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”)
The grammatical meaning of a complex sentence is certain syntactic and semantic relationships between its components.
These relations are of the same nature as the relations between word forms that are combined as part of a phrase or ordinary word forms in a simple sentence. But they have a different system of means of expression that only partially coincides with the system of means of expressing relations between word forms.
Each grammatical meaning is expressed in a complex sentence using a certain necessary and sufficient set of structural elements, which can be called a structural-semantic model of a complex sentence of a certain type.
! – history of the issue according to Valgina’s textbook
A sentence is a combination of predicative parts based on a syntactic connection that arises in one or another structural-semantic model and is intended to function as an integral communicative unit.
A complex sentence is a very extensive structural mechanism. The elements of its structure include:
Potential quantitative composition (number of predicative parts);
Formal communication indicators:
b) allied words ( relative pronouns in the subordinate part of the SPP);
c) correlates / correlating words in verbs and subordinate parts of NGN, where, who, in order, etc.;
d) antecedents for supporting nouns in attributive clauses;
e) semi-conjunctive words (the second conjunctive elements in the SSP) also, also, however, but, therefore, means (you can always add the conjunction “but then”)
- the relationship between the types of tense forms of predicate verbs in parts of a complex sentence (The sea murmured dully, and the warriors beat the shore madly and angrily (simultaneous action))
- the order of the parts of a complex sentence (the characteristic is related to the flexibility / inflexibility of the structure of a complex sentence, that is, if the parts of a complex sentence change places, then the structural parts of a complex sentence change places, then the structure is called flexible, if they cannot, then it is not flexible)
- incompleteness of one of the parts;
- intonation, / Pospelov classification);
- syntactic parallelism - correspondence of word order in parts of a complex sentence;
- typified lexical content.
Basic ways and means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a complex sentence. Elements of the structure of a complex sentence.
Structural-semantic model of a complex sentence as a certain set of elements necessary to express its basic grammatical meaning when implementing the corresponding syntactic connection in it.
The concept of open and closed structure of a complex sentence; about its flexible and inflexible structure; about the structure of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition. Free and non-free (phraseologized) models of complex sentences. Transitional constructions in the area of syntax of complex sentences.
Complex sentence in the functional aspect: types of complex sentence according to the purpose of the statement; mono- and polyfunctional complex sentences; a complex sentence in terms of the emotional coloring of its structure; specificity of the actual division of the structure of a complex sentence.
Typology of complex sentences: conjunction and non-conjunction complex sentences; compound and complex sentences.
A complex sentence is a syntactic unit of a higher order than a simple sentence.
A complex sentence is a combination of two or more predicative clauses that functions as one communicative unit. Each of the predicative parts included in it is similar in structure to a simple sentence, however, as part of a complex construction, it loses such features of a sentence as intonation and semantic independence, and interacts with the other part, expressing a detailed message, holistic in nature: We again without collusion collided with her 1: going down, holding the key in her hand 2 (V. Nabokov); Everything 1 that life gave me burned down 2 (L. Alekseeva).
Thus, a complex sentence is a polypredicative communicative unit, characterized by structural and semantic unity, as well as intonation integrity. The most important features of a complex sentence, contrasting it with a simple one, are:
1) polypredicativity, which determines the presence of a complex mechanism for the mutual adaptation of predicative parts and the use of special means for this: The troika is waiting at the porch 1, with a rush. . . a quick run will rush us away 2 (P. Vyazemsky); Friendship is friendship 1, and service is service 2;
2) polypropositivity - the presence of two or more event or logical propositions and the combination in the semantic structure of a sentence of nominations of two or more events (situations): There is deep darkness in the sky 1 . . . , the dawn has risen 2 (A. Pushkin).
An event proposition is associated with the sphere of being, movement, activity (physical or social); logical proposition – reflecting the relationships established in the process of mental activity, logical reasoning(relationships of identification, identity, etc.). The sign of polypropositivity is not absolute: in the sphere of a complex sentence, an asymmetry is possible between the number of predicative parts and the number of propositions.
The asymmetry in the relationship between predicativeness and propositionality is manifested in the existence of simple sentences that are characterized by polypropositivity.
These are sentences complicated by separate definitions, circumstances, applications, which are collapsed propositions, as well as sentences with names of positive (event) semantics and sentences with secondary nominal predicates: A person who harms by force of conviction can be convinced. A person who harms out of personal malice can be softened. Only those who harm out of fear are invulnerable and adamant (L. Ginzburg); The arrival of the guest woke up the little dogs who were sleeping in the sun (N. Gogol); From that day on, Prince Andrei began to go to the Rostovs (L.N. Tolstoy) as a groom.
In turn, not all complex sentences are polypropositive. Consider, for example, the complex sentence It is good 1 that he did this 2. The subordinate part in it expresses a proposition (reports a certain “state of affairs”), the main part expresses the subjective attitude of the speaker to what is being communicated (i.e., mode). A complex sentence consisting of two predicative parts turns out to be monopropositive. Thus, polypredicativity can also correspond to monopropositivity.
A complex sentence is a multidimensional unit. It is characterized by: a) in the structural aspect – polypredicativeness and an expanded set of structural elements for connecting the combined predicative parts; b) in the semantic aspect - semantic completeness and semantic integrity, as well as often polypropositivity; c) in the communicative aspect - the unity of the communicative task and intonation completeness.
In the structural aspect, a complex sentence is built according to models (schemes), the elements of which are determined by its polypredicative nature: the combination of predicative parts, different in structure and semantics, requires their structural, semantic and intonation adaptation to each other.
The complex sentence model includes a set of basic and additional means of communication. The main means of communication include: a) coordinating and subordinating conjunctions: The flight of my tired thoughts has become low 1, and the world of the soul is more waterless and poorer 2 (P. Vyazemsky); If my Russia is over 1, I die 2 (Z. Gippius); b) allied words, or relata (in a complex sentence): In the river 1, which we call life 2, and we are a mirror stream 1 (P. Vyazemsky); c) correlates (indicative words in the main part of a complex sentence, signaling its incompleteness): What is regret and greetings to the one who dies in the prime of life 2? (M. Lermontov); d) supporting words in complex sentences of an undivided structure - words directly distributed by the subordinate clause: You wander in the forest, not thinking 1 that suddenly you will become an eyewitness to a certain secret 2 (M. Petrov); d) intonation.
Additional means of communication, namely the structural features of predicative parts due to the need for their connection with others, include: 1) the paradigm of a complex sentence - the relationship between aspectual forms and modal plans of the predicates. It has a larger number of members than the simple sentence paradigm (in a complex sentence their maximum number reaches 49), which is explained by different combinations of temporal and modal plans of predicative parts. In addition to temporal and modal characteristics, the paradigm of a complex sentence also takes into account the aspectual forms of predicates, since depending on their identity or discrepancy, various relationships of situations in time are conveyed (sequence or simultaneity), cf: When doctor 1 came (owl aspect), the patient calmed down 2 (owl type) – sequence of actions; When the doctor examined patient 1 (non-natural type), no one interfered 2 (non-natural type) - simultaneity; 2) anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns, indicating the incompleteness of one of the parts and its close connection with the other: anaphoric pronominal words refer to the previous predicative part, cataphoric ones to the subsequent one: In Russia, the censorship department arose before literature 1 ; one could always feel his fatal perfection 2 (V. Nabokov); The whole city there is like this 1: the swindler sits on the swindler and drives the swindler 2 (V. Gogol); 3) structural incompleteness of one of the predicative parts, the presence of unsubstituted syntactic positions in it: He is in hall 1; further 2: no one 3 (A. Pushkin); 4) grammaticalized lexemes, specific for certain complex sentences: for example, in non-target complex sentences, the lexemes enough, not enough, too, etc. are used: Any crumbs of experience 1 are enough for a genius to be able to recreate the exact picture 2 (A. Bitov) ; 5) semantic correlation of the lexical content of predicative parts, manifested in the presence of words with common semes or in lexical repetition: With a clear mind and heart it is clear 1, and the sea is clear as glass 2: everything is so welcoming and safe 3, everything is so smiling and bright 4 (P. Vyazemsky); 6) unfixed/fixed (fixed) order of predicative parts (fixed postposition, unfixed postposition): Poetry is lying in the grass, under your feet 1, so you only need to bend down 2 to see it and pick it up from the ground 3 (B. Pasternak); 7) parallelism of structure, relevant for some types of compound and non-union complex sentences: I was gloomy 1, - other children were cheerful and talkative 2 (M. Lermontov).
The set of means of communication - the structural elements of a complex sentence - forms its model (scheme), which can be either standard or particular. A typical model is a general model according to which all complex sentences of the same structural-semantic type are built, a particular model is a model of a specific complex sentence. It includes means of predicative connections that are inherent in a specific syntactic structure and are relevant for its construction. The model of a complex sentence is graphically conveyed in the form of a structural diagram. For example, the sentence Evil exists 1 in order to fight it 2 (I. Brodsky) is built according to the scheme , (p. that). Complex sentence models are divided into free and phraseologized (phraseomodels). The latter include stably reproducible additional means of connecting predicative parts (particles, special lexemes, repetition of words or their forms): Connections by connections 1, but you also need to have a conscience 2 (E. Schwartz). Let's take a closer look at the sentence of the phraseological structure. Once we read this poem 1 more carefully, we will understand its full depth 2. It is built according to a non-free model, which includes as its constant component such additional means of communication as the word worth (worth) and the adjoining perfective infinitive in the first part. The general model of complex sentences of this variety looks like:
[worth (worth) + infinitive], (v. how).
Such sentences of phraseological structure name two events that are connected by the relations of condition and immediate consequence, cf. : Once we read this poem carefully, we will understand its meaning. If we read this poem carefully, we will understand its meaning. In addition, in sentences constructed according to this phrase model, the presence of a characteristic property in a person or object is emphasized, which determines the possibility of what is called the second part. As a result, additional cause-and-effect relationships may arise between the two predicative parts: As soon as he gets sick 1, everything stops 2. Thus, this sentence of phraseological structure, like many others built on non-free models, is polysemantic. The model of a complex sentence is an indicator of its grammatical meaning; the structural mechanism of a sentence determines its syntactic semantics.
In the semantic aspect, a complex sentence is a unit characterized by semantic integrity. Its meaning is not the sum of the meanings of its constituent predicative parts. “The grammatical meaning of a complex sentence is usually understood as the semantic relationships between its parts, and one or another grammatical meaning is characteristic not only of one specific sentence, but of all sentences that have the same structure (structure), built according to the same model.” He did not accept offers of gifts 1 because he had nothing to give 2 (I. Goncharov); The dogs climbed far into their kennels 1, fortunately there was no one to bark at 2 (I. Goncharov); One day Varyusha woke up because Sidor. . . knocked with his beak on the glass 2 (K. Paustovsky), despite the difference in specific conjunctions, are built according to a general standard model: , (causal subordinating conjunction). A causal connection is established between the events of the first and second predicative parts. Thus, the syntactic meanings of these constructions are the meanings of reason.
There are general and private syntactic meanings. General meanings are meanings inherent in typical models of complex sentences and based primarily on basic means of communication; private syntactic meanings are determined taking into account lexical content and additional means of communication and characterize subtypes of complex sentences or their varieties (within the subtype). Let's compare complex sentences: a) The lamps 1 were burning brightly, and the disabled samovar 2 (K. Paustovsky) sang and sang his simple song; b) It was getting hot 1, and I hurried home 2 (M. Lermontov); c) Stolz’s youthful heat infected Oblomov 1, and he burned with a thirst for work 2. . . (I. Goncharov). All of them are built according to a common standard model, and, the main means of communication in it is the connecting union and. The general syntactic meaning of these constructions is the meaning of connection. Their lexical content, the peculiarities of the paradigm and the order of their parts make it possible to identify particular syntactic meanings: a) enumerative meaning; b) effective meaning; c) connecting-extensive meaning.
The distinction between general and private meanings is essential for the classification of complex sentences: types of complex sentences are distinguished taking into account general meanings, subtypes and their varieties - taking into account private syntactic meanings.
A particular meaning can be specified as a result of the use of syntactically specialized elements. These are adverbs, particles (and their combinations), introductory words, which perform the functions of specifiers of a certain particular meaning in a complex sentence. So, in the sentence Already almost in front of the pillbox there were advanced riflemen 1, but it was still impossible to walk along the road 2 (N. Tikhonov) the words already and still express a concessional meaning. The role of such elements is especially great in complex and non-union complex sentences.
Typed lexical elements also play an important role in the implementation of syntactic meanings. These are lexical means that, in various types of complex sentences, regularly express certain meanings, participating in the formation of corresponding grammatical meanings.
There are two types of such lexical elements: 1) typological-constructive elements necessary to realize the basic syntactic meaning of a complex sentence. Thus, antonyms express a comparative meaning, which is basic for complex and non-union sentences with comparative relations: Young - for service 1, old - for advice 2 (proverb); 2) partial constructive elements that cause additional grammatical meaning that does not coincide with the main meaning of the sentence; Thus, the use of modal words in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of cause modifies the main syntactic meaning: That’s right, the bullet hit him in the shoulder 1 because he suddenly lowered his hand 2 (M. Lermontov). The subordinate clause expresses not a causal, but an investigative meaning, since its logical justification is given in the main part.
In the semantic aspect, a complex sentence acts as a polypropositive unit: it is focused on reporting two or more situations, each of which receives a predicate expression, and may contain several dictum meanings. This feature does not apply, however, to all types of complex sentences. Monopropositive are: 1) complex sentences with substantive-attributive (attributive) subordinate clauses, in which the subordinate clause is used not to name a separate situation, but to establish the reference of the name: There are words 1 that only seem banal 2 ; 2) explanatory-objective complex sentences, in which one part may contain a mode of utterance (give a modal and/or evaluative interpretation of the message), and the second – a dictum (main message): And it seems to me 1 that all people are wandering around in reality more and more crazy 2 (P . Vyazemsky); It's good 1 that autumn has already passed 2; 3) complex sentences with pronominal-correlative clauses, in which the clause in combination with the correlate gives a detailed name of a person or object: This is all 1 that I heard 2 (M. Bulgakov) - cf. : everything heard.
The meaning of a complex sentence can also be organized in such a way that the propositions contained in its parts “correlate to the same situation.” So, in disjunctive compound sentences with conjunctions it is not the same. . . neither this nor that. . . or different propositions serve to imprecisely nominate the same situation, not clearly identified by the speaker: Either he [Rudin] was jealous of Natalya 1, or he regretted her 2 (I. Turgenev).
In the communicative aspect, a complex sentence is considered as an integral unit that performs a specific communicative task. The actual division of a complex sentence is carried out through intonation and the order of parts. With a neutral (objective) order of parts, the topic is usually located at the beginning of the statement (first part); the rhema occupies a postposition,
rhema theme rhema theme
Wed : (Freezing). It’s cold, / / the snow crunches underfoot. Wed. : (Freezing). The snow crunches underfoot, / / it’s cold. In the last statement, a change in the order of parts actualizes the rheme, the first part is highlighted by intonation (increasing the pitch by stressed word and increasing its duration). Theme-rhematic division of a complex sentence reflects the selection of less and more significant information for the speaker: the most important information represents the rheme of the statement.
The boundaries of syntactic and actual division in a complex sentence may not coincide.
rhema theme
Wed: Since classes were over, / / I went home (the boundaries of the components of the actual division coincide -
rhema theme
given with boundaries of predicative parts); The house in which I settled / / had interesting story(the subordinate clause, along with the supporting word, is part of the topic - and the boundaries of syntactic and actual division do not coincide). The uniqueness of the actual division of a complex sentence is that its components usually denote whole events, therefore each of the predicative parts can have its own communicative structure.
When expressing the purpose of a statement in a complex sentence, not only single-functional, but also multi-functional parts can be combined, for example, narrative and interrogative: He worked all his life 1, and what did you do 2? Thus, compared to a simple proposal, a complex one is characterized by the possibility of combining different goal settings and different functional plans. It has not only a modal, temporal, but also a communicative perspective.
The classification of complex sentences is based on the comparison of means of communication between predicative parts and syntactic meanings. When differentiating complex sentences, quantitative and qualitative criteria for their division are used, related to both their structure and semantics.
1) By the number of predicative parts, binomial/polynomial sentences differ: It was raining 1, and the trees were rustling from the strong wind 2 (A. Chekhov); For some time he stood at the window 1: the sky was curdled milk 2; occasionally, in the place 3 where the blind sun floated 4, opal pits 3 appeared (V. Nabokov);
2) according to the presence of conjunctive means of communication, conjunctive/non-conjunctive complex sentences are contrasted: in conjunctive constructions, predicative parts are connected by conjunctions (coordinating or subordinating) or conjunctive words, non-union proposals are characterized by the absence of allied means of communication: You sing to me that song 1 that the old mother used to sing to us 2 (S. Yesenin); There will be, there will be a time 1: the sun will come again 2 (K. Sluchevsky).
3) according to the nature of the model (scheme), sentences constructed according to free models and sentences constructed according to non-free (phraseologized) models (sentences of phraseological structure) are distinguished. Sentences of phraseological structure are built according to special non-free models, which are characterized by the presence of additional stable reproducible means of communication (particles, special lexemes, repetitions). Their features are: a) modelability, based on the stability of the phrase scheme and its reproducibility; b) particularly close connection of predicative parts; c) often a fixed order of parts; d) tendency towards idiomatic meaning; e) the presence of various expressive-evaluative meanings: The more flame in my long-time 1, the less fire ahead in me tired 2 (I. Severyanin); Be brave, don’t be brave 1, but you won’t be braver than the world 2 (N. Leskov).
The most important and regular elements of the structure of a complex sentence include the basic means of communication (conjunctions and allied words), the relationship between aspectual and modal forms of predicates, the relative position of parts, and in complex sentences, in addition, the presence or absence of correlative (demonstrative) words and the relationship of the subordinate part with the main part (the subordinate part relates to the entire main part or to any word or phrase in it). As already mentioned, quantitatively and qualitatively different combinations of these structural elements form models of complex sentences of different types (of course, taking into account known lexical restrictions), each of which is characterized by its own broad grammatical meaning.
Most complex sentences are constructed using such models; they are the most productive and stylistically neutral. They are called free.
However, there are also complex sentences that are built according to more complex models. They include, in addition to the basic structural elements indicated above, other, more specific elements that make the connection between the predicative parts especially close and determine more specific and complex grammatical meanings. Complex sentences constructed according to such models are limited in their use (usually typical for lively conversational speech). Such models are called non-free.
This, for example, is the complex sentence of Something else, but there are plenty of swamps in Meshchera (K. Paustovsky). The structural model of this sentence, in addition to the comparative conjunction a and the present tense form (enough) with a timeless meaning, also includes a pronominal combination of something else, forming the first part. This also determines the more complex grammatical meaning of this sentence - it expresses not comparative relations, but singular-contrastive ones. Based on the same unfree model, the following sentences are constructed: Who is the other, but he knows; Where else, but in Moscow you will find everything, etc. Wed. a sentence based on a free model: There is little arable land in Meshchera, but there are plenty of swamps.
As additional elements In structures, individual particles especially often appear, but these can also be various morphological forms of words and even fully significant words.
Thus, the negative particle not and the restrictive particle are only used in complex sentences with the conjunction as, expressing relations of temporary interdependence, for example: 1) The peasant did not have time to gasp when a bear attacked him (I. Krylov); 2) We had just had time to rest and have dinner when we heard gun shots (A. Pushkin). The first part in such sentences denotes an action that was interrupted by another action, which is mentioned in the second part (a sentence with the particle not), or an action that ended just when the action indicated in the second part of the sentence began (a sentence with the particle only). Thus, the difference in meaning between the first and second sentences depends on the use of different particles in these sentences. Both particles are necessary in organizing such sentences. Without them, such sentences cannot be constructed at all (you cannot say: “We had time to have lunch when ...”; “I managed to gasp when ...”), etc.).
The verb "managed" also takes part in the structure of these complex sentences, which, in combination with particles, not only directly indicates with its lexical meaning the nature of the relationships expressed in the complex sentence (didn't have time... just managed...).
In sentences with a double conjunction than... those in which facts interrelated in their development are compared, a mandatory element of the structure is the form of comparative degree of adjectives or qualitative adverbs, for example: 1) The sooner the fire burned out, the more visible the moonlit night became (A. Chekhov); 2) The more he spoke, the more he blushed (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
In the sentences analyzed above with the elements I didn’t have time..., how...; just had time..., as... and in sentences with the conjunction than... then, in addition to the basic elements of the structure, several more particular elements are distinguished, characteristic only of these sentences. This leads to the fact that the connection between the parts of a complex sentence turns out to be so close that it even seems difficult to decide which part is the main part and which is the subordinate one. In such cases, we can talk about the mutual subordination of parts of a complex sentence.
Thus, the more structural elements included in the model of a complex sentence, the closer the connection between its parts, the less free it is, and, conversely, the fewer such elements, the less close the connection is, the more free the complex sentence is in its structure.
4) if it is possible to change the order of predicative parts in complex sentences, flexible and inflexible structures are distinguished. Flexible structures allow different options for the order of parts: If you have to choose fate 1, I won’t delude myself with another 2 (N. Krandievskaya). Inflexible structures are structures in which rearrangement of predicative parts and insertion of one part into another is impossible: The train left at seven o'clock in the evening 1, so Mikhail Ivanovich could have time to have lunch ... before leaving 2 (L. Tolstoy);
5) on the basis of “conformity/discrepancy in the number of propositions and predicative parts of a sentence”, symmetrical and asymmetrical constructions are distinguished. In symmetrical constructions, the number of propositions is equal to the number of predicative parts: If you need help 1, call 2. In asymmetric constructions, the number of propositions does not correspond to the number of predicative parts and individual links of the semantic structure of the utterance are not expressed using linguistic means (implicit): If you want to buy bread 1, then the bakery to the right 2. In this statement, the two predicative parts correspond to three components of the semantic structure: If you want to buy bread 1, then (keep in mind, know 2) (that) the bakery to the right 3. The second component is omitted, which causes an asymmetry in the complex sentence.
Based on function (nature of goal setting), functional types of complex sentences are distinguished. In this case, they differ:
1) functional homogeneous sentences– sentences, all predicative parts of which coincide in purpose: a) narrative: I walked slowly 1: I was sad 2 (M. Lermontov); b) interrogative: Why... others can do everything 1, but I can’t 2? (L. Tolstoy); c) incentive: Give everything earthly to the earth 1, and, like blue smoke, rise to us in the blue, clean and unharmed 2 (F. Sologub).
2) syncretic, uniting functionally heterogeneous parts: a) narrative-interrogative: Without a doubt, he was in a pitiful position 1, but what could he do 2? (L. Tolstoy); b) narrative-motivating: ...You won’t find anything better 1: turn your tender gaze, girls, to the infantry 2 (A. Tvardovsky); c) incentive-interrogative: Yes, run to the policeman 1 - why is he chilling there 2? (A. Chekhov); d) motivating-narrative: Understand 1: lack of freedom from lies leads to atrocity 2 (In Kornilov).
Syncretic functional types are represented mainly in the sphere of complex and non-union complex sentences, the predicative parts of which are characterized by a greater degree of independence than in a complex sentence.
It is traditional to divide sentences into exclamatory and non-exclamatory ones. These types of sentences differ in the presence/absence of emotional coloring in the syntactic structure and, thus, are associated with reflecting the position of the speaker (the author of the statement), with the transmission of his emotions and assessments. The means of expressing emotions is primarily exclamatory intonation, as well as particles, interjections and expressive vocabulary: How vividly simple pictures of marching movements appear in my head 1, and what a modest charm they acquire in memories 2! (A. Kuprin). Non-exclamatory and exclamatory sentences are unevenly distributed in the system of complex structures. Non-exclamatory sentences predominate, while exclamatory sentences are used, as a rule, in the field of binomial constructions, and they are closely related to functional types of sentences: it is the question or impulse that often expresses the emotions of the speaker.
With all the diversity of structural, semantic and functional characteristics in modern Russian studies, three main features are distinguished that serve as the basis for a consistent multi-level classification of complex sentences: 1) the presence/absence of means of communication that combine predicative parts. On this basis, classes of union and non-union proposals are distinguished; 2) contrast between composition/subordination of predicative parts in the sphere of conjunctional constructions: conjunctional sentences are divided into complex and complex; 3) attribution of one predicative part to one word of another part or to the entire part as a single whole (non-division/dismemberment). The last division applies only to complex sentences. As a result, a fairly harmonious classification arises: each division in it makes it possible to identify the semantic originality of the selected class or subclass of sentences, due to the structural features underlying the classification. Thus, non-union sentences differ from allied sentences in the diffuseness of semantics and the undifferentiated relationships between parts. Complex and complex sentences differ in the degree of autonomy of the parts and the nature of the expressed relationships between them. The division of complex sentences into undivided and dissected corresponds not only to a set of structural features that delimit them, but also to significant differences in the nature of the relationships between the parts, which is reflected in the establishment for the former of an analogy with a phrase, for the second (dissected) - with a simple sentence with an adverbial determinant .
The further division of compound and non-conjunct sentences is predominantly traditional in nature: compound sentences are differentiated depending on the type of coordinating conjunction, and then divided into subtypes according to the nature of the syntactic meaning; non-conjunctive complex sentences are classified depending on the relationship between the predicative parts (taking into account additional means of communication) .
Thus, the general classification of complex sentences is generally heterogeneous. Let us turn to a consideration of their main classes.
More on the topic The concept of a complex sentence. The place of a complex sentence in the system of syntactic units of language. The grammatical meaning of a complex sentence as its main distinguishing feature. A complex sentence as a structural-semantic association of predicative parts and as a special independent unit of syntax. Differential features of a complex sentence:
- The concept of a complex sentence. The place of a complex sentence in the system of syntactic units of language. The grammatical meaning of a complex sentence as its main distinguishing feature. A complex sentence as a structural-semantic association of predicative parts and as a special independent unit of syntax. Differential features of a complex sentence.
1.1. The concept of a complex sentence
1.2. Complex sentence and simple sentence: contrast and convergence
1.3. General classification of complex sentences
1.4. Means of expressing syntactic relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Literature
1. Beloshapkova, V. A. Modern Russian language: Syntax / V. A. Beloshapkova, V. N. Belousov, E. A. Bryzgunova. – M.: Azbukovnik, 2002. ‑ 295 p.
2. Valgina N.S. Syntax of the modern Russian language: [Textbook. for universities for special purposes “Journalism”] / N.S. Valgina. – M.: graduate School, 1991. – 431 p.
3. Vostokov A.Kh. Russian grammar / A.Kh. Vostokov. – St. Petersburg: Printing house of I. Glazunov, 1831. – 408 p.
4. Peshkovsky A.M. Russian syntax in scientific coverage. – 8th ed. – M.: Editorial URSS, 2001. – P. 427 – 443.
5. Pospelov N.S. Complex sentence and its structural types / N.S. Pospelov // Questions of linguistics. – 1959. ‑ No. 2. – pp. 19-27
1.1. THE CONCEPT OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE
A sentence containing two or more predicative units that form a semantic, structural and intonational unity is called complex . A complex sentence is a complete syntactic structure that acts as one communicative unit 1. A complex sentence, like a simple one, performs a communicative function in language, but, unlike a simple sentence, it reports two or more situations and the relationships between them
It is important to note that a complex sentence as a special syntactic unit was recognized by scientists relatively recently, already in the 20th century. In the most significant syntactic descriptions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it is not represented as a syntactic unit. Intensive study of complex sentences began in the second half of the 20th century, primarily in the works of V.V. Vinogradova, N.S. Pospelov, then in the works of L.Yu. Maksimova, V.A. Beloshapkova, M.I. Cheremisina and other researchers, whose works we will refer to in the course of presenting this topic. A complex sentence as a syntactic unit is opposed to a simple one, however, the definitions of a complex sentence, even the most modern ones, contain the traditional contradiction. It lies in the fact that the entire complex formation and its components are called a sentence. Let's look at these definitions. In “Russian Grammar” of 1980 we read: “A complex sentence is a combination of two or more simple sentences, grammatically formatted.” In the school textbook: “A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more simple sentences.” Similar definitions can be continued. The contradiction inherent in such definitions can be eliminated by establishing the syntactic aspect to which the unit refers. This was first noticed by V.A. Beloshapkova. A complex sentence is contrasted with a simple one in syntactic structure, that is, in the formal-grammatical (constructive) aspect. The most important feature of a simple sentence is predicativeness, and a complex sentence consists of two or more predicative units. Hence, a complex sentence is contrasted with a simple sentence as a polypredicative unit to a monopredicative unit. Thus, a complex sentence is a syntactic unit, the components of which are predicative units, united by syntactic connections and syntactic relations.
1.2. Complex sentence and simple sentence: contrast and convergence
The difference between a simple and complex sentence is thus based on the structure of syntactic units: a simple sentence is monopredicative, a complex sentence is polypredicative, i.e. a structurally complex sentence differs from a simple one primarily by the presence of two or more predicative centers, while in a simple sentence there is always only one predicative center. In addition, if a simple sentence is included in a complex one, becoming part of it, it can change its structure. Most often this is due to a change in the structure of the part that becomes dependent: 1) Buratino could not solve the problem proposed by Malvina. He's never been to school. – Buratino could not solve the problem proposed by Malvina, since he had never been to school(the dependent clause has become an incomplete sentence). 2) Malvina decided to settle in a house lost in a deep forest. She no longer wanted to play in the Barabas Theater. ‑ Malvina decided to settle in a house lost in a deep forest so as not to play in the Barabas Theater anymore.(the dependent part has become a one-part impersonal sentence). There are also types of complex sentences in which the order of the parts is strictly defined, and when entering such SPs (complex sentences), individual sentences obey this rule. Pinocchio couldn't eat. He didn't have a penny in his pocket. - Buratino didn’t have a penny in his pocket, so he couldn’t eat.
Parts of a complex sentence do not have intonation completeness, unlike a separate simple sentence. Recognition of a complex sentence as “an integral syntactic expression of a single complex thought” 1 leads to the identification of its grammatical specificity - the absence of a mechanical combination of simple sentences.
A simple and complex sentence also differ in their basic grammatical meaning: in a simple sentence it is predicativity, in a complex sentence it is the semantic-syntactic relations between its parts, based on the interaction of modal-temporal plans of these individual parts. To characterize a complex sentence and determine its typology, it is necessary to take into account the following aspects of its semantic-structural organization: the syntactic connection between the parts and the means of its expression; potential number of components, since this is determined by the semantic-structural nature of a complex sentence; the order of arrangement of parts - strictly fixed or relatively free; some features of the lexical filling of parts.
A simple and complex sentence, on the one hand, are contrasted as monopredicative and polypredicative units. But, on the other hand, there are linguistic facts that can be interpreted in different ways, since they combine the features of a simple and complex sentence.
First of all, this sentences with two or more predicates and one subject. Let's compare two sentences: 1) He was very worried and could not sleep for a long time. 2) He was so worried that he could not sleep for a long time. In traditional grammar, these sentences are interpreted differently: the first - as simple with homogeneous predicates, the second - as complex. In other words, it turns out that a coordinating connection is a sign of a simple sentence, and a subordinating connection is a sign of a complex one. At the same time, from the point of view of relation to predicativeness, these sentences are the same: in both cases there are two predicates and one subject.
A different point of view is adopted in “Russian Grammar”: sentences with several predicates and one subject are considered complex both in subordinating and coordinating connections - on the basis of their polypredicativity. An explanation of such structures is given by M.I. Cheremisina: she considers them as a special polypredicative construction in conditions of mono-subjectivity (abbreviated as mono-subjective construction).
There are a number of constructions that show signs of a simple and complex sentence.
Monosubjective sentences with the conjunction “to.” For example: I came to talk to you. Such sentences have both a complex feature (polypredicativity) and a simple feature (mono-subjectivity and the connection of the infinitive with the verb of motion, which is preserved even without a conjunction: I came to talk to you).
Offers with comparative turnover. For example: The youthful fun has disappeared, like a dream, like the morning fog. The comparative phrase does not contain a verbalized predicate, but can be considered as an incomplete sentence with a non-repeating (missing) predicate “disappeared” (Young fun has disappeared, like a dream disappears...).
1.3. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLEX SENTENCES
The classification of complex sentences can be based on different features.
1. Presence/absence of a union means: union - non-union.
2. Type of syntactic connection: composition - subordination.
3. The nature of the components between which there is a connection: dismemberment - non-division.
4. The number of PEs, the nature of the connection and relationships between them.
1. Parts of a complex sentence can be combined: 1) with the help of unions and allied words, 2) without unions and allied words, using only intonation and the relationship of the forms of the predicates. In this regard, complex sentences are divided into two large groups: allied complex sentences and non-union complex sentences. For example: 1) The girl's blue eyes opened wide with fear, and a tear sparkled in them.(Cor.); Morozka understood What the conversation is over(Fad.); 2) You'll believe it by sight- you measure crookedly(M. G); It was five o'clock in the afternoon, the owners were not at home(Past.); The lower stones turned out to be wet: a puddle of clean water flowed to the bottom of the pool(Paust.).
2. Conjunctive sentences, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the type of conjunctions and conjunctive words: sentences compound - with coordinating conjunctions; offers complex - With subordinating conjunctions and allied (or relative) words.
At essay parts of a complex sentence are combined as syntactically equal, when subordination - one of the parts (or several) is syntactically subordinate to the other, depends on it. Wed: The sun is at its zenith, and all the shadows are burned by it(M.G.).- ...She knew well where her son's heart beats(M.G.); Rivers are easy to cross for those born and raised on the seashore(M.G.). In the first sentence, the parts are connected as equals; they retain their relative independence, although lexically the second part is influenced by the first: the form of the pronoun them in the second part indicates the subject Sun in the first part. In the second and third sentences the dependent parts where the son's heart beats And who was born and raised by the sea completely deprived of the ability to function independently; they are completely subordinate to the first parts. In addition, the first parts of these sentences are not independent enough, that is, they cannot exist without dependent parts: in a sentence She knew well a clear semantic insufficiency is revealed, since the verb knew requires explanation; offer Rivers are easy to cross also turns out to be incomplete, since the indication that needs specification. This semantic and grammatical deficiency of the first parts of the sentence is compensated by the dependent parts in the complex sentence. Thus, we can talk not only about the dependence of one of the parts of a complex sentence, but also about the interdependence of its constituent parts.
Composition and subordination are not always clearly distinguished, and therefore there are transitional types conjunctional complex sentence. This transitivity is manifested in the fact that in a number of complex sentences subordinating conjunctions are used, but the semantic relations between the parts clearly resemble the relationships in a complex sentence, and the role of the subordinating conjunction turns out to be so formal that it is not assigned to a specific part of the sentence, but can be equally included in one part, then to the other. This is typical, for example, of complex sentences with comparative parts in which there are conjunctions while, meanwhile; if...then, than...then and etc.: The closer to old age, the more often Levitan’s thoughts stopped at autumn(Paust.); If Yashvili was all in external centrifugal manifestation, Titian Tabidze was directed inward(Past.) - pass That in the second part.
Dual character syntactic connections can also be seen in sentences in which the connection between parts is expressed not so much by conjunctions and allied words, but by other structural means, in particular the forms of verb moods and the order of parts. Such structurally related, non-free syntactic constructions are characteristic of the conversational style. The connection in them is expressed only morphologically or by morphological means in combination with conjunctions that have lost their subordinate character. For example: Before we had time to calm down from such an event, or rather, from such a turn of events, Nyushka appeared on our doorstep(Sol.); Before the volcano’s lava had even cooled down, petroleum scientists rushed to the scene(gas.); As soon as you turned your head, the bizarre sensation would disappear without a trace.(Green); If Mitrash came here hungry and without a basket, what would he do here?(Priv.). The transition type is formed by such related structures as: If you came to me as if you were good, I would give you both lard and bread(Chuk.); Boy don't get there on time- no one would have known that the auto shop was already here(Aitm.); And look from the outside- We have hundreds of qualified sociologists(gas.). In all these sentences, the main constructive role is played by the verb form, and if a conjunction appears, it clearly loses its subordinating meaning, especially since it is located in the conventionally called main part.
Structurally related to vaguely expressed syntactic relationships are also sentences with the phrase as for... then: As for Tolik and me, we ourselves did not do important things. We made boxes for these things(War.). Such designs can be represented by even more reduced stylistic options: As for Alexey Kuzmich, he’s just great and you owe him a lot(Efr.); As for the protective role of fat, it does not need to be proven(magazine).
The dual nature of the syntactic connection is also distinguished by sentences with double conjunctions of the type: true...but, although...but, let...but, no matter how...but (however) and others, in which the first part has a subordinating conjunction, and the second - a coordinating conjunction. These are sentences with a generalized concessive meaning: Even though you have new skin, your heart is still the same(Kr.); True, his dinner consisted of two or three dishes prepared by a retired soldier, but the champagne flowed like a river.(P.). Closer to complex sentences are sentences with the same meaning, but without the subordinating part of the conjunction, the place of which is taken by the conjunction-particle And, For example: And it’s a pity daddy, but take him to the churchyard(last); And bad luck, but she is forgetful(last). Wed: Although it’s a pity for the dad, let’s take him to the churchyard.
3. Dismemberment - non-division. This feature is characteristic of complex sentences (SPP) and semantically similar non-conjunctive complex sentences (CSP). Undivided sentences are those in which the subordinate part has a supporting component inside the main part in the form of a verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, comparative or adverb: 1. [ There will be People], (who will understand me): People (which ones?), which… . The subordinate clause refers to the noun “people”, which is defined by this subordinate clause, the attribute of which the subordinate clause denotes (cf.: There will be people who understand me. There will be people who understand me).
2. I don't I doubt that he is a decent person. The subordinate clause relates to the word “I doubt”, making up for its informative deficiency (cf.: I don't doubt his integrity).
Dissected sentences include sentences in which the subordinate part does not have the position of a member of the sentence in the main part and distributes the content of the entire main part as a whole: The house was empty until they came from the city- two situations are correlated as a whole, the second relates to the first as its time reference, the limit up to which the first situation existed.
4. Complex sentences can consist of two predicative parts - these are typical constructions: The kick is short and the ball is in the goal. They are called elementary. At the same time, there are designs consisting of three or more PEs. Complex sentences consisting of more than two predicative units are distinguished by the nature of the syntactic connection between the parts: sentences with the same type of syntactic connection are usually called polynomial complex sentences, sentences with different types of syntactic connections - complex syntactic structures.
And the steering wheel fidgets, / and the trim cracks, / and the canvas is taken into the reefs. This polynomial compound sentence is an open chain of three absolutely identical predicative units.
Depending on various combinations of connection types between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible:
1) with composition and submission: Lopatin began to feel sleepy, and he was glad when the driver appeared at the door and reported that the car was ready(Sim.);
2) with an essay and non-union connection: My direction is to another unit, but I fell behind the train: let me, I think, take a look at my platoon and my lieutenant(Cossack.);
3) with subordination and non-union connection: On a walk in the forest, sometimes, thinking about my work, I am overcome with philosophical delight: it seems as if you are deciding the conceivable fate of all humanity(Priv.);
4) with composition, subordination and non-union connection: But the river majestically carries its water, and what does it care about these bindweeds: spinning, they float along with the water, just as the ice floes floated recently(Priv.).
1.4. MEANS OF EXPRESSING SYNTACTIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PARTS OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE
Let us remind you that the constructive basis of a simple sentence is the predicative nucleus , represented by a block diagram. The components of the structural diagram are word forms. For example: N1 – Vf, Inf – N1, Vf 3pl, etc. The components of a complex sentence are predicative units (PU). But the mere presence of two or more predicative units does not indicate that this is a complex sentence. In order to form a complex sentence, it is necessary syntactic connection expressed by a special indicator or a set of formal indicators(conjunctions, allied words, etc.). Let's give examples. Evening came,But it was still warm. Block diagram: PE – But PE. I'll come back,When I'll finish work:PE – When PE. I don'tI remember , When It was: specific means of communication - the informatively insufficient verb “remember” in the main part, requiring mandatory distribution, and the allied word (K-word) in the subordinate part. Thus, exactly formal indicators of syntactic connection are the main structural elements of a complex sentence, its constructive basis .
Semantic and syntactic relationships between parts of a complex sentence are expressed using conjunctions, allied words, correlates, intonation and order of parts, morphological and lexical means..
1. Unions connect parts of compound and complex sentences. In a complex sentence, conjunctions serve as the main means of communication, for example: There was no light in the room And everything outside the windows merged into one green mess(Quiet); That Cold, That very hot, That the sun will hide That shines too bright(Kr.); The old woman lay down on the stove, A Daria, a young widow, went to visit the kids(N.).
Subordinating conjunctions connect parts of a complex sentence, for example: Morozka understood What the conversation is over(Fad.); Must go, If he advises(Gonch.); The deck of the Hispaniola was lower than the embankment, So it was possible to descend onto it without a gangplank(Green).
2. The role of a connecting element in a complex sentence can be played by relative (conjunctive) word, which is a member of the proposal: The shepherd looked at the sky where it was drizzling(Ch.); Dibich guessed in the impenetrable darkness, to whom belong to the voices(Fed.). Allied words are always lexemes which, which, whose, how many, where, where, from, what in prepositional case forms. Lexemes act as conjunctions and allied words what, how, when.
3. Correlates, or correlative pairs, are used in a complex sentence of pronominal-correlative type, for example: 1) Who looking for, 2) That will always find(V.I. Lebedev-Kumach). The main part uses a demonstrative pronoun or pronominal adverb then, that, there, there, so, so, so etc., the meaning of which is revealed using the subordinate clause.
4. A way of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence is also order of parts . In sentences It became stuffy, I left the room And I left the room: it became stuffy The sequence of cause-and-effect relationships is expressed differently. Many complex sentences have a specific arrangement of parts. There are structures with a strictly fixed order of parts. Others, although they allow variations in the arrangement of parts, however change the semantic-syntactic relationships between them, for example: Since in The forest was already dark, we decided to abandon our search.- We decided to abandon our search, because it was already dark in the forest- the cause-and-effect relationship in the first sentence is transformed into a relationship of causal justification in the second. The semantic differences that are created here by the order of the parts are characteristic of this sentence as a specific structure and are not related to the context 1. The order of words within parts of a complex sentence, especially in the dependent part, is by no means an arbitrary phenomenon, but is determined by the structure of the entire sentence as an integral unit.
5.Intonation in a complex sentence is a means of combining parts into one whole. A separate part of a complex sentence does not have intonation completeness. End intonation is characteristic only of the final part of a complex sentence. The role of intonation in a non-union complex sentence is especially important, since here it is precisely it that is an indicator of the semantic relationships between the parts, for example: The morning will come, let's go to the field- enumerative intonation; The morning will come- let's go to the field- intonation of conditionality, conveying conditional-temporal meanings.
6. Morphological means.
A) The formal elements of the structure of a complex sentence can be words related to a specific part of speech: a noun, a comparative. For example: I arrived in city where I spent my childhood(the second, subordinate part of the sentence refers to the noun); He turned out to be better what we thought about him(for the structure of this sentence, a comparative is necessary: it is its meaning that is extended by the subordinate part).
B) Relationships between morphological forms. For example: Vf perfective in the past tense in relation to the same forms in other components of the complex Bell rang, kibitka flew (A. Pushkin). Vf in the form of the imperative mood in relation to Vf in the form subjunctive mood creates conditional-consequence relationships: Find yourself there's a friend nearby, troubles wouldn't have happened.
C) The use of certain verb forms with certain conjunctions: “to” + Inf, “to” + Vf with the suffix “l”: I came to talk, I'll come early so we can talk.
7. Lexical means:
A) Semantic function: ratio of situations. The lexical content of the components of a complex sentence predetermines certain syntactic relationships of these components.
B) Constructive function:
Synsemantic words: words with the meaning of speech-mental activity, perception, expression of will ( I know, I understand, it is known, it is clear, it is clear, it is surprising, I see, I hear, it seemed, I ask, I demand and many others) are formal indicators of the structure of complex explanatory sentences. For example: I know that you are my friend, It’s amazing how you guessed it, Father demanded that I go with him;
Lexical relationships: The relationships between the lexical meanings of individual words can be a means of expressing syntactic relationships between the components of a complex sentence. For example, antonym words (including contextual ones) participate in the expression of opposition: You are rich - I am very poor, you are a prose writer - I am a poet, you are as ruddy as a poppy - I am like death, and skinny and pale;
Phrase schemes with the participation of significant vocabulary: “it’s worth - how”, “didn’t have time - how”, “enough - so”. For example: It was worth it open his mouthHow everyone started laughing. The phraseological scheme “cost - how” expresses temporary relationships: the second situation arises simultaneously with the first. Oftenenough it was nothingto Chaliapin became furious. The phraseological scheme “enough - so that” expresses the conditioning relationship: the second situation is a consequence of a condition that should not lead to a similar consequence
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What contradiction is contained in the definitions of a complex sentence, even the most modern ones?
2. What is the essence of contrasting a simple sentence with a complex one? What are the similarities and differences between simple and complex sentences?
3. What is the constructive basis of a simple sentence? What about the complicated one?
4. Can a predicative unit, acting as part of a complex sentence, change its structure? Give examples.
5. Name four criteria by which complex sentences are classified.
6. Name seven indicators of formal syntactic connection in a complex sentence.
7. How do conjunctions differ from allied words?
3. Simple sentence.
3.1 Two-part offer.
3.2 One-part proposal.
3.3 Incomplete sentence
4. Complex sentence.
4.1 Complex sentence.
4.2 Complex sentence.
4.4 Complex polynomial sentence with different types communications
II Conclusion.
Introduction.
Syntax begins with the connections of linguistic means and the relationships that arise on the basis of these connections. Depending on what and how of the linguistic means enters into connections and relationships, various syntactic constructions are born.
As part of syntactic constructions, inflected words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word.
Word combinations are built from word forms: warm rain, half of the night, starting to drizzle and so on.
Simple sentences are built from word forms and phrases: Warm rain began to drizzle from mid-night(Paustovsky).
Complex sentences are constructed from simple sentences, differing in the degree of semantic and grammatical cohesion. Yes, from the proposals The wind blew from land and U the water was calm on the shore You can form complex non-conjunctive, complex and complex sentences: The wind blew from land- near the shore the water was calm; The wind blew from the land, and the water was calm near the shore; If the wind blew from land, the water near the shore was calm.(Other variants of complex sentences are possible.)
A complex syntactic whole is built from simple and complex sentences. For example: Our people have always loved, known and appreciated the forest. It’s not for nothing that so many fairy tales and songs have been written about our dense forests.
In the forests lies our future, the fate of our harvests, our deep rivers, our health and, to a certain extent, our culture. Therefore, the forest must be protected, just as we protect human life, as we protect our culture and all the achievements of our extraordinary era.(Paustovsky). In this complex syntactic whole, simple and complex sentences are united by a common microtheme.
ISystem of syntactic units
The main syntactic units are a phrase, a sentence (simple and complex), and a complex syntactic whole.
1. Collocation as a unit of syntax.
In the history of Russian syntactic theory, the role of phrases and sentences in common system syntactic units were and are assessed ambiguously.
A phrase enters a sentence through its main word, which in a sentence can be a dependent word of another phrase.
Collocations are built on the basis of subordinating relationships between words. Methods of subordinate communication are coordination, control and adjacency.
Coordination is a method of subordinating communication in which the dependent word is placed in the same forms as the main one: favorite book, my book, read book. When coordinated with the change in the forms of the main word, the forms of the dependent word change accordingly: favorite book, favorite books. The means of formalizing agreement is the ending of the dependent word.
Control is a method of subordinating communication in which the dependent word is placed with the main word in a certain case: write a letter(vin. p.), write to mother(dat. p.), cut with a knife(creative p.), sit in a chair(prepositional clause), etc. When controlling with a change in the form of the main word, the form of the dependent word does not change: wrote a letter, wrote a letter, wrote a letter etc.
The means of formalizing control are usually the ending of a dependent word and a preposition.
Control is direct if the form of the dependent word does not have a preposition (carry out the plan, carry out the plan), and prepositional, if the indirect case form is controlled using a preposition (remembering childhood, homesickness, meeting friends and so on.).
Adjunction is a method of subordinating connection in which the dependent unchangeable word is connected with the main one only in meaning and intonation: very appreciate, very dear, very good; he left to study, he said worriedly. Adjacent, as a rule, are unchangeable significant words: adverbs, infinitives, gerunds.
2. Sentence as a unit of syntax.
The sentence is the basic unit of syntax, since it is in the sentence that the most essential functions of language are expressed: cognitive or expressive (language as a tool, an instrument of thinking) and communicative (language as a means of communication). Language is a means of communication only because it expresses thoughts about objective reality.
The sentence is the most multifaceted unit of syntax. It is therefore characterized by a set of characteristics that can be divided into two groups:
1) structural sign - grammatical organization, which includes special structural schemes, special ways of expressing structural elements of the scheme and grammatically formatted syntactic connections and relationships;
2) semantic feature - predicativeness (the relation of the content of a sentence to reality in a modal-temporal sense. The content (semantics) of a sentence is determined primarily by the nature of the thought being expressed. A sentence is characterized by semantic completeness.
We especially note intonation, since it can express both structural and semantic features of a sentence.
Sentences are divided into simple and complex. " Construction material“For simple sentences there are words (word form) and phrases, for complex ones - two (or more) sentences. Simple sentences include only one predicative combination, complex ones - at least two. When included in complex sentences, simple sentences, although to varying degrees, lose intonation completeness, often change the order of words, etc., therefore parts of complex sentences are also called predicative units (rather than sentences).
Simple sentences differ from complex ones not only in structure, but also in meaning. Complex sentences have more complex semantics than simple ones. Combining simple sentences into complex ones enriches their speech meaning, and sometimes transforms their grammatical meanings. So, when connecting simple sentences In the yard the acacia tree was bent and tossed about And An angry wind tore her by the drag to the complex using a conjunction as if the real modality of the second sentence is transformed into unreal: In the yard, an acacia tree bent and tossed, as if an angry wind was ruffling its hair.(A. Tolstoy).
3. Simple sentence.
A simple sentence is the central communicative unit of syntax. It has a certain structure (structure) determined by its semantics.
According to the nature of logical-syntactic articulation, simple sentences are divided into articulated (two-component and one-component) and indivisible, among which interjection sentences are the most striking. Based on the presence/absence of minor members, articulated sentences are divided into common and non-widespread. According to structural and semantic completeness, segmented (two-part and one-part) sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.
The main classification system of structural-semantic types of a simple sentence is formed by articulated (two-part and one-part) and indivisible sentences.
Snowy winter forest can be assessed in the form of the following sentences: The forest is like a fairy tale! Wonderful! Oh! The choice of one of the structural-semantic types and its lexical content are determined by subjective factors, among which the most important are the nature of the articulation of thought in the mind of the speaker, his emotional state, vocabulary, etc.
These proposals have common and distinctive features. They are united by the fact that they are all communicative units and have a two-member semantic structure (there is an object of thought (speech) and its characteristic: “definable” and “defining” “statement of something about something”), and what distinguishes them first of all is structure: in the first (two-part) sentence The forest is like a fairy tale! there is a subject and a predicate; in the second (one-part) Wonderful! there is only a predicate; in the third (indivisible) Oh! there is neither subject nor predicate.
3.1 Two-part sentences.
Two-part sentences are sentences with two main members - a subject and a predicate, which can be extended by secondary members. The subject with the secondary members related to it forms a composition, or group, of the subject; the predicate with the secondary members related to it - the composition, or group, of the predicate. For example: Droplets of autumn fog\Rivers of tears run down the tree trunks(Kedrin); The desire to serve the common good / must certainly be a need of the soul, a condition for personal happiness(Chekhov). The compositions of the subject and the predicate, separated by a vertical line, correspond to the components of thought and the actual division: the composition of the subject expresses the logical subject and is the exponent of the “given”, the composition of the predicate expresses the logical predicate and is the exponent of the “new”, therefore the subject precedes the predicate.
The main members of a sentence are included as building components in the structural diagram of two-part sentences and form their predicative center.
3.2 One-part sentence
Single-component sentences are those whose grammatical basis consists of one main member (with or without dependent words). The other main member is not restored (this is their difference from incomplete sentences). The main elements of predicativity (modality, tense, person) in one-component sentences are expressed in one main member. Single-component sentences can act as independent syntactic units and be used as part of complex sentences. Based on the totality of semantic and structural properties, the following main types are distinguished among one-part sentences:
1. Definitely personal (I love the storm in early May).
2. Vaguely personal (A new school was built in our village).
3. Generalized-personal (Tears of sorrow will not help).
4. Impersonal (It’s getting light; I’m shivering; I’m cold.)
5. Infinitives (The clouds cannot hide the sun, there is peace in warwon't win).
6. Nominative (Winter; Here comes winter; Winter!).
7. Vocative (“sentences-addresses”).
Typical (core, central) one-component sentences are those sentences with one main member that do not require another main member and cannot be supplemented by it without changing the nature of the thought expressed, without changing the semantics.
According to the method of expressing the main member, one-part sentences are divided into verbal and nominal.
A common structural property of one-part verbal sentences is the absence of a subject: it does not and cannot exist in all varieties of one-part verbal sentences.
3.3 Incomplete sentences
Complete and incomplete sentences are distinguished by the presence/absence of certain members of the sentence. Complete sentences contain all the members necessary to understand them out of context and speech situation: I have known this area for eight years. In incomplete sentences, one or more of its members (main or secondary) are missing.
Usually, the definition of incomplete sentences includes an indication of the context and situation (constitution), which only suggest the lexical specificity of the omitted members of the sentence, that is, they determine lexical meaning omitted word forms. For example: The boy lowered the yacht onto the green water And took a step back, giving room to the breeze. But scraps of sails didn't even move. The ship did not move.
“It won’t float,” the mother sighed. “Let’s go.”
- It will float,- said the boy(Stepanov).
As this text shows, there is no absolute lexical specificity of the subjects for the highlighted incomplete sentences, because nouns can also act as subjects yacht, boat and pronoun He. Incomplete sentences It won't float. Will float is created by the absence of a subject, the position of which is determined by the structural scheme of the sentence and the lexical and grammatical properties of verbal predicates.
A dash is usually placed in place of missing members.
A comparison of complete and incomplete sentences shows that in complete sentences all syntactic connections and relationships are revealed, informative semantics, including grammatical and lexical, are more fully and fully expressed.
However, complete sentences are not always appropriate: repeating the same words can create verbosity and make communication difficult. Incomplete sentences have their own semantic and stylistic advantages: they add liveliness, naturalness, ease to speech, and most importantly, they allow you to actualize the “new”.
4. Complex sentence.
A complex sentence is a syntactic communicative unit of a higher order than a simple sentence.
Like a simple, complex sentence is characterized by intonation and semantic completeness, but expresses more complex content and has a more complex form (structure).
The main means of connecting the predicative parts of a complex sentence include intonation and allied means: conjunctions (and, but, or, if, so that, since, so, although etc.) and allied words - relative pronouns and pronominal adverbs (which, which, whose, who, where, where, from, why and etc.).
Intonation is a universal means of communication, that is, any complex sentence has intonation completeness. In sentences without conjunctions, the role of intonation is especially important.
Thus, we can talk about two main ways of connecting predicative parts in a complex sentence: 1) using conjunctions and intonation; 2) with the help of intonation (of course, this excludes the participation of other means in the organization of a complex sentence, for example, the relationship between the forms of predicates; we are talking only about basic means).
These two methods of communication determine the division of complex sentences into two large groups: 1. Complex sentences with a conjunction or relative connection. For example: The coachman suddenly reined in the horses and the carriage stopped(Chekhov); A blizzard is not scary if a person is not afraid of it(Semushkin); The blue sky spread above me, according to which a sparkling cloud floated quietly and melted(Korolenko). 2. Complex sentences with non-union connections. For example: Crossbills creak, tits ring, the cuckoo laughs, the oriole whistles, the jealous song of the finch sounds incessantly, and a strange bird, the bee-eater, sings thoughtfully(Bitter).
In many cases, there is no clear difference in the grammatical semantics of complex sentences of these two groups. Particularly close in their semantics are complex sentences with a non-union connection and with a conjunction And, expressing the value of an enumeration of events. Such sentences can be freely combined into polynomial complex sentences that have the general meaning of enumeration. For example: The leaves on the birch trees sparkle like medals, the air sparkles in the distance, and the dew sparkles in the grass, now blue, now red, now violet...(Antonov).
Conjunctive complex sentences (with conjunctions and relative words) are divided according to the nature of the syntactic connection and general grammatical meanings into two structural and semantic subgroups: complex sentences - with a coordinating connection between the predicative parts and complex sentences - with subordinating connection.
Coordinating connection in a complex sentence, as in a simple one, is carried out by coordinating conjunctions (and, yes, but, and, or, either; then..., then... etc.) Coordinating conjunctions, expressing different grammatical meanings, do not indicate the dependent, subordinate nature of one of the predicative parts of a complex sentence in relation to the other. For example: The floor was strewn with wet dust, and boot tracks were visible on it.(Fedin); It's dark here, but I see the sparkle in your eyes(Chekhov);
The subordinating connection in a complex sentence is carried out by subordinating conjunctions (what, in order, how, if, because, if..., then... etc.) and allied words (which, who, whose, how many, where, why etc.) Both of them, being in the subordinate (dependent) part, clearly indicate its dependence on the other (main) predicative part. For example: We should go if he advises.(Goncharov); A guide was needed who knew the forest paths well(Field).
Thus, the difference between complex and complex sentences is that in the first of them the conjunction does not indicate the dependence of one part on the other (predicative parts can be equal), but in the second it does (one of the parts is formalized as dependent).
Finally, there are complex sentences with mixed forms. For example: Although the new transportation schedule was introduced a long time ago, not all drivers have yet mastered it. In this complex sentence (the first part is subordinated to the second) there is not only a subordinating concessive conjunction Although, but also a coordinating adversative conjunction But, and the relations expressed in this sentence are respectively acquiescent-adversative.
4.1 Complex sentence.
A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more predicative parts connected by subordinating conjunctions or allied words. In such a sentence, one part is grammatically independent (main), and the other is grammatically dependent, subordinate (subordinate).
Complex sentences with adverbial clauses. Subordinate clauses with the meaning of external circumstances (place, time, conditions, goals, comparisons, reasons, concessions) extend the entire main part, less often the composition of one of its predicates or a separate phrase in the main part and are mostly attached with semantic conjunctions special for each type. The only exceptions are subordinate clauses, the connection of which with the main part is carried out, as in the pronominal-correlative type, with the help of correlative and relative words (pronominal adverbs). For example: It would seem that there is no place for fun at all where shells dig the ground(Ovechkin) (adverbial part of place); Masha was just about to go to the door, When Shmelev stopped her(Simonov) (subordinate clause); How good is river water? If drink it at noon in large sips from a helmet(Surkov) (subordinate part of the condition); I woke up Pashka to he didn't fall off the wagon(Chekhov) (clause of purpose); Every sound gave rise to some sparks and vague smells, How a drop gives rise to tremors of water(Yu. Kazakov) (subordinate clause of comparison); Klim could not refuse meetings with Inokov, because this unpleasant guy knew a lot and could talk intelligently(Gorky) (subordinate part of the reason); Although she herself, apparently, did not expect anything worthwhile from her feverish activity(Turgenev) (subordinate part of concession).
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses spatial relationships are expressed. The subordinate part can indicate not only the place itself (with a correlative word there), but also on the direction of action of the main part - direct (with the correlative word there) and the reverse (with a correlative word from there). For example: Where the winds licked the snow, the earth bursts loudly at night(Sholokhov); Alexey crawled to where the plane went(Field); He left from where went to the horse yard(). In addition, the actual place of action of the main part can be indicated not only by indicating the place in the subordinate part (relative word Where), but also by indicating the direction (relative words where, where). The same must be said about the designation of the direction of action of the main part.
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses are expressed different kinds temporal relations: the action of the main part coincides with the action of the subordinate part (relationships of simultaneity) or precedes it or follows it (relationships of multitemporality).
In sentences with the meaning of simultaneity, the subordinate part is attached by conjunctions when, while, while, as; predicates in the main and subordinate parts most often have the same tense forms imperfect form or one of them is imperfect, and the other is perfect. For example: Bye to him brewed strong tea, he sat and was silent, still thinking(Simonov); ...When I see in front of me Your profile, and eyes, and golden curls... I I'm fascinated, I'm burning... (Pushkin); Only grew bored as the train was approaching to Kruziliha(Panova). In all these sentences, the predicates of the main and subordinate parts are expressed by imperfective verbs; the action of the main part coincides with the action of the subordinate clause throughout its entire length.
In sentences with the meaning of different times of actions, the subordinate part of time is attached by conjunctions when, while, after, since, before, before, as soon as and etc.; The predicates of the main and subordinate parts are most often expressed by forms of the perfect form, or in one of the parts - perfect, and in the other - imperfect. For example: When she came in, lieutenant quickly got up and went towards(Simonov); Until we get down to business, they won't move. moved (Nosov); Since then since then as an eternal judge I was given the omniscience of a prophet, In the eyes of people I read the pages of malice and vice(Lermontov).
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses Both real and unreal conditions can be expressed.
The meaning of the real condition is expressed in sentences with conjunctions if, if, when, once, Moreover, in the main and subordinate parts, predicates are most often used in the form of the indicative mood or infinitive. For example: A big boss, if he sees disorder in someone else’s household, will intervene(Prishvin); If you are a ruddy guy, you will be called a brother to us(Pushkin); When the commander is not timid, the soldiers will follow him into fire and water(Ovechkin); Once you agreed, so you can’t refuse(Dahl). In sentences with a conjunction When subordinate clauses often have a temporal connotation of meaning, and with the conjunction once - connotation of causal justification.
The meaning of the unreal condition is expressed in sentences with conjunctions if only, if only, whenever, Moreover, the predicates in the main and subordinate parts have the form of the subjunctive mood or infinitive. For example: If they offered me one of two things: to be a chimney sweep in St. Petersburg or to be a local prince, then I would take the position of a chimney sweep(Chekhov); If I were an evil person, would I really let the prey slip out of my hands?(Mamin-Sibiryak)
When prepositioning a subordinate clause, it can be connected to the main clause using double conjunctions: If..., then...; If only..., so...; If so... and etc.
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses the latter join the main part by unions in order to, in order to, in order to, then in order to and particles acting as unions If only, if only. Subordinate goals indicate facts that are not real, but only desirable, therefore predicates in subordinate goals can only be expressed by the subjunctive mood (particle would is part of conjunctions) or infinitive. For example me woke up Pashka, to he didn't fall off the wagon(Chekhov); He used all his eloquence, so that turn Akulina away from her intentions(Pushkin); I'm ready for anything if only mom recovered(Paustovsky); For in order to to be happy, you must not only love, but also be loved(Paustovsky).
Subordinate clauses attached by conjunction particles if only, if only, are used only in postposition, expressing more desire, and have an additional connecting shade.
In complex sentences with comparative clauses can be expressed real (with conjunctions like, like) and presumptive comparisons (with conjunctions as if, as if, as if, exactly, as if). For example: Every sound gave rise to sparks and vague smells, just as a drop gives rise to trembling water.(Kazakov); Small leaves turn bright and green, as if who washed them and put varnish on them(Turgenev). In the first case, facts that are truly similar are compared, in the second, the compared facts are connected only by associative, imaginary connections.
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses Various shades of causal meaning can be expressed. Subordinate clauses are attached by causal conjunctions: because, because, since, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, especially since, since, for and some others. One or another shade of causal meaning depends on which particular conjunction is attached to the subordinate clause.
The broadest causal meaning is expressed by subordinate clauses with conjunctions since, because. For example: He did not take on any overtime or additional work, because he spent all his free time in the experimental workshop(Nikolaev); The Third Corps had to be reinforced with an artillery division, since it was in its sector that an offensive was expected(Bondarev).
Subordinate clauses with conjunctions thanks to And because of have narrower meanings, namely: the former usually indicate a favorable, and the latter an unfavorable reason. Wed: Due to the fact that the train schedule was strictly observed, the number of transportation increased significantly(From newspapers) and Due to the fact that the train schedule was not respected, the number of transportation decreased.
Subordinate clauses with conjunction due to express a weakened causal meaning, sometimes an indirect cause, and with the conjunction especially
What - the most important reason. Wed: Elective classes were held irregularly, due to the fact that the lecturer was unable to truly interest the students and in many cases I did not want to repeat the purely abstract and idealistic thoughts of the German philosopher, especially since in these cases he was not true to himself and paid tribute to his century(Herzen).
Subordinate clauses with conjunctions especially since, fortunately And for always come after the main part and have an additional connecting connotation of meaning. For example: The dogs climbed far into their kennels, fortunately there was no one to bark at(Goncharov); It is known that when crossing fast rivers, you should not look at the water, because your head will immediately spin.(Lermontov).
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses the latter indicate a fact that contradicts the content of the main part; the event spoken of in the subordinate clause should have led to results opposite to those spoken of in the main clause, but it did not.
Subordinate concessive clauses are added to the main clause by one of the concessive conjunctions (although; despite the fact that honor in spite of the fact that; let; let; for nothing) or combinations of relative adverbs how, how much with a particle neither. Depending on how exactly the subordinate part is attached to the main part, there are shades of concessional meaning.
The widest concessive meaning is expressed in sentences with conjunctions Although; although. For example: For a long time my tireless dog continued to scour the bushes, Although she herself, apparently, did not expect anything worthwhile from her feverish activity(Turgenev); It looks neat and clean although his clothes are pretty worn(Fedoseev) In such cases, the subordinate part takes a post position.
If the subordinate part with the same conjunctions occupies preposition, then the complex sentence expresses concessive adversative relations. This is especially evident in cases where the main part has an adversative conjunction But or however. For example: Although I felt very tight and embarrassed in the new dress, however I hid it from everyone(L. Tolstoy); Although it was still early, but the gate was locked(Korolenko). Sentences of this type can be considered transitional (between submission and composition).
Subordinate clauses with conjunctions let him, let him have a connotation of “conscious assumption”. For example: Even if you feel sad, don’t lower your head(Lebedev-Kumach). Subordinate clauses with these conjunctions are usually used in preposition.
Subordinate clauses added using combinations no matter how much clearly express a generalized-concessive (or intensifying-concessive) meaning. For example: Whatever Pantelei Prokofievich protected himself from any difficult experiences; he soon had to endure a new shock(Sholokhov) But How many Sasha neither thought nothing came to his mind(Popov). An intensifying-generalizing shade of meaning is created in this case in the same way as in sentences of the pronominal-correlative type
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses. Subordinate corollaries are attached to the main part or one of its predicates by a conjunction So and are always in a post position. For example: The snow kept getting whiter and brighter, so it hurt my eyes(Lermontov).
In complex sentences with subordinate clauses, the main part is relatively complete in form and content, and the subordinate clause is dependent (one-sided dependence). Therefore, often the subordinate part has a connecting connotation of meaning, that is, it contains, as it were, an additional message. IN in some cases the connection between the main and subordinate parts can be so weakened that these parts become intonationally independent sentences. For example: Neither the father nor the mother gave either the girl or the boy an explanation for what they saw. So the children themselves had to resolve the question of the meaning of this spectacle(L. Tolstoy).
Complex sentences with subordinating clauses. Subordinating clauses are attached to the entire main part or, less commonly, to one of its members by relative pronouns What(V various forms without prepositions and with prepositions), why, why, For what etc. The main part in such complex sentences is complete in its form and content, and the subordinate clause, dependent in its form, expresses a subordinating - connecting meaning - contains an additional message, an assessment of what is said in the main part, a conclusion, a consequence from that , what is said in the main part, individual comments about the message contained in the main part, etc. For example: The dew has fallen What predicted good weather tomorrow(Mamin-Sibiryak); We walked on tiptoe in the hallway, why Parasha laughed a lot(Aksakov); We returned to Russia at the end of December, then wife spent a month with her father(); ...He took upon himself the burden of general supervision of forest affairs, resulting in the editors listened to him, his colleagues fawned on him(Leonov); She had to not be late for the theater, which is why she was in a hurry(Chekhov).
In subordinate clauses, an intensifying-contrastive particle is often used And, emphasizing that the message contained in the subordinate clause is caused by the message contained in the main one. Wed. two such proposals: One corner of the curtain was slightly turned up, which made it possible to look into the bedroom(Chekhov) and One corner of the curtain was slightly folded, which made it possible to look into the bedroom.
Complex sentences with severalsubordinate clauses. Above, only sentences consisting of one main and one subordinate part were considered. This form is the most typical for a complex sentence, the most common in both written and oral varieties literary language.
However, in the Russian language, especially in writing styles and in the language of fiction, sentences that are more complex in form, consisting of several parts, are often found.
Based on what the subordinate parts refer to and how they relate to each other, two types of polynomial complex sentences are distinguished.
I. Polynomial complex sentences with sequential subordination of subordinate clauses. In such sentences, the main part is the main part only for one of the subordinate clauses, which in turn is the main part for the next subordinate clause, etc. Schematically, this method can be represented as follows: Marya had already seen him from afar and knew What he is a delegate to the Ninth Party Congress, one of those three hundred and forty delegates whom the congress sent to the front
Tell him, to held on until Bye I will not give the order to retreat...(Fadeev).
More precisely, the last sentence, for example, can be limited using the following linear diagram:
[...verb], (to... until), (until...)
If the first subordinate clause is located before the second subordinate clause (for it the main one), then a combination of conjunctions is formed and its use changes somewhat, since the connection between such sentences is closer. For example: I thought that if at the decisive moment I did not overcome the stubborn old man, then later it would be difficult for me to free myself from his tutelage(Pushkin).
[verb], (what (if...), then...)
https://pandia.ru/text/78/064/images/image002_29.gif" height="12">A. With homogeneous subordination, subordinate clauses refer to the same main word or to the entire main word and belong to the same structural semantic type. Schematically in the very general view Such sentences can be represented as follows:
 |
Here are some examples: But it seems that the song is still going on, that there is no end to it and there will never be an end (Bunin); It was that hour before night when outlines, lines, colors, distances are erased; when the daylight is still confused, inextricably linked with the night.
Homogeneous subordinate clauses, like homogeneous members, can be connected to each other without conjunctions and with the help of coordinating conjunctions And, less often a, but. For example me replied that nature is good and that sunsets are especially good in our area(Soloukhin); And Lyubka hugged Ulya, with whom she had become friends since that meeting with Turkenich, but whom she had not yet had time to say hello, and kissed her like a sister.(Fadeev).
B. In case of heterogeneous subordination, subordinate clauses are added: 1) to different words the main sentence or one part to the entire main sentence, and the other to one of its words; 2) to one word or the entire main thing - all subordinate clauses, different in their structural and semantic types.
The general scheme of such proposals can be presented as follows:
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4.2 Compound sentence
A compound sentence is a syntactic unit that is a combination of two or more simple sentences and is characterized by semantic, intonation and structural unity.
Predicative parts in complex sentences are connected
coordinating conjunctions, which are located between the predicative parts and serve to express general grammatical meanings - semantic relations between these parts: connective, adversative, disjunctive, etc. These general meanings, in turn, are differentiated by various means. Thus, in complex sentences expressing connecting relations, the relationships between the aspectual and tense forms of the predicates play an important role: Transparent forest alone turns black And the spruce turns green through the frost, And the river glitters under the ice(Pushkin) (the simultaneity of actions in terms of the present tense determined the use of imperfective predicates in the form of the present tense in all three parts); It will pass time and we'll be gone forever(Chekhov) (the sequence of actions in terms of the future determined the use of perfective verbs in the form of the future tense in both parts).
Compound sentences with connecting conjunctions. In complex sentences with connecting conjunctions (and, yes, neither... nor, too, also) connecting relationships are expressed. Based on structural features and grammatical meanings, complex sentences with connecting conjunctions are divided into two large groups: 1) homogeneous composition and 2) heterogeneous composition.
1. In complex sentences of the first group, predicative parts are connected by conjunctions and, yes, neither... nor and express connective-enumerative relations (homogeneous events occurring simultaneously or following each other are listed). Such sentences can be either binomial or polynomial (with repeating conjunctions). The homogeneity of their parts is usually determined by the presence in their composition of a common member, or subordinate part, or the same relationship of parts with the previous context, or, finally, the same attitude of the speaker to the listed events.
2. In complex sentences of the second group, of heterogeneous composition, predicative parts are joined by conjunctions yes, also, too and express connective-distributive connective-resultative and other relations of heterogeneous connection. Such sentences can only be two-term.
Compound sentences withdividing unions. In complex sentences with disjunctive conjunctions (or (or), either, then... then, not that... not that, either... or) Separation relations are expressed - relations of mutual exclusion or alternation. Compound sentences with disjunctive conjunctions can be either binomial or polynomial; most of them are of a homogeneous composition.
1. Relationships of mutual exclusion are expressed using conjunctions or (or), either, not that... not that, either... or.
Unions or (or), or can be single or repeating; they indicate that the content of the first predicative part excludes the possibility of the content of the second and subsequent parts, and vice versa. Union or is stylistically neutral and is used in all varieties of literary language. The colloquial version of this conjunction is il - has a connotation of obsolescence, the conjunction is also colloquial or. For example: Let him move to the outbuilding in the village, or I will move from here(Chekhov); Or the plague will catch me, Or the frost will ossify me, Or a barrier will slam into my forehead A slow disabled person(Pushkin).
In sentences with a neutral repeating conjunction not that... not that relations of mutual exclusion are complicated by an indication of the difficulty of distinguishing one from two or from a number of phenomena, due to the uncertainty of impressions from each of them. For example: Not that who was given the horse, not that who's new arrived(Danilevsky).
The same relationship is expressed by the repeated conjunction either... or having a touch of conversational style, for example: Either the rustle of the ear, the flutter of the breeze, either a warm hand strokes your hair(Surkov).
2. In alternation sentences (with a repeating conjunction then... then) it is said that the events reported in the predicative parts exist in different time plans, that is, they alternate. Such sentences are used in all stylistic varieties of literary language. For example: That The sun shines dimly, then a black cloud hangs(Nekrasov). Her chest rose high, and then she seemed to be holding her breath.(Lermontov).
Compound sentences with adversative conjunctions. In complex sentences with adversative conjunctions (ah, but, yes, same, but, however etc.) comparative and adversative relations are expressed, that is, the opposition of events, their difference or inconsistency is indicated. All such sentences, regardless of whether their parts are homogeneous or heterogeneous, can only be binomial.
According to structural features and basic grammatical meanings, all complex sentences with adversative conjunctions are divided into two groups:
1) comparative and 2) adversative sentences.
1. In comparative sentences (with conjunctions oh yeah) phenomena that are different in some respect are compared, and these phenomena, despite all their dissimilarity, do not cancel each other out, but seem to coexist. The most common among such sentences are those with the broadest meaning and stylistically neutral conjunction A. For example: The bottom of the tower was stone, and the top was wooden...(Chekhov); He is already over forty, and she is thirty...(Chekhov).
2. In adversative sentences (with conjunctions but, yes, however, but, but etc.) various types of adversative relations are expressed: adversative - restrictive, adversative - concessive, adversative - compensatory, etc. All these types of relations are based on the inconsistency of the events spoken of in the predicative parts. The most common and stylistically neutral is the conjunction But. Union Yes has a colloquial character, and the conjunction however book.
In adversative restrictive sentences (with conjunctions but, however, yes) such events are reported, the second of which limits the manifestation of the first, interferes with it or clarifies it, refuting it in some part.
In adversative-concessive sentences (with conjunctions but, however, yes) the adversative meaning is complicated by the concessive meaning (one phenomenon should have caused another, but did not). For example: I had my own room in the house, but I lived in the yard in a shack...(Chekhov). Wed. complex sentence with a concessive clause: Although I had my own room in the house, I lived in the yard in a shack. The concessional meaning is formed mainly by the lexical composition of the parts, so its connotation is inherent in many types of both complex and complex sentences. Wed: I had my own room in the house, but I lived in the yard in a shack; I did not live in a house where I had my own room, but in a shack in the yard.
A distinctly adversative-concessive meaning is expressed using particles nevertheless, nevertheless, all the same, meanwhile, for all that etc. In this case, the concessive-adversative meaning is equally manifested in sentences with the conjunction But, and in sentences with the conjunction A. Wed, for example: I always fight with them, but still I love them very much(Dostoevsky); Mother was crying every minute, her health was getting worse day by day, she was apparently wasting away, and yet we worked with her from morning to night(Dostoevsky). Wed. also with adverbs still (still), already (already): The snow is still white in the fields, and the waters are noisy in spring(Tyutchev).
In adversative-compensative sentences (with conjunctions but, but, yes) any phenomenon is considered from different sides, and one side is most often assessed as negative, and the second - as positive. For example: The Cossacks dismounted in front of the river. The ford was shallow But the current is very fast(Arsenyev); The guns are rusting in the arsenals, but shakos sparkle(Simonov). Wed. sentence with complex conjunction formation but then: He will have a lot of work, but in winter he will rest(Saltykov-Shchedrin).
Compoundsentences with connecting unions. Coordinating conjunctions can be used in a complex sentence in a connecting meaning.
In sentences with connecting conjunctions (yes and, and then, and not that, not that etc.) express connecting relations, complicated by various additional meanings.
In sentences with a conjunction yes and an additional intensifying value is expressed. For example: You won’t tell me anything new, and I won’t tell you either(Simonov); He[Sintsov] I didn’t ask anymore - and why ask?(Simonov).
In sentences with conjunctions and then, and not that, not that the meaning of a warning is expressed (the second predicative part indicates what may happen if the action of the first part does not take place). For example: You must talk to your father today, otherwise he will worry about your departure(Pisemsky); Advise them to meet me with childlike love and obedience, not that they cannot avoid cruel punishment(Pushkin); Answer me, not That I'll worry(Pushkin).
As can be seen from the above examples, the main area of use of connecting constructions, correlative with the essay, is casual colloquial speech.
Compound sentences with explanatory conjunctions. A unique group consists of complex sentences, the second part of which is attached to the first by explanatory conjunctions namely, that is. For example: In addition to plants, the garden has rooms for various animals, namely: many towers with lattice towers were built for pigeons, and for pheasants and other birds a huge wire cage was placed between the bushes(Goncharov); Twelfth of June forces Western Europe crossed the borders of Russia and the war began, that is, an event contrary to human reason and all human nature took place(L. Tolstoy).
In these complex sentences, the speaker, with the help of the second part, clarifies and reveals the content of the first. Therefore, in these parts there is a kind of semantic parallelism, which determines the inclusion of these sentences in the group of compound sentences, although explanatory conjunctions indicate the dependent nature of the second part. The first part ends before the union with a significant lowering of the voice and a pause.
Union that is, in addition to the indicated meaning, it can express the meaning of an amendment, a reservation (it has the meaning “more precisely”, “more correctly”). For example: We were sleeping, that is, my sister was sleeping, and I was lying with my eyes open and thinking(Korolenko).
4.3 Complex non-union proposal
A unionless complex sentence is a type of complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are combined into one semantic and structural whole with the help of intonation, without conjunctions or allied words.
Complex non-conjunctive sentences with the meaning of enumeration. These non-union complex sentences are close to homogeneous complex sentences with a conjunction And, which is confirmed by the possibility of inserting between parts of such non-union proposals of the union And, and by the use in one sentence of predicative parts connected without a union and with the help of a conjunction And. Wed, for example: Bands play in the park, various attractions operate, and a boat station is open And There are orchestras playing in the park, various attractions are open and boat station.
Offers of this type can be either binomial or polynomial; the first part often contains a common member. For example: In the fog that shrouded the road, wheels creaked, people talked and called to each other.(Perventsev).
Complex non-union sentences with the meaning of comparison. In these sentences, the message contained in the first part is compared with the message contained in the second (or contrasted with it). Sentences of this type are characterized by the presence in the predicative parts of words that are opposite or contradictory to each other in meaning. This type is characterized by a two-member structure. Wed, for example: On the right was a swampy impenetrable forest, on the left were reddish pillars of cliffs(Sedov); He is the guest - I am the host(Bagritsky).
Complex non-union sentences with the meaning of explanation. In sentences of this type, the content of the entire first part or any of its members is revealed by a single-term or polynomial second part. For example: Objects lost their shape: everything merged first into a gray, then into a dark mass(Goncharov); At home, Thomas was greeted solemnly: his father gave the boy a heavy silver spoon with an intricate monogram, and his aunt gave him a scarf of her own knitting(Bitter); Here a very interesting picture opened up: a wide hut, the roof of which rested on two pillars, was full of people(Lermontov); Now they faced the most difficult thing: they had to leave their comrade, knowing that he was in danger(Fadeev).
A special place among complex non-conjunctive sentences with the meaning of explanation is occupied by sentences with demonstrative words like this, like this, like this in the first part. Such sentences can express not only an explanation, but also qualitative-definitive or qualitative-adverbial meanings. For example: The whole city is like this: a swindler sits on a swindler and drives the swindler(Gogol); Like all Moscow people, your father is like this: he would like a son-in-law with stars and ranks(Griboyedov); It all happened so unexpectedly: the driver ran a red light and did not have time to brake.
Demonstrative words so, so, so can also express the meaning of degree; in this case, the second part of a complex sentence often indicates not only the degree, but also the consequence. For example: The silence is such that my ears are ringing; It's so quiet - my ears are ringing.
Complex non-conjunctive sentences with conditional consequential and temporal meaning. These sentences are characterized by a certain ratio of modal forms of the predicates of the first and second predicative parts. It is the nature of this relationship that determines whether the unreal or real conditionality of events is expressed in a complex non-union sentence.
If the predicates of the predicative parts are expressed by forms of the subjunctive mood, then the sentence has the meaning of unreal conditionality; For example: If you had stayed until the end, he would have walked you home(S. Antonov). A similar meaning is expressed in cases where the predicate of one of the parts has the form of an imperative mood used in the meaning of the subjunctive, for example: Don't spare a pinch of the fox's hairs, he'd still have his tail.(Krylov).
If the predicates of the predicative parts are expressed by forms of the indicative mood (usually the future tense) or the infinitive in one of the parts, then the sentence has the meaning of a real possibility, for example: If you manage to go to Tashkent, things will get better(Neverov); If I need you, call me(Godenko); I I can handle two with pleasure, but anger can handle three(Mayakovsky).
A special subgroup of non-union complex sentences with conditional-consequential relations are represented by sentences with a generalized meaning. Parts of these sentences have a generalized personal form or predicates - infinitives. Sentences with a generalized meaning are typical primarily of proverbs: If you hurry, you will make people laugh; If you love to ride, love carry a sled; I picked up the tug - don’t say it’s not strong; The forest is being cut down - the chips are flying(Proverbs); Fight alone - life can't be turned around(N. Ostrovsky
Complex non-union sentences with the meaning of cause and effect. This type of sentence falls into two groups: with the meaning of cause and the meaning of effect. The proposals of both groups are characterized by a two-term structure. The meanings of cause and effect depend on the lexical content of the parts.
The predicates in these non-union complex sentences are expressed in different verbal forms, which are associated with different shades of meaning, but the usual ratio of forms is such that the time plan of the part expressing the cause precedes the time plan of the part expressing the effect, the result.
Complex non-conjunctive sentences with explanatory-objective meaning. Sentences of this type are always two-term. The first part contains a word with the meaning of perception of speech, thoughts, feelings or a word indicating these processes, and the second part expresses the object of these processes and reveals their content. Depending on the structure of the first part and the intonation of a complex sentence, all sentences of this type are divided into two groups:
I. Sentences, the first part of which includes an expressed word that needs to be distributed with the help of an internal object; the second part expresses this object and thus, as it were, replaces the unsubstituted position of the word being explained in the first part. Most of these sentences are synonymous with complex sentences with explanatory-objective clauses. For example: I'll definitely tell you: you have talent.(Fadeev); We hear: the heart splashes in the chest. We feel: our voice is pure and clear().
II. Sentences in the first part of which there is no word directly expressing the processes of perception, but there is a word indicating that these processes are taking place (listened, looked closely, looked back, approached, approached and etc.). Such verbs with the meaning of action accompanying the process of perception seem to take on the role of verbs denoting this process, so we can talk about the ellipsis of verbs of perception. Wed: He looked back and saw: a stranger was following him(sentence of the 1st group; the second part extends the verb of perception saw) And He looked back: a stranger was following him.(2nd group sentence; verb looked back, denoting the action accompanying the perception, took on the role of expressing this perception). In both the first and second sentences, the second part expresses the object of perception.
Polynomial complex non-union sentences. Non-union complex sentences can be polynomial, that is, they can consist of three or, rarely, more parts.
4.4 Complex polynomial sentence with different types of connections.
In Russian, especially in the language fiction complex sentences of combined types are widespread: a) with conjunctional coordinating and subordinating connections; b) with non-union and allied subordination; c) with conjunctive and non-conjunctive connections; finally, there are complex constructions that include various combinations of these types of sentences. The relationships between the individual parts in such constructions in most cases do not represent anything fundamentally new in comparison with the previously described types of complex, complex and non-union sentences. However, to correctly understand the meaning of polynomial combined complex sentences, be able to establish relationships between their constituent parts.
1. Among polynomial sentences with conjunctional coordinating and subordinating connections, two groups are distinguished:
1) We extend two or more composed parts with a common subordinate clause. For example: When Gavrila Ivanovich began to speak, his thick eyebrows rose and his forehead became covered with fine wrinkles.(Mamin-Sibiryak).
2) Each of the composed parts or one of them has one or more subordinate parts. For example: She spoke quickly, and her eyes looked as if right now, as soon as she had finished everything, he, Serpilin, would take it all will fix(Simonov).
2. Non-union sentences are widespread, parts of which (or one part) are complex sentences. For example: U Dasha’s lips themselves stretched into a smile: this big, handsome man is so unsure of himself that he is ready to hide behind mustard.(); If I tell her these words, it will be shameless: she cannot beat me, but, as an honest and kind girl, she will agree if I offer her my hand().
3. Sentences with non-union and coordinating connections of homogeneous composition are also very common. For example: Roof on it[outbuilding] rusty, the pipe had half collapsed, the steps at the porch had rotted and collapsed, and only traces of the plaster remained.(Chekhov). Less common are various combinations of heterogeneous parts with a conjunctive and non-conjunctive connection. For example: Dasha opened the doors of her room and stopped in bewilderment: it smelled of raw flowers, and immediately she saw a basket with a high handle and a blue bow().
IIConclusion
As we can see, the Russian language has a wealth of syntactic structures. Studying them is a lot of painstaking work, which is necessary to expand knowledge about the language. The Russian language as a subject participates in the development and education of the individual, and the variety of syntactic structures used in the language expands these possibilities.
LITERATURE
1. Babaytseva Russian language.
M., Education, 2002
2. Ram's tongue. Reference materials.
M., Education, 1998
3. Kupalova and proposal.
M., Education, 1989
4. Merkin language. Reference materials.
M., Russian word, 2005
5. Rosenthal in Russian language,
M., Eksmo, 1998
6. Shan Russian language. Syntax.
M., Education, 1997
A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more grammar basics(predicative units), which constitute semantic, structural and intonational unity.
A complex sentence functions in language as one communicative unit and is characterized by formal grammatical and semantic features, among which the most important are: a) polypredicativeness; b) a special structural diagram; c) intonation completeness, semantic and structural integrity; d) it reports several situations and the relationship between them.
The polypredicative nature of a complex sentence is found in the presence of two or more predicative units that have the structure of a simple sentence, combined into one. Parts of a complex sentence only
conditionally can be called simple sentences. Having a syntactic structure similar to simple sentences, they do not have: a) meaningful completeness, because only in combination they express a complex thought, versatile connections between objects and phenomena environment; b) intonation completeness, because only the entire complex sentence is characterized by the intonation of the end; c) communicative significance, since they are not independent units of communication.
A complex sentence consisting of two predicative units is called binary, or two-component: Therefore, let us be honest and frank in matters great and simple, so that from birth to death we will answer for everything(V. Krischenko); Not only people make mistakes, even saints make mistakes(V. Simonenko).
A complex sentence consisting of three or more predicative units is called richly articulated or multicomponent: Children's trust "I have in the teacher is a drop of pure dew on a rose flower, you need to pick the flower so as not to shake off this drop(V. Sukhomlinsky); I don’t have happiness and I don’t see it in my dreams, that’s why I carry other dreams in my heart; when at times I suffer and cry, then I don’t ask fate for happiness (Lesya Ukrainka).
A complex sentence is not a mechanical combination of simple sentences; it is constructed according to a certain unique pattern. During construction, certain structural varieties of a simple sentence are used, which are modified in accordance with the characteristics of a complex sentence.
So, parts of complex sentences do not act as a separate communicative unit and do not have semantic and intonation completeness. Only the entire complex sentence as a whole can be considered as an independent structural and communicative unit, which is a means of forming and transmitting information.
MEANS OF CONNECTING PARTS OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE
The main means of combining predicative units of a complex sentence are conjunctions, connecting words and intonation.
Intonation plays an important role in any sentence (simple and complex). Any complex sentence is characterized by intonation completeness and has the intonation of the end. In certain complex constructions, intonation is the only means of expressing semantic and syntactic relationships between the predicative units of a complex sentence.
The following types of intonation are distinguished:
1) list intonation: Leaves nada, nada, the earth is cold, cranes are already flying over the garden to warmer lands(A. Kaminchuk);
2) intonation of opposition or comparison: It is not the kindergarten that has blossomed here, nor the garden bed - there are boys and girls near the school (G. Prigara);
3) intonation of explanation: I dreamed: red roses were burning in golden rays (Lesya Ukrainka).
One of the most common means of connecting predicative units is conjunctions and connecting words, which are indicators of coordinating or contractual communication. From a semantic point of view, in many cases they express certain semantic relationships without the help of context.
Unions of severity(paratactic) combine equal parts of a complex sentence into one whole and express connecting, comparable-adversative and dividing relationships: A thunderstorm has passed, and the night has flown by, and again the day is noisy all around (V. Sosyura); Years of love, childhood, like spring waters, have disappeared, but the sound of spring waters will never be forgotten(Lesya Ukrainka); It was not because of the sun that the harvest ripened, but the song about happiness hardened in the grain (S. Letyuk); then the dark night comes, then the cheerful day roars(L. Glebov). Severity conjunctions only connect the predicative parts of a complex sentence and do not relate to any of these parts.
Contract unions(hypotactic) connect parts of complex sentences and express temporary, conditional, causal, essential and other relationships. They always refer to the contract part, subordinating it to the main one: Spring flies in the flowers, the pike cranes and does not know that they are opening gates for her everywhere with their whistles(Alexander Oles); Don’t be afraid of insights, for they are like medicine (L. Kostenko).
Connecting words, connecting together parts of a folding sentence, act as members of the contract part of the sentence. Significant parts of speech act as connecting words: relative pronouns (who, what, which, whose) and pronominal adverbs (how, when, where, where): Avoid people who, seeing your vices and shortcomings, justify them or even approve of them(G. Skovoroda); Look, I laugh when my heart weeps...(Lesya Ukrainka).
Connecting words can have correlative demonstrative words in the main part. The role of correlative words are demonstrative and attributive pronouns (such, that, each, all), as well as pronominal adverbs (then, here, there, there, so): My soul will never forget the gift that spring gave... ( Lesya Ukrainka); Here, where every stone was poured with blood in battle, take it with respect and love, “stop, friend, you (V. Luchuk).
One of the means of combining predicative units of a complex sentence into one whole is the ratio of aspectual and modal forms of verb adjectives, which are appropriately coordinated. Thus, in sentences with simultaneity of actions, adverbial verbs are expressed in the form of one tense, and in sentences with a temporal sequence - in different tense forms: Any nightingale sings in the grove, I listen to the gentle chanting, the pure, beautiful Ukrainian thing I hear in that twitter(A. Krymsky); The day, ripe and heavy, rolled down like a round, red-sided apple, and the night, with a slow wave of the hand, writes broad black shadows with charcoal.(G. Rylsky).
Lexical elements can also determine the nature of syntactic relationships and connect parts of a complex sentence. Lexical means of communication in a broad sense include connecting and correlative words. Such elements can be pronouns, which are used instead of nouns and indicate the connection between predicative units: The sunny path is pouring, and on it you and I, and all around in flowers, my Ukraine(V. Sosyura). A lexical element can also be a common minor member (or several members): At that time, hot summers abounded over Kiev, June was coming, and heavy dark clouds gathered in the sky almost every evening (V. Sobko).
The order of placement of parts of a complex sentence can be free and fixed, constant.
For a free order, predicative parts can change their place in the sentence: Leaves will grow from a leaf, a shirt will be woven from a thread (M. Singaevsky). If you change the arrangement of the parts of a complex sentence, the content of the sentence and the relationship between the parts will not change. Those complex sentences in which the relation of simultaneity is established have a free order of parts.
If there is a time sequence, a cause-and-effect relationship and zymatic relationships between the parts of a complex sentence, then the order of placement of the predicative parts is constant, fixed: They crucified us for hundreds of years and did not overcome us, therefore Ukraine did not die and will never die(D. Pavlychko); Popular wisdom says: December ends the year and opens the doors to real winter (M. Tkachenko).