Verbal-logical thinking. Logical and synthetic thinking What is a thinking style

Human thinking is very multifaceted. This is how it should be, because each of us solves many different problems and issues every day. Life regularly throws them at us. Therefore, the brain is in constant work, processing countless amounts of information.

It may seem that, as many human heads as there are in the world, there are as many types of thinking. However, it is not. The apparent chaos lends itself to strict classification, taking into account mental characteristics of people. Therefore, all individual types of thinking can be combined into two main groups. To put it quite simply, these are logicians and lyricists.

Logicians have verbal- logical thinking . Such people always focus their attention on what they say, not how they say it. They are predisposed to accuracy, they are interested in the essence of information, its semantic core. They immediately compare the newly acquired knowledge with what they already have. In a logician’s head, everything is “sorted out.” Thinking is critical, economical and consistent.

At the same time, fast memory is not a strong point of logical thinking. A person needs time to think, weigh and remember everything. Another notable feature is conservatism. It is also necessary to point out the weak emotionality of this type of people.

Verbal-logical thinking has strengths. These are meticulousness, a tendency to systematize, accuracy, criticality and consistency. There are also weaknesses: slowness, low switchability from one issue to another, increased distrust of everything new and unusual.

Lyricists tend to associative-figurative thinking. The memory of such people is no worse developed than that of logicians. But it has a slightly different character. Remembering one thing, the lyricist immediately reproduces something else in his head. That is, he is predisposed to an associative perception of reality.

This can also be described as imaginative thinking. Its owner equally perceives the Bible, the teachings of Blavatsky, and philosophy in general. For him, the Theory of Relativity, the geometry of Euclid and the mysteries of the Loch Ness monster are of equal value, which is absolutely unacceptable for people with a logical mindset.

Associative-figurative thinking has its advantages. This is a rich imagination, emotionality, flexibility and the ability to quickly switch from one thing to another. Images are perceived as a whole, and they are inextricably linked with the surrounding reality. For such people, a flower vase can wake up in the morning and be filled with the light of sunny May. White fingers, sadness with huge eyes, a broken tulip thrown into dust - these are all lyrics.

However, let's talk about their disadvantages. These include inconsistency in actions, excessive idealization of something or someone, mental excitability, increased vulnerability and excessive sensuality. Such factors make it difficult to look at the world objectively, but at the same time make it unusually interesting and exciting.

There may be an opinion that different types of thinking mutually exclude the communication of their owners. In other words, lyricists and logicians do not have common points of contact, and therefore cannot get along with each other. However, practice refutes such a judgment. People completely different from each other have lived side by side for many thousands of years.

The thing is that such a union is simply necessary for the survival of humanity. Those with imaginative thinking make our lives spiritual and beautiful. Art, painting, poetry. Civilization owes all this to the lyricists. And here technical progress, rationalism, practicality, science are the prerogative of people with a logical mindset.

In other words, we observe the unity and struggle of opposites in action. This is the basis of all life on the planet. Violation of such harmony will lead to death. But as long as it exists, humanity will exist.

Thinking and speech are what distinguishes a person from an animal. Verbal and logical thinking is inherent only to man; it is formed in the process of his development and maturation.

Thinking – highest level cognition, the process of recreating the reality around us. Thinking is often identified with the mind. This is not entirely true.

If intelligence is the ability to think and find solutions to various problems, then thinking is premise of mind, a tool for a thinking person, working with meanings.

Thinking, speech and logic

Human thinking is verbal, it is formed in the process of communication and its formation is possible only through the joint activity of people. All people are different, some people find it easier to think if they see or imagine objects - this is visual thinking. Others operate with abstract structures (words) - this is what distinguishes verbal logical thinking.

Speech is form of communication between people with the help of linguistic constructions created according to historically established rules, the highest mental function of a person. Speech formulates thoughts using words and presupposes their understanding and perception by another person.

Logic literally means reasoning, speech, thought. Logic is a science that teaches us to draw conclusions indirectly, that is, not from sensory experience, but from previously acquired knowledge.

Types of logical thinking

During the preschool period all are formed cognitive processes , among which the most important place belongs to the development and formation of thought and speech.

Visually effective things are formed in early childhood, from about one and a half years old. The child's first generalizations are associated with the same actions performed with similar objects. Suppose a child sees a bottle of milk - now he will be fed. In adult life, it is used, for example, in experiments whose results cannot be predicted in advance.
Visual imagery usually manifests itself most clearly in children 4-6 years old. It operates with images and involves visualizing the situation. Most often, direct contact with the object is not required, but it is necessary to clearly imagine it. If you ask a child what a dog is, he will point to a picture or a puppy sitting next to him, rather than listing the number of paws and ears of the animal. Adults use it to describe concepts that they cannot see - the structure of a molecule, the earth's core.
Verbal logical usually begins to develop in senior preschool and junior school age, continuing to form and develop throughout life. This is the ability to think through reasoning, carried out using language and logical operations with concepts, the latest stage in the evolution of thinking.

As an example You can give an example with a coin. If it is visually effective, a person will see a fallen coin and realize that he can take it in his hand or put it in his mouth, since it will fit there. If it is visually figurative, he will throw it up and see what comes up, heads or tails. With the verbal-logical one, he will begin to argue about whether it can hang in the air or stand on its edge, and if not, then why.

Verbal logical thinking

Thanks to verbal thinking, we operate with such concepts as honor, conscience, love, value. After all, we cannot visualize them - this is verbal constructions, perhaps everyone puts their own meaning into them.

As a result of verbal logical thinking, a person can operate with the most abstract concepts without completely breaking away from sensory experience. With its help, we look for and find patterns, generalize previously gained experience - both sensory and visual.

Verbal logical thinking does not descend upon us overnight; it is gradually formed throughout life, in the process of learning and gaining personal experience. Some people master it to a greater extent than others; we call them talents or geniuses, while others master it less.

Operations of verbal logical thinking

During the learning process we we operate with certain concepts.

Analysis is a transition from the general to the specific, the division of an object into components, the differentiation of various properties, elements, and connections in it.
Synthesis is a transition from the particular to the general. Combining the constituent parts into a single whole.
Comparison is a comparison of phenomena and objects, isolating their differences and similarities with each other.
Generalization is the unification of phenomena and objects according to significant characteristics, one or more.
Classification – grouping according to characteristics. In contrast to generalization, which is based on significant features, classification recognizes desirable but unimportant features as a basis, for example, drink preference.

The importance of developing verbal logical thinking in children

It is necessary to develop verbal logical thinking in preschoolers because children will soon begin studying. From the first days they will study logic based subjects, and unprepared children will have a very difficult time.

Undeveloped verbal logical thinking interferes with the assimilation of knowledge, leads to the inability to express one’s thoughts, and prevents the establishment of normal contacts with teachers and other children. This is why adaptation in our society is so difficult for the deaf and mute. They go to special schools, they are taught using special methods, they even have their own language.

To help your child, you can:

ask him to retell cartoons;
compose fairy tales with him;
solve simple logic problems with him;
solve riddles;
ask him to explain the meaning of proverbs and sayings.

Verbal logical thinking in human life

Verbal logical thinking implies not only the ability to think logically, but also masterful use of words. It is precisely this that is involved in our communication with other people. After all, if a person knows something, but cannot convey it to others through speech, he becomes like a mute. If a person speaks beautifully, but is at odds with logic, he is as good as deaf.

It is to him that we owe all the discoveries that humanity has made during its existence. If a person cannot think logically, he will not discover anything. If he cannot convey his message to others, his discovery will die with him.

Man is Living being capable of speaking and thinking. Expressing words “to oneself” is called verbal thinking. As a rule, a person cannot always control this process. Verbal thinking is the inner voice and thought forms that arise in the brain of an individual.

Types of thinking

Human thinking is divided into several types, and in each individual only one of them is most pronounced.

Visual and effective thinking, as a rule, is clearly expressed in children under 3 years of age. The child does not yet know words, but already expresses emotions and performs a certain sequence of actions. For example, show your baby how to add cubes one by one, and he will happily repeat it. Moreover, he will gradually begin to come up with new ways to build and then destroy the pyramid. This process will involve imaginative thinking.

Verbal-logical (verbal) thinking is knowledge that a person already possesses, although it is difficult to present it in the form of a specific subject. Children aged 4-5 years old use this particular way of thinking - they talk and reason a lot. Visual and verbal thinking differ in the content of the means used. If this is visual thinking, then clear images of objects and actions appear in the brain. Its opposite is verbal thinking - these are abstract sign structures.

Why is verbal thinking necessary?

First of all, it is very important in the formation of mental functions at an early age. If a child cannot correctly express his thoughts in words, then he cannot form a verbal image. Subsequently, the peculiarities of thinking in a child at an early age affect adult life. Children who have not learned to communicate in due time grow up withdrawn from outside world. As a rule, people who are successful in humanities, have verbal thinking. This can be explained by their ability to think figuratively. It is easy for such people to talk and talk about the concepts of existence, philosophical teachings, art and poetry.

People with developed verbal thinking love to reason out loud and to themselves. These are very open and sociable individuals. When communicating with strangers, they always think first and speak later. They have very well developed logic and quickly cope with various complex situations.

Scientists and Verbal Thinking

If verbal thinking is a necessity for humanists, then the question arises: do lovers of the exact sciences need to develop such thinking? Many people know such a brilliant professor as Albert Einstein. Until the age of 6, he practically did not speak and, accordingly, did not have verbal thinking. Despite all this, he was a genius.

But what if we look at this problem from the other side? People who saw the little 6-year-old boy not talking at all thought he was just a stupid child. Communication skills are very important in modern society. A person who cannot express his thoughts is unlikely to succeed in the professional field. Verbal-logical thinking is very necessary, because it helps to find solutions in difficult life situations.

Exercises to develop verbal and logical thinking

There are a huge number of exercises for developing different types of thinking. To develop verbal thinking, it is recommended to use logic puzzles. For example, look at the objects around you and try to give them new names (children do this best). For example, a cup is a drinker, a pen is a writer, etc. An excellent exercise for developing verbal thinking is tongue twisters. You can memorize old ones, or you can come up with new ones. Say them both out loud and to yourself.

Playing chess is very helpful in developing verbal thinking. Firstly, during the game, as a rule, the players communicate with each other, and secondly, the game forces a person to think and calculate steps ahead. Verbal thinking is verbal thinking, therefore any training to develop it is recommended to be carried out in a group. You can develop this mindset as a family. The peculiarities of a person’s thinking are associated with his knowledge in various fields. Discussions with acquaintances and friends help not only to learn a lot of new and useful information, but also to develop verbal thinking.

It may seem that, as many human heads as there are in the world, there are as many types of thinking. However, it is not. Apparent chaos lends itself to strict classification taking into account the mental characteristics of people. Therefore, all individual types of thinking can be combined into two main groups. To put it quite simply, these are logicians and lyricists.

Logicians have verbal-logical thinking. Such people always focus their attention on what they say, not how they say it. They are predisposed to accuracy, they are interested in the essence of information, its semantic core. They immediately compare the newly acquired knowledge with what they already have. In a logician’s head, everything is “sorted out.” Thinking is critical, economical and consistent.

The thing is that such a union is simply necessary for the survival of humanity. Those with imaginative thinking make our lives spiritual and beautiful. Art, painting, poetry. Civilization owes all this to the lyricists. But technical progress, rationalism, practicality, science are the prerogative of people with a logical mindset.

The general meaning of the tasks often remains relatively intact in these patients; As a rule, they never lose sight of the final question of a task and actively try to find ways to solve it. However, the fact that understanding complex logical-grammatical structures turns out to be inaccessible to them, and any complex arithmetic operations impossible, poses insurmountable obstacles for them.

Types of thinking

Logicians are characterized by verbal-logical thinking. Such people always focus their attention on what they say, not how they say it. They are predisposed to accuracy, they are interested in the essence of information, its semantic core. They immediately compare the newly acquired knowledge with what they already have. In a logician’s head, everything is “sorted out.” Thinking is critical, economical and consistent.

Lyricists are characterized by associative-figurative thinking. The memory of such people is no worse developed than that of logicians. But it has a slightly different character. Remembering one thing, the lyricist immediately reproduces something else in his head. That is, he is predisposed to an associative perception of reality.

The thing is that such a union is simply necessary for the survival of humanity. Those with imaginative thinking make our lives spiritual and beautiful. Art, painting, poetry. Civilization owes all this to the lyricists. But technical progress, rationalism, practicality, science are the prerogative of people with a logical mindset.

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Verbal-logical thinking;

There is a large set of methods for studying verbal-logical thinking. These include the following methods: classifying objects (or concepts), finding logical relations (or analogies), performing logical inference operations using the figure of a syllogism. We will look at the neuropsychological analysis of the process of solving arithmetic problems.

Arithmetic problem includes purpose and conditions, upon analysis of which a scheme for solving a problem can be created or a strategy can be adopted that leads to the desired solution. This strategy, formulated in the form of a hypothesis, causes a search for operations, the implementation of which will lead to the desired result. The process of solving a problem ends with a comparison of the path taken and a comparison of the result obtained with both the question and the conditions of the problem; If the solution found coincides with the conditions of the problem, intellectual activity stops. It is important that different arithmetic problems do not have the same structure: they can all be ranked according to the degree of complexity of their structure. Some require one action, others two or three, with intermediate operations. Even more difficult are problems designated as “conflict”, where the correct solution involves abandoning the obvious method (for example, the task: The length of the candle is 15 cm; the shadow of the candle is 45 cm longer; how many times is the shadow longer than the candle?” Here the tendency to carry out the straightforward operation 45: 15 = 3 must be rejected and replaced by a more complex program: 15 + 45 = 60; 60: 15 = 4. We see how the set of actions becomes more complex.

Lesions of the left temporal region, leading to impairment of auditory-verbal memory, cause significant difficulties in maintaining the conditions of the task with the inability to include intermediate speech links in the solution process. Therefore, patients in this group find it difficult to solve even relatively simple problems. Relief is noted when the task is offered in in writing, however, even in this case, the need for intermediate speech links sharply complicates the implementation of a series of verbal-logical acts.

Damage to the left parieto-occipital region causes a gross disintegration of spatial syntheses. As a result of such a violation, both logical-grammatical and numerical operations become inaccessible, and these defects prevent the solution of complex problems. The general meaning of the tasks often remains intact in these patients; As a rule, they never lose sight of the final question of a task and actively try to find ways to solve it. Even elementary logical conditions (A took so many apples from B), not to mention more complex logical-grammatical constructions, remain unsolvable. The system of logical connections of more complex problems remains completely inaccessible to patients, although the intentions to solve the problem are preserved and active attempts are made to understand the conditions, the solution of the problem is not carried out.

The first and main feature of the violation intellectual activity in patients with massive lesions of the frontal lobes is that the proposed the text of the task is not perceived by them as a task, in other words, as a system of subordinate elements of conditions. In response to an offer to repeat the conditions of the task, patients either omit the repetition of the question or replace the question of the task with a repetition of one of its conditions. For example, the task “There were 18 books on two shelves, but not equally; one of them had twice as much as the other; How many books were on each shelf? such patients can repeat this: “There were 18 books on two shelves. And on the second shelf there were 18 books..." - the task turns into a statement of two known facts and loses the character of an intellectual problem. Patients in this group do not notice the mistake made and repeat it when presented with the task a second time.

These facts indicate that patients not realized main condition – presence of the task itself, and therefore no intentions to solve it are formulated. The second defect is that these patients the process of preliminary orientation in the conditions of the task falls out, as a result of which they, without even trying to understand the conditions of the problem and compare the links included in its composition, immediately start impulsively looking for answers, more often combining the numbers included in the conditions and completing the series fragmented operations, not related to the task context and, therefore, meaningless. For example, answers to the problem about two shelves with 18 books: “There are 18 books on two shelves... On the second there are 2 times more... that means 36... and there are two shelves... that means 18 + 36 = 54.”

This type of problem solving is typical for patients with frontal syndrome; it shows that intellectual activity as a whole is subject to disintegration and that solving the problem is inaccessible to him, even despite the complete preservation of the understanding of logical-grammatical structures and counting operations. It is characteristic that patients with damage to the frontal regions do not compare the result obtained with the initial conditions of the task and do not realize the meaninglessness of the answer they received.

3. VERBAL-LOGICAL (DISCOURSIVE) THINKING. PROBLEM SOLVING

Psychology has a large range of methods for studying verbal-logical thinking. These include methods such as the method of classifying objects (or concepts), the method of finding logical relations (or analogies), the method of performing the simplest operations of logical inference using the figure of a syllogism, and many others.

Some of them were widely used in psychiatric clinics (L.S. Vygotsky, 1934; B.V. Zeigarnik, 1961), others made it possible to obtain important results in the clinic of local brain lesions (A.R. Luria, 1962, 1966, 1969) .

Without presenting all the data obtained using these methods in the process of studying patients with focal brain lesions, we will dwell only on the neuropsychological analysis of the process of solving arithmetic problems, which can rightfully be considered as a successful model of discursive thinking. Using this example, we will try to approach the analysis of which brain systems take part in the construction of the most complex, intellectual forms of human mental activity.

An arithmetic problem always includes a goal (formulated in the form of a problem question) and conditions, upon analysis of which a certain scheme for solving the problem can be created or a certain strategy can be adopted that allows one to arrive at the desired solution. This strategy, formulated in the form of a specific hypothesis, causes a search for individual operations, the implementation of which can lead to the desired result. The process of solving a problem ends with a comparison of the path taken and the result obtained both with the general question and with the conditions of the problem; if the solution found coincides or is consistent with the conditions of the problem, intellectual activity stops. On the contrary, any discrepancy between the paths and results of the solution and the initial conditions forces us to resume the search for ways to achieve an adequate solution.

It is important to note that different arithmetic problems do not have the same structure: they can all be arranged in a sequential series according to the degree of increasing complexity of their structure.

As was specially shown elsewhere (A. R. Luria, L. S. Tsvetkova, 1967), the simplest problems (such as: “Oli had 4 apples, Katya had 3 apples; how many did both of them have?” ) have an unambiguous the simplest algorithm decisions and require one action; more complex versions of the same problem (such as: “Oli had 4 apples, Katya had 2 apples more; how many did both of them have?”) require an intermediate, unformulated operation; the program for solving the problem falls into two stages. Solving problems with algorithms that require the execution of a program consisting of a number of sequential links or intermediate operations is even more complex. These include tasks that require recoding conditions, introducing new constituent elements (for example, the task: “There were 18 books on two shelves; on one of them there were 2 times more books than on the other; how many books were on each shelf?”) . To solve this problem, it is necessary to enter auxiliary data (“3 parts”) next to the initial data (“2 shelves”) with further calculation of the number of books per each of the auxiliary parts. Even more difficult are the tasks that we have designated as “conflict”, where the correct solution involves abandoning the obvious method (for example, a task like: “The length of the candle is 15 cm; the shadow of the candle is 45 cm longer; how many times is the shadow longer than the candle ?' Here the tendency to carry out the straightforward operation 45:15 = 3 must be rejected and replaced by a more complex program: 15 + 45 = 60; 60:15 = 4). We see how the set of actions required to solve each of the described types of problems is becoming more complex.

The just given structural analysis of the requirements that tasks of different structure impose on the process of their solution allows us to approach the analysis of how exactly the solution process changes when certain conditions associated with the work of certain brain systems are eliminated, and thereby to the question of brain organization of this complex process.

Lesions of the left temporal region, leading to impairment of auditory-verbal memory, naturally cause significant difficulties in maintaining the conditions of the task with the inability to include the necessary intermediate speech links in the solution process. That is why in patients of this group the solution of even relatively simple problems becomes extremely difficult. Some relief is noted when the task is proposed in writing, however, even in this case, the need for intermediate speech links, acting as elements of solving the problem, greatly complicates the implementation of a series of discursive acts. Such phenomena, however, are of a non-specific nature for intellectual activity (Ombredan, 1951).

Of much greater interest are those difficulties in the problem solving process that arise with lesions of the systems of the left parieto-occipital region.

As we have already seen earlier, in these cases the defeat causes a gross disintegration of simultaneous (spatial) syntheses, manifested both in direct, visual behavior and in the symbolic sphere. As a result of such a violation, both logical-grammatical and numerical operations become inaccessible, and these defects completely prevent the normal flow of solving complex problems.

The general meaning of the tasks often remains relatively intact in these patients; As a rule, they never lose sight of the final question of a task and actively try to find ways to solve it.

Even elementary logical conditions (for example: “A took so many apples from B,” or “A has twice as many apples as B,” or “A has 2 more apples than B,” etc.) etc.), not to mention more complex logical-grammatical constructions, remain inaccessible to such patients, and the repetition of conditions takes on the character of reproducing isolated, unrelated fragments of them (for example: “Oli has apples, and Tanya has two . or two. and what is more. ", etc.). Naturally, the system of logical connections concluded in the conditions of more complex problems remains completely inaccessible to these patients, and despite the fact that the intention to solve the problem is fully preserved and the patient continues to make active attempts to understand the constituent conditions of the relationship, the solution of the problem is never realized.

The disruption of the problem solving process in lesions of the frontal parts of the brain has a different structure. Since this is discussed in detail in special works (A.R. Luria, L.S. Tsvetkova, 1966, 1967), we will limit ourselves here to summarizing the facts described there.

The first and main feature of impaired intellectual activity in patients with massive lesions of the frontal lobes of the brain is that the proposed text of the task is not perceived by them as a task, in other words, as a system of subordinate elements of conditions.

This fact clearly appears in the fact that in response to a proposal to repeat the conditions of the task, patients, reproducing some of the constituent elements of the condition, either omit the repetition of the question altogether, or replace the question of the task with a repetition of one of the elements of the condition. So, for example, the problem “There were 18 books on two shelves, but not equally; one of them had twice as much as the other; How many books were on each shelf? such patients can repeat this: “There were 18 books on two shelves. And on the second shelf there were 18 books. “- the task actually turns into a statement of two known facts and loses the character of an intellectual problem. Patients can repeat the same task in a different way: “There were 18 books on two shelves; on one - 2 times more than on the other. How many books were on both shelves?”, not noticing that instead of asking a question, they actually repeated the first part of already known conditions. It is characteristic that patients in this group, as a rule, do not notice the mistake they have made and, when the task is presented a second time, repeat it.

These facts indicate that patients with severe frontal syndrome are not aware of the main condition - the presence of the task itself, and therefore do not formulate intentions to solve it.

The second closely related defect, characteristic of patients with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain, is that these patients lose the process of preliminary orientation in the conditions of the task, as a result of which they, without even trying to understand the conditions of the task and compare its components links immediately begin to impulsively look for answers, most often simply combining the numbers included in the conditions and performing a series of fragmentary operations that are in no way related to the context of the problem and, therefore, have no meaning.

A typical example of such fragmentary operations replacing the real solution of the problem is the following set of answers to the above problem about two shelves with 18 books: “There are 18 books on two shelves. The second one is 2 times more. that means 36. and there are two shelves. means 18 + 36 = 54."

This type of problem solving is typical for a patient with severe frontal syndrome; it clearly shows that his intellectual activity as a whole is subject to disintegration and that solving the problem is inaccessible to him, even despite the complete preservation of his understanding of logical-grammatical structures and counting operations.

It is typical that patients with damage to the frontal regions of the brain do not compare the result obtained with the initial conditions of the task and do not realize the meaninglessness of the answer they received.

It is quite natural that the correct solution to “conflict” problems turns out to be completely inaccessible to these patients; after reading the problem “The length of the candle is 15 cm; the candle shadow is 45 cm longer; how many times is the shadow longer than the candle?”, the patient immediately answers: “Of course, 3 times!” and even with leading questions he does not see a mistake in this answer.

Thus, neuropsychological analysis indicates profound differences in the nature of problem solving impairments with brain lesions of different locations and makes it possible to see that if the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres (part of the second functional block of the brain) provide operational conditions for the performance of intellectual activity, then the frontal lobes brain (included in the third functional block) are necessary for the organization of intellectual activity as a whole with the programming of an intellectual act and control over its implementation included in its composition.

Analysis of the brain organization of intellectual activity takes only the first steps, and researchers still have a lot of work to do before the brain mechanisms of thinking appear to them with sufficient completeness. We are confident that the system analysis method we propose provides a reliable way to solve this complex issue.

VERBAL-LOGICAL THINKING

Number is an objective characteristic of all objects in the surrounding world. Number and counting are a product of human culture and are associated with the emergence of trade and land surveying. The research of many psychologists makes it possible to understand the complexity of the structure of numbers and counting operations and the path they take in ontogenesis.

These studies show the significant role of spatial perception in the concept of number, in its structure and in the course of counting operations. Counting operations and the concept of number in children for a long time They are visually effective in nature, and when recalculating elements, they still assume their placement in the visual-spatial field for a long time. Only gradually do these extensive external operations with objects and numbers and their placement in space collapse and are replaced by abstract arithmetic thinking. However, even at these stages of number formation and counting operations, they continue to retain spatial components.

Our own studies of counting disorders and counting operations that occur with brain damage have shown the important role of the spatial factor - perception and ideas - in the formation of the concept of number and counting in children. All researchers point to the connection between number and spatial perception, as well as with higher forms analysis and synthesis.

What is the concept of number? The concept of a number can be determined by at least four components: the direct representation of the quantity behind the number, its position in the system of other numerical signs, i.e. its position in the digit grid (place in the series of digits that make up the number, and place in the class), awareness of the internal connection of the number with other numbers, understanding of the complex connection of the number with speech. Without the formation of the concept of number, it is impossible to teach a child real counting as a mental process and counting operations, and here it is possible to replace the formation of the concept of number and the counting process with simple associative connections, which is often observed in school when arithmetic is taught incorrectly. If it is formed mental process account, which is subsequently reduced, internalized and automated, then at the right moment this process can unfold according to its composition of operations, which at a critical moment will lead to the correct solution of arithmetic operations.

Number and counting operations may be disrupted or incompletely formed according to various reasons: due to defects in spatial perception, due to the immaturity of the interaction between number and speech, due to defects in visual-figurative operations, due to defects in the purposefulness of behavior and organization of counting activities, etc. Every time they arise different shapes calculations that need to be accurately qualified, to find the factor underlying the defect or difficulty in counting, and only on this basis can a method for restoring or forming the concept of number and counting operations be developed that is adequate to the nature of the defect. All of the indicated defects arise from pathology of different areas of the brain and are distinguished by different and specific errors.

General conditions for choosing a drainage system: The drainage system is selected depending on the nature of the protected area.

Mechanical retention of earth masses: Mechanical retention of earth masses on a slope is provided by buttress structures of various designs.

Organization of drainage surface waters: Largest quantity moisture on the globe evaporates from the surface of the seas and oceans (88‰).

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Psychology of thinking. - Types of thinking.

In psychology, the following simplest and somewhat conventional classification of types of thinking is most accepted and widespread:

Visual-effective thinking is a type of thinking that is based on the direct perception of objects in the process of acting with them. This thinking is the most elementary type of thinking that arises in practical activity and is the basis for the formation of more complex species thinking. The main characteristic of visual-effective thinking is determined by the ability to observe real objects and learn the relationships between them in a real transformation of the situation. Practical cognitive objective actions are the basis of any later forms of thinking.

Visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images. With visual-figurative thinking, the situation is transformed in terms of image or representation. The subject operates with visual images of objects through their figurative representations. At the same time, the image of an object allows one to combine a set of heterogeneous practical operations into a holistic picture. Mastery of visual and figurative representations expands the scope of practical thinking.

In its simplest form, visual-figurative thinking occurs mainly in preschoolers, i.e. aged four to seven years. Although the connection between thinking and practical actions is preserved, it is not as close, direct and immediate as before. During the analysis and synthesis of a cognizable object, a child does not necessarily and does not always have to touch the object that interests him with his hands. In many cases, systematic practical manipulation (action) with an object is not required, but in all cases it is necessary to clearly perceive and visually represent this object. In other words, preschoolers think only in visual images and do not yet master concepts (in the strict sense).

Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out using logical operations with concepts. With verbal-logical thinking, using logical concepts, the subject can cognize significant patterns and unobservable relationships of the reality under study. The development of verbal-logical thinking rebuilds and organizes the world of figurative ideas and practical actions.

Abstract-logical (abstract) thinking is a type of thinking based on identifying the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from other, unimportant ones.

Visual-effective, visual-figurative, verbal-logical and abstract-logical thinking are successive stages in the development of thinking in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. Currently, psychology has convincingly shown that these four types of thinking coexist in an adult and function when solving various problems. All types of thinking are closely interconnected. When solving problems, verbal reasoning is based on vivid images. At the same time, solving even the simplest, most concrete problem requires verbal generalizations. Therefore, the described types of thinking cannot be assessed as more or less valuable. Abstract-logical or verbal-logical thinking cannot be the “ideal” of thinking in general, end point intellectual development. Thus, further improvement of thinking is associated in psychology with the expansion and specification of the spheres of application of learned mental norms and techniques.

In addition, the identification of types of thinking can be done on various grounds. Thus, based on various sources concerning the study of thinking, we can distinguish the following types of thinking (see Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Classification of types of thinking on various grounds

Based on the nature of the problems being solved, theoretical and practical thinking are distinguished.

Theoretical thinking is thinking based on theoretical reasoning and inferences.

Practical thinking is thinking based on judgments and inferences based on solving practical problems. Theoretical thinking is the knowledge of laws and rules. The main task of practical thinking is to develop means of practical transformation of reality: setting goals, creating a plan, project, scheme. Practical thinking was studied by B.M. Teplov. He established that an important feature of practical thinking is that it unfolds under conditions of severe time shortage and actual risk. In practical situations, the possibilities for testing hypotheses are very limited. All this makes practical thinking in a certain respect more complex than theoretical thinking.

Discursive (analytical) thinking is thinking mediated by the logic of reasoning rather than perception. Analytical thinking unfolds in time, has clearly defined stages, and is represented in the consciousness of the thinking person himself.

Intuitive thinking is thinking based on direct sensory perceptions and direct reflection of the influences of objects and phenomena of the objective world. Intuitive thinking is characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious. Three criteria are usually used to distinguish between discursive and intuitive thinking: 1) temporal (time of the process); 2) structural (divided into stages); 3) level of awareness (representation in the consciousness of the thinker himself).

According to the degree of novelty and originality, reproductive and productive thinking are distinguished according to their functional purpose.

Reproductive thinking is thinking based on images and ideas drawn from certain sources.

Productive thinking is thinking based on creative imagination.

In their activities, people encounter objects that have a holistic-systemic nature. To navigate such objects, a person must be able to identify their external and internal content, their internal essence and its external manifestations. In this regard, according to the type of cognition, theoretical and empirical thinking are distinguished.

Theoretical thinking is thinking aimed at understanding the internal content and essence of complex system objects. The main mental activity associated with such cognition is analysis. Analysis of an integral system object reveals in it some simple connection (or relationship), which acts as a genetically initial basis for all its particular manifestations. This initial connection serves as a universal or essential source of the formation of an integral system object. The task of theoretical thinking is to discover this initial essential connection and then isolate it, i.e. abstraction, and, subsequently, reduction to this initial connection of all possible partial manifestations of a system object, i.e. production of generalization action.

Empirical thinking is thinking aimed at knowing the external manifestations of the objects and phenomena under consideration. The main operations of empirical thinking are comparison and classification, which are associated with the actions of abstraction and generalization of identical properties, objects and phenomena. The cognitive product of these actions is general ideas(or empirical concepts) about these objects and phenomena. Empirical thinking performs very important and necessary functions in Everyday life people, as well as in sciences at the initial stages of their development.

According to their functional purpose, critical and creative thinking are distinguished.

Critical thinking aims to identify flaws in other people's judgments.

Creative thinking is associated with the discovery of fundamentally new knowledge, with the generation of one’s own original ideas, and not with evaluating the thoughts of others. The conditions for their implementation are opposite: the generation of new creative ideas must be completely free from any criticism, external and internal prohibitions; critical selection and evaluation of these ideas, on the contrary, requires rigor towards oneself and others, and does not allow an overestimation of one’s own ideas. In practice, there are attempts to combine the advantages of each of these types. For example, in well-known methods for managing the thought process and increasing its effectiveness (“brainstorming”), creative and critical thinking as different modes of conscious work are used at different stages of solving the same applied problems.

One of the traditional differences in thinking by type is based on an analysis of the content of the means of thinking used - visual or verbal. In this regard, visual and verbal thinking are distinguished.

Visual thinking is thinking based on images and representations of objects.

Verbal thinking is thinking that operates with abstract sign structures. It has been established that for full-fledged mental work, some people need to see or imagine objects, while others prefer to operate with abstract sign structures. In psychology, it is believed that visual and verbal types of thinking are “antagonists”: carriers of the first are difficult to access even simple tasks, presented in symbolic form; speakers of the second have a hard time with tasks that require using visual images.

Thinking and speech are what distinguishes a person from an animal. Verbal and logical thinking is inherent only to man; it is formed in the process of his development and maturation.

Thinking is the highest level of cognition, the process of recreating the reality around us. Thinking is often identified with the mind. This is not entirely true.

If intelligence is the ability to think and find solutions to various problems, then thinking is premise of mind, a tool for a thinking person, working with meanings.

Thinking, speech and logic

Logic literally means reasoning, speech, thought. Logic is a science that teaches us to draw conclusions indirectly, that is, not from sensory experience, but from previously acquired knowledge.

During the preschool period all cognitive processes are formed, among which the most important place belongs to the development and formation of thought and speech.

Operations of verbal logical thinking

During the learning process we we operate with certain concepts.

The importance of developing verbal logical thinking in children

To help your child, you can:

ask him to retell cartoons;
compose fairy tales with him;
solve simple logic problems with him;
solve riddles;
ask him to explain the meaning of proverbs and sayings.

Verbal logical thinking in human life

manifests itself in creating something new, original, combining dissimilar, often opposing ideas, views, and carrying out thought experiments. The Synthesizer's motto is “What if...”. Synthesizers strive to create the broadest possible, generalized concept that allows them to combine different approaches, “remove” contradictions, and reconcile opposing positions. This is a theoretical style of thinking, such people like to build theories and build their conclusions on the basis of theories, they like to notice contradictions in other people’s reasoning and draw the attention of people around them, they like to sharpen the contradiction and try to find a fundamentally new solution that integrates opposing views, they tend to see the world constantly changing and love change, often for the sake of change itself.

Idealistic thinking style manifests itself in a tendency to intuitive, global estimates without performing a detailed analysis of the problems. The peculiarity of Idealists is an increased interest in goals, needs, human values, moral problems, they take into account subjective and social factors in their decisions, strive to smooth out contradictions and emphasize similarities in various positions, easily perceive various ideas and proposals without internal resistance, and successfully solve such problems , where important factors are emotions, feelings, assessments and other subjective moments, sometimes utopianly striving to reconcile and unite everyone and everything. “Where are we going and why?” - a classic question from Idealists.

Pragmatic thinking style relies on direct personal experience, to use those materials and information that are easily available, trying to obtain a specific result (albeit limited) as quickly as possible, a practical gain. The motto of the Pragmatists is “Anything will work”, “Anything that works” will do. The behavior of Pragmatists may seem superficial and chaotic, but they adhere to the following attitude: events in this world occur uncoordinatedly and everything depends on random circumstances, so in an unpredictable world you just need to try: “today we’ll do this, and then we’ll see...” Pragmatists have a good sense of the situation. , supply and demand, successfully determine behavioral tactics, using the prevailing circumstances to their advantage, showing flexibility and adaptability.

Analytical thinking style focused on a systematic and comprehensive consideration of an issue or problem in those aspects that are determined by objective criteria, inclined to a logical, methodical, thorough (with an emphasis on detail) manner of solving problems. Before making a decision, Analysts develop a detailed plan and try to collect as much information, objective facts, and deep theories as possible. They tend to perceive the world as logical, rational, orderly and predictable, and therefore tend to look for a formula, method or system that can provide a solution to a particular problem and can be rationally justified.

Realistic style thinking is focused only on the recognition of facts, and “real” is only what can be directly felt, personally seen or heard, touched, etc. Realistic thinking is characterized by specificity and an attitude towards correction, correction of situations in order to achieve a certain result. The problem for Realists arises whenever they see something is wrong and want to fix it.

Thus, it can be noted that individual style thinking affects ways of solving problems, ways of behavior, and personal characteristics of a person.