One of the most terrible, large-scale and bloody events in the history of mankind is World War I. At that time, 38 countries were involved in the conflict caused by economic contradictions.
Despite the fact that millions of casualties could have been prevented and avoided, Austria-Hungary, in alliance with Germany, chose a more decisive and tough way to regulate the situation in the world.
Reasons for the start of the conflict
At the very beginning of the 20th century, the calm situation throughout the world gave way to a serious military conflict, which unfolded due to the desire of some countries to impose their opinions on other states. Attempts at worldwide globalization in such a cruel way have led to colossal human losses.
The First World War has one important feature that distinguishes it from other armed confrontations. Historians do not give a clear definition of which country was the aggressor and which became their victim.
The main opposing sides were: Atlanta (this alliance included England, Russia, Romania, France and others) and the Triple Alliance (formed by Austria-Hungary, Italy, Germany, and later joined Ottoman Empire).
These two blocs were determined to go to war, and other states joined them over time. The growing tension in the world was caused by a number of reasons:
- England tried to remain the only economic leader and wanted to eliminate Germany as the main competitor;
- France intended to receive compensation for the fact that it had previously failed to win the Franco-Prussian War and had lost a significant part of its territories (along with the resources of the Ruhr Basin);
- Russia was interested in taking from Austria-Hungary and annexing the western territories of Ukraine and Polish lands, as well as establishing control in the Black Sea straits and the Balkans;
- Germany tried to subjugate as many colonies as possible, which it did not have, and also wanted to gain unhindered access to the Caucasian and Middle Eastern oil fields.
Since Russia wanted to unite the Slavs and expand its territories, gaining access to the Black Sea, Austria-Hungary tried by any means to hinder its efforts. In this terrible military campaign, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, there were no innocent states. Some historians believe that the immediate first victim was Serbia. Other scientists insist that it was Serbian intelligence that was involved in the creation of the terrorist group Mlada Bosna, which included Princip (the killer of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austrian heir to the throne).
The goal of many states that joined the fighting was to involve Russia in the conflict and the final destruction of the empire.
Brief chronology
The tragic events that took place in Sarajevo became a reason for condemnation from many countries. England openly called the Serbs cruel barbarians, calling on Austria-Hungary to respond decisively to them.
At that time, Russia and Germany remained the largest powers in Europe, and they intended to contain the growing tension in the world, frankly avoiding military provocations.
A month after the assassination attempt, Serbia made strict demands, among which was a clause on allowing police officers to stay on the territory of the state. Failure to comply with this part of the agreement became a reason to declare war. This was confirmed by the first bombs dropped on the territory of Serbia, which proved the intentions of the Austro-Hungarians.
Russia, which for many years acted as a shield of the Slavic world and Orthodoxy, was unable to stabilize the situation diplomatically. Therefore, World War I could not begin without the participation of a great empire.
Since the date of the first attacks there has been a series of bloody provocations. The fighting took place in the Middle East and the Balkans, in the European colonies and in the Caucasus.
Germany, which acted according to the Schlieffen plan, expected a quick and favorable outcome of events: victory, lunch in the center of Paris and an evening promenade in St. Petersburg. However, the strategy failed miserably, as the opponents turned out to be well prepared.
The situation on the fronts changed dramatically:
- Germany entered Belgium and Luxembourg;
- France had to cede part of its lands;
- In the Battle of Galicia (from late July to September), the Russians occupied the territories of Bukovina, eastern Galicia and were able to besiege Przemysl;
- In the Caucasus in 1916, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, and to domestic troops managed to occupy Trebizond and Erzurum.
In 1915, the situation began to deteriorate for the Russian army. The soldiers were not well prepared for winter offensives, which is why they were defeated in the counter-offensive operation with the Germans.
The enemy managed to capture Galicia and part of the Polish lands. From this moment the war begins, which historians called positional.
The final collapse of the coalition occurred after the outbreak of the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Italy, when the latter entered the war. And Bulgaria’s accession to the confrontation entailed the creation of a union and the collapse of Serbia.
Algorithm of events of 1916−1917
This year one of the most significant and bloody events took place - the Battle of Verdun. It was such a large-scale clash with a huge number of victims (it was not possible to say exactly how many died, but approximately 1 million people). During the same period, the Russian army carried out the famous Brusilov breakthrough, improving the position of the Entente and withdrawing German soldiers from Verdun.
Final dominance in the region was established after the largest Battle of Jutland. Some opponents in last years The First World War began to think about peace negotiations, but the war could not end so quickly.
In 1917, Russia decided to stop participating in hostilities. In addition, the United States joined the Entente as an already established winner. At the same time, a revolution was taking place on Russian lands, which also influenced the course of history.
Almost all countries in 1918 understood that the war must end soon. After the occupation of Polish territories and the Baltic lands, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, which marked the beginning of active hostilities on the western fronts.
Imperialist Germany was shaken by revolution, the ruler was forced to flee. The German surrender was signed in 1917, and the intensity of the fighting decreased.
For almost all states, the First World War ended with significant losses. Historians believe that from that moment on, the preconditions for the Second World War began to emerge. They explain this by the fact that in Germany the inhabitants were thirsty for revenge, but there was no person who would competently rule the country.
The results of the war were the following events:
- at its end, the standard of living of the population around the world fell sharply;
- major empires collapsed;
- The provinces of Lorraine and Alsace were returned to France;
- about 10 million soldiers and almost as many civilians died;
- a ban on the creation of its own army in Germany and the payment of reparations for 30 years, as well as the loss of all colonies with the transfer of 1/8 of the territory to neighboring countries.
According to rough estimates, almost 65% of the world's population were involved in the terrible bloody events. Start revolutionary movement led to the next conflict - the Civil War.
Standard school program offers a brief and overview study of the events that took place during the First World War: who fought with whom, which battles became the most significant, and how international confrontations ended.
However, you can learn a lot interesting facts, which for some reason are not mentioned in textbooks:
- the four-year confrontation killed more people than the most dangerous diseases (2/3 of all deaths during this period occurred in battles);
- Beds and wardrobes, lighting and even bells at the entrance were found in German trenches;
- 30 types of poisonous and deadly poisons were used (today they are banned in all countries);
- the Turks committed a brutal act of genocide, killing 1.5 million people of Armenian nationality;
- For the first time, flamethrowers, anti-tank and chemical weapons, as well as anti-aircraft guns and gas masks were used for combat;
- Russia was the only country where there was no food shortage.
The briefly described events of past years were called the First World War only after the Second began in 1939.
Before this, the correct name for the confrontation was the Great, Great, German or Imperialist War.
Allies (Entente): France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, USA, Italy (participated in the war on the side of the Entente since 1915).
Friends of the Entente (supported the Entente in the war): Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.
Question about the causes of the First World War is one of the most discussed in world historiography since the outbreak of the war in August 1914.
The outbreak of the war was facilitated by the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. France hatched plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in an alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate a state that had been destroyed sections XVIII century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary sought national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London they believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing their main enemy - Germany.
In addition, international tension was heightened by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in 1908-1909; Balkan wars in 1912-1913.
The immediate cause of the war was the Sarajevo Murder. June 28, 1914 Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by nineteen-year-old Serbian student Gavrilo Princip, who was a member of the secret organization "Young Bosnia", fighting for the unification of all South Slavic peoples in one state.
July 23, 1914 Austria-Hungary, having secured the support of Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum and demanded that its military units be allowed into Serbian territory in order to, together with Serbian forces, suppress hostile actions.
Serbia's response to the ultimatum did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and July 28, 1914 she declared war on Serbia. Russia, having received assurances of support from France, openly opposed Austria-Hungary and July 30, 1914 announced a general mobilization. Germany, taking advantage of this opportunity, announced August 1, 1914 war against Russia, and August 3, 1914- France. After the German invasion August 4, 1914 Great Britain declared war on Germany in Belgium.
The First World War consisted of five campaigns. During first campaign in 1914 Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia captured parts of East Prussia and Galicia (East Prussian Operation and Battle of Galicia), but was then defeated as a result of the German and Austro-Hungarian counteroffensive.
1915 Campaign associated with Italy’s entry into the war, the disruption of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war, and bloody, inconclusive battles on the Western Front.
1916 campaign associated with the entry of Romania into the war and the waging of a grueling positional war on all fronts.
1917 campaign associated with the entry of the United States into the war, Russia's revolutionary exit from the war and a series of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Nivelle's operation, operations in the Messines area, Ypres, near Verdun, and Cambrai).
1918 Campaign was characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive of the Entente armed forces. From the second half of 1918, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miel, Marne), during which they eliminated the results of the German offensive, and in September 1918 they launched a general offensive. By November 1, 1918, the Allies liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria after the armistice and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary. On September 29, 1918, a truce with the allies was concluded by Bulgaria, October 30, 1918 - Turkey, November 3, 1918 - Austria-Hungary, November 11, 1918 - Germany.
June 28, 1919 was signed at the Paris Peace Conference Treaty of Versailles with Germany, officially ending the First World War of 1914-1918.
On September 10, 1919, the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty with Austria was signed; November 27, 1919 - Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria; June 4, 1920 - Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; August 20, 1920 - Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey.
In total, the First World War lasted 1,568 days. It was attended by 38 states, in which 70% of the world's population lived. The armed struggle was carried out on fronts with a total length of 2500–4000 km. The total losses of all countries at war amounted to about 9.5 million people killed and 20 million people wounded. At the same time, the losses of the Entente amounted to about 6 million people killed, the losses of the Central Powers amounted to about 4 million people killed.
During the First World War, for the first time in history, tanks, airplanes, submarines, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, mortars, grenade launchers, bomb throwers, flamethrowers, super-heavy artillery, hand grenades, chemical and smoke shells, and toxic substances were used. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be divided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased.
The results of the First World War were the liquidation of four empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, the latter two being divided, and Germany and Russia being reduced territorially. As a result, new independent states appeared on the map of Europe: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
Air battle
According to general consensus, the First World War is one of the largest armed conflicts in human history. Its result was the collapse of four empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German.
In 1914, events occurred as follows.
In 1914, two main theaters of military operations were formed: French and Russian, as well as the Balkans (Serbia), the Caucasus and, from November 1914, the Middle East, colonies of European states - Africa, China, Oceania. At the beginning of the war, no one thought that it would become protracted; its participants intended to end the war in a few months.
Start
On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, the Germans, without any declaration of war, invaded Luxembourg on the same day, and the very next day they occupied Luxembourg and issued an ultimatum to Belgium to allow German troops to pass to the border with France. Belgium did not accept the ultimatum, and Germany declared war on it, invading Belgium on August 4.
King Albert of Belgium turned for help to the guarantor countries of Belgian neutrality. In London they demanded to stop the invasion of Belgium, otherwise England threatened to declare war on Germany. The ultimatum expired and Great Britain declared war on Germany.
Belgian armored Sava car on the Franco-Belgian border
The military wheel of the First World War began to roll and gain momentum.
Western Front
At the beginning of the war, Germany had ambitious plans: the instant defeat of France, passing through the territory of Belgium, the capture of Paris... Wilhelm II said: “We will have lunch in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.” He did not take Russia into account at all, considering it a sluggish power: it was unlikely to be able to quickly mobilize and bring its army to its borders . This was the so-called Schlieffen plan, developed by the Chief of the German General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen (modified by Helmuth von Moltke after Schlieffen's resignation).
Count von Schlieffen
He was wrong, this Schlieffen: France launched an unforeseen counterattack in the outskirts of Paris (Battle of the Marne), and Russia quickly launched an offensive, so the German plan failed and the German army began trench warfare.
Nicholas II declares war on Germany from the balcony of the Winter Palace
The French believed that Germany would deliver the initial and main blow to Alsace. They had their own military doctrine: Plan-17. As part of this doctrine, the French command intended to station troops along its eastern border and launch an offensive through the territories of Lorraine and Alsace, which the Germans occupied. The same actions were provided for by the Schlieffen Plan.
Then a surprise occurred on the part of Belgium: its army, 10 times inferior in size to the German army, unexpectedly put up active resistance. But still, on August 20, the Germans captured Brussels. The Germans behaved confidently and boldly: they did not stop in front of the defending cities and fortresses, but simply bypassed them. The Belgian government fled to Le Havre. King Albert I continued to defend Antwerp. "After a short siege, heroic defense and a fierce bombardment on September 26th, the last stronghold of the Belgians, the fortress of Antwerp, fell. Under a hail of shells from the muzzles of monstrous guns brought by the Germans and installed on platforms they had built in advance, fort after fort fell silent. On September 23, the Belgian government left Antwerp, and on September 24 the bombing of the city began. Entire streets were in flames. Huge oil tanks were burning in the port. Zeppelins and airplanes bombarded the unfortunate city from above.
Air battle
The civilian population fled in panic from the doomed city, tens of thousands, escaping in all directions: on ships to England and France, on foot to Holland” (Spark Sunday magazine, October 19, 1914).
Border battle
On August 7, the Border Battle began between the Anglo-French and German troops. After the German invasion of Belgium, the French command urgently revised its plans and began actively moving units towards the border. But the Anglo-French armies suffered heavy defeats at the Battle of Mons, the Battle of Charleroi and the Ardennes Operation, losing about 250 thousand people. The Germans invaded France, bypassing Paris, capturing the French army in a giant pincer. On September 2, the French government moved to Bordeaux. The defense of the city was led by General Gallieni. The French were preparing to defend Paris along the Marne River.
Joseph Simon Gallieni
Battle of the Marne ("Miracle of the Marne")
But by this time the German army had already begun to become exhausted. She did not have the opportunity to deeply cover the French army bypassing Paris. The Germans decided to turn east north of Paris and strike in the rear of the main forces of the French army.
But, turning east north of Paris, they exposed their right flank and rear to the attack of the French group concentrated for the defense of Paris. There was nothing to cover the right flank and rear. But the German command agreed to this maneuver: it turned its troops to the east, not reaching Paris. The French command took advantage of the opportunity and struck the exposed flank and rear of the German army. Even taxis were used to transport troops.
“Marne taxi”: such vehicles were used to transport troops
First Battle of the Marneturned the tide of hostilities in favor of the French and pushed German troops on the front from Verdun to Amiens 50-100 kilometers back.
The main battle on the Marne began on September 5, and already on September 9 the defeat of the German army became obvious. The order to withdraw was met with complete misunderstanding in the German army: for the first time during the hostilities, a mood of disappointment and depression began in the German army. And for the French, this battle became the first victory over the Germans, the morale of the French grew stronger. The British realized their military inadequacy and set a course for increasing armed forces. The Battle of the Marne was the turning point of the war in the French theater of operations: the front stabilized and the enemy forces were approximately equal.
Battles in Flanders
The Battle of the Marne led to the "Run to the Sea" as both armies moved to try to flank each other. This led to the front line closing in and resting on the shores of the North Sea. By November 15, the entire space between Paris and the North Sea was filled with troops from both sides. The front was in a stable state: the offensive potential of the Germans had been exhausted, and both sides began a positional struggle. The Entente managed to retain ports convenient for sea communication with England - especially the port of Calais.
Eastern front
On August 17, the Russian army crossed the border and began an attack on East Prussia. At first, the actions of the Russian army were successful, but the command was unable to take advantage of the results of the victory. The movement of other Russian armies slowed down and was not coordinated; the Germans took advantage of this, striking from the west on the open flank of the 2nd Army. This army at the beginning of the First World War was commanded by General A.V. Samsonov, participant of the Russian-Turkish (1877-1878), Russo-Japanese War, ataman of the Don Army, Semirechensk Cossack Army, Turkestan Governor-General. During the East Prussian operation of 1914, his army suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Tannenberg, part of it was surrounded. When leaving the encirclement near the city of Willenberg (now Wielbark, Poland), Alexander Vasilyevich Samsonov died. According to another, more common version, it is believed that he shot himself.
General A.V. Samsonov
In this battle the Russians defeated several German divisions, but lost in the general battle. Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich in his book “My Memoirs” wrote that the 150,000-strong Russian army of General Samsonov was a victim deliberately thrown into the trap set by Ludendorff.”
Battle of Galicia (August-September 1914)
This is one of the largest battles of the First World War. As a result of this battle, Russian troops occupied almost all of eastern Galicia, almost all of Bukovina and besieged Przemysl. The operation involved the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th armies as part of the Russian Southwestern Front (front commander - General N.I. Ivanov) and four Austro-Hungarian armies (Archduke Friedrich, Field Marshal Götzendorf) and the German group of General R. Woyrsch. The seizure of Galicia was perceived in Russia not as an occupation, but as the return of a seized part of historical Rus', because it was dominated by the Orthodox Slavic population.
N.S. Samokish “In Galicia. Cavalryman"
Results of 1914 on the Eastern Front
The 1914 campaign turned out in favor of Russia, although on the German part of the front Russia lost part of the territory of the Kingdom of Poland. Russia's defeat in East Prussia was also accompanied by heavy losses. But Germany was also unable to achieve the planned results; all its successes from a military point of view were very modest.
Advantages of Russia: managed to inflict a major defeat on Austria-Hungary and capture significant territories. Austria-Hungary turned from a full ally for Germany into a weak partner requiring continuous support.
Difficulties for Russia: the war by 1915 turned into a positional one. The Russian army began to feel the first signs of an ammunition supply crisis. Advantages of the Entente: Germany was forced to fight on two fronts simultaneously and transfer troops from front to front.
Japan enters the war
The Entente (mainly England) convinced Japan to oppose Germany. On August 15, Japan presented an ultimatum to Germany, demanding the withdrawal of troops from China, and on August 23, it declared war and began the siege of Qingdao, a German naval base in China, which ended with the surrender of the German garrison.
Then Japan began to seize Germany's island colonies and bases (German Micronesia and German New Guinea, the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands). At the end of August, New Zealand troops captured German Samoa.
Japan's participation in the war on the side of the Entente turned out to be beneficial for Russia: its Asian part was safe, and Russia did not have to spend resources on maintaining the army and navy in this region.
Asian Theater of Operations
Türkiye initially hesitated for a long time whether to enter the war and on whose side. Finally she declared "jihad" ( holy war) Entente countries. November 11-12 Turkish fleet under the command of the German admiral Souchon, fired at Sevastopol, Odessa, Feodosia and Novorossiysk. On November 15, Russia declared war on Turkey, followed by England and France.
The Caucasian Front was formed between Russia and Turkey.
Russian airplane in the back of a truck on the Caucasian front
In December 1914 - January 1915. took placeSarykamysh operation: The Russian Caucasian Army stopped the advance of Turkish troops on Kars, defeated them and launched a counter-offensive.
But Russia at the same time lost the most convenient route of communication with its allies - through the Black Sea and the straits. Russia had only two ports for transportation large quantity cargo: Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok.
Results of the military campaign of 1914
By the end of 1914, Belgium was almost completely conquered by Germany. The Entente retained a small western part of Flanders with the city of Ypres. Lille was taken by the Germans. The 1914 campaign was dynamic. The armies of both sides maneuvered actively and quickly; the troops did not erect long-term defensive lines. By November 1914, a stable front line began to take shape. Both sides exhausted their offensive potential and began building trenches and barbed wire. The war turned into a positional one.
Russian expeditionary force in France: the head of the 1st brigade, General Lokhvitsky, with several Russian and French officers bypasses the positions (summer 1916, Champagne)
The length of the Western Front (from the North Sea to Switzerland) was more than 700 km, the density of troops on it was high, significantly higher than on the Eastern Front. Intense military operations were carried out only on the northern half of the front; the front from Verdun and to the south was considered as secondary.
"Cannon fodder"
On November 11, the battle of Langemarck took place, which the world community called senseless and disregarded human lives: the Germans threw units of unfired young people (workers and students) at the English machine guns. After some time, this happened again, and this fact became an established opinion about the soldiers in this war as “cannon fodder.”
By the beginning of 1915, everyone began to understand that the war had become protracted. This was not included in the plans of either party. Although the Germans captured almost all of Belgium and most of France, their main goal - a swift victory over the French - was completely inaccessible to them.
Ammunition supplies ran out by the end of 1914, and it was urgently necessary to establish their mass production. The power of heavy artillery turned out to be underestimated. The fortresses were practically unprepared for defense. As a result, Italy, as the third member of the Triple Alliance, did not enter the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Front lines of the First World War by the end of 1914
The first war year ended with these results.
Fin de siècle (French - “end of the century”)- phenomena that occurred in the history of European culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries
According to the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, the 19th century essentially begins in 1789, that is, with the Great french revolution, and ends in 1913. In turn, the 20th century - not the calendar, but the historical 20th century - begins in 1914, with the First World War, and continues until 1991, when global changes occurred in the world, primarily the unification of Germany in 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 -m. This chronology allowed Hobsbawm, and after him many other historians, to talk about the “long 19th century” and the “short 20th century.”
Thus, the First World War is a kind of prologue to the short twentieth century. It was here that the key themes of the century were identified: social divisions, geopolitical contradictions, ideological struggle, economic confrontation. This is despite the fact that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries it seemed to many that the wars in Europe had sunk into oblivion. If clashes occur, it is only on the periphery, in the colonies. The development of science and technology, the refined culture of the Fin de siècle, in the opinion of many contemporaries, did not envisage “ carnage", which cost millions of lives and buried four great empires. This is also the first war in the world of a total nature: all social strata of the population, all spheres of life were affected. There is nothing left that is not involved in this war.
Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia // europeana1914-1918
Balance of power
The main participants were the Entente countries, which included the Russian Empire, the French Republic and Great Britain, and the Central Powers, represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
Vae victis
(Russian “woe to the vanquished”) Latin popular expression, which implies that the winners always dictate the terms
The question arises: what united each of these countries? What goals did each of the parties to the conflict pursue? These questions are all the more important because after the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919, all responsibility for starting the war would fall on Germany (Article 231). Of course, all this can be justified on the basis of the universal principle of Vae victis. But is Germany the only one to blame for this war? Was it only she and her allies who wanted this war? Of course not.
Germany wanted war exactly as much as France and Great Britain wanted war. Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, which turned out to be the weakest links in this conflict, were slightly less interested in this.
First World War // British Library
5 billion francs
This amount of indemnity was paid by France after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
Interests of participating countries
In 1871, the triumphant unification of Germany took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. A second empire was formed. The proclamation took place against the backdrop of the Franco-Prussian War, when France suffered a catastrophic defeat. This became a national disgrace: not only was Napoleon III, the emperor of all the French, captured almost immediately, but only ruins remained of the second empire in France. Arises Paris Commune, another revolution, as often happens in France.
The war ends with France accepting the defeat that Germany inflicts on it and signing the Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.
Third French Republic
(French Troisième République) - a political regime that existed in France from September 1870 to June 1940
In addition, France undertakes to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 5 billion francs. To a large extent, this money went to the development of the German economy, which subsequently led to its unprecedented growth by the 1890s. But it’s not even about the financial side of the issue, but about the national humiliation that the French experienced. And more than one generation will remember him from 1871 until 1914.
It was then that ideas of revanchism emerged that united the entire Third Republic, born in the crucibles of the Franco-Prussian War. It becomes unimportant who you are: a socialist, a monarchist, a centrist - everyone is united by the idea of vengeance on Germany and the return of Alsace and Lorraine.
Russo-Turkish War
the war of 1877 - 178, caused by the rise of national consciousness of the Slavic population in the Balkans
Britannia
Britain was concerned about Germany's economic dominance in Europe and the world. By the 1890s, Germany ranked first in terms of GDP in Europe, pushing Britain into second place. The British government cannot come to terms with this fact, given that for many centuries Britain was the “workshop of the world”, the most economically developed country. Now Britain is seeking a kind of revenge, but an economic one.
Russia
For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of Pan-Slavism, which gained momentum in the 1860s, led to the Russian-Turkish War in the 1870s, in the 1880s–1890s this idea remained, and so it moved into the 20th century, and was finally realized by 1915. The main idea was to return Constantinople and put an end to Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And on top of everything, of course, push the Germans out of the Balkans.
As we see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here. Thus, in consideration this issue equally important and political level, and geopolitical, and economic, and cultural. We should not forget that during a war, at least in its first years, culture becomes a basic part of ideology. The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question is, was he ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war this would be? People who went through the First World War, who lived under the conditions of this war, became completely different after its end. There will be no trace left of beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, domestic politics, social politics. No country will ever be the same as it was in 1913.
First World War // wikipedia.org
Franz Ferdinand - Archduke of Austria
Formal reason for the conflict
The formal reason for the start of the war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were shot dead in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The killer turned out to be a terrorist from the Serbian nationalist organization Mlada Bosna. The Sarajevo murder caused an unprecedented scandal in which all the main participants in the conflict were involved and, to some extent, interested.
Austria-Hungary protests to Serbia and asks for an investigation with the participation of the Austrian police in order to identify terrorist organizations directed against Austria-Hungary. In parallel, intense diplomatic secret consultations are taking place between Serbia and Russian Empire on the one hand and between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire on the other.
Was there a way out of the current impasse or not? It turned out that no. On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, giving it 48 hours to respond. In turn, Serbia agreed to all the conditions, except one, related to the fact that the secret services of Austria-Hungary would begin to make arrests and transport terrorists and suspicious persons to Austria-Hungary without notifying the Serbian side. Austria, supported by German support, declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. In response to this, the Russian Empire declares mobilization, to which the German Empire protests and demands that the mobilization be stopped; if it does not stop, the German side reserves the right to begin its own mobilization. On July 31, the Russian Empire declared general mobilization. In response to this, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war has begun. On August 3, France joins it, on August 4, Great Britain, and all the main participants begin hostilities.
July 31, 1914
mobilization of Russian soldiers to participate in the First World War
It is important to note that when declaring mobilization, no one talks about their selfish interests. Everyone proclaims the high ideals behind this war. For example, assistance to the fraternal Slavic peoples, assistance to the fraternal German peoples and the empire. Accordingly, France and Russia are bound by allied treaties, this is allied assistance. This also includes Britain. It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration on the non-conclusion of a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: suddenly someone would break loose and conclude a separate peace with the enemy side.
Propaganda-Karten // wikipedia.org
Schlieffen Plan
strategic plan of the military command of the German Empire, developed at the beginning of the 20th century by Alfred von Schlieffen to achieve a quick victory in the First World War
The First World War as a new type of war
Germany waged the war in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan, developed by the Prussian Field Marshal and member of the German General Staff von Schlieffen. It was supposed to concentrate all forces on the right flank, deliver a lightning strike on France, and only after that switch to the Russian front.
So, Schlieffen develops this plan just at the end of the 19th century. As we can see, his tactics were based on blitzkrieg - delivering lightning strikes that stun the enemy, bring chaos and sow panic among enemy troops.
Wilhelm II was confident that Germany would have time to defeat France before general mobilization ended in Russia. After this, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and organize offensive operation already to the Russian Empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.
Treaty of Versailles
Treaty signed on June 28, 1919 at the Palace of Versailles in France, officially ending World War I
Forced deviations from this plan began already from the first days of the war. Thus, German troops advanced too slowly across the territory of neutral Belgium. The main blow to France came from Belgium. In this case, Germany grossly violated international agreements and neglected the concept of neutrality. What will then be reflected in the Versailles Peace Treaty, as well as those crimes, primarily the export of cultural property from Belgian cities, will be regarded by the world community as nothing less than “German barbarity” and savagery.
To repel the German offensive, France asked the Russian Empire to quickly launch a counteroffensive in East Prussia in order to pull some troops from the Western Front to the Eastern Front. Russia successfully carried out this operation, which largely saved France from the surrender of Paris.
Kingdom of Poland
Territory in Europe that was part of the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1917
Retreat to Russia
In 1914, Russia won a number of victories, primarily on the Southwestern Front. In fact, Russia inflicts a crushing defeat on Austria-Hungary, occupies Lviv (then it was the Austrian city of Lemberg), occupies Bukovina, that is, Chernivtsi, Galicia and approaches the Carpathians.
But already in 1915, a great retreat began, tragic for the Russian army. It turned out that there was a catastrophic shortage of ammunition; according to the documents there should have been some, but in fact there was none. During 1915, Russian Poland, that is, the Kingdom of Poland (the Vistula region), was lost, conquered Galicia, Vilna, and modern western Belarus were lost. The Germans are actually approaching Riga, Courland has been abandoned - this will be a disaster for the Russian front. And since 1916, there has been a general war fatigue in the army, especially among the soldiers. Discontent begins on the Russian front; of course, this will affect the disintegration of the army and will play its tragic role in the revolutionary events of 1917. According to archival documents, we see that the censors through whom the soldiers’ letters passed noted decadent moods and a lack of fighting spirit in the Russian army starting in 1916. It is interesting that Russian soldiers, who for the most part were peasants, begin to engage in self-mutilation - shoot themselves in the leg, in the arm, in order to quickly leave the front and end up in their native village.
Anti-Serbian uprisings in Sarajevo. 1914 // wikipedia.org
5000 people
Killed as a result of the use of chlorine as a weapon by German troops
Total nature of war
One of the main tragedies of the war would be the use of poisonous gases in 1915. On the Western Front, at the Battle of Ypres, chlorine was used for the first time in history by German troops, resulting in the death of 5,000 people. The First World War is technological, it is a war of engineering systems, inventions, and high technologies. This war is not only going on on land, it is going on under water. Thus, German submarines dealt crushing blows to the British fleet. This is also a war in the air: aviation was used both as a means of finding out the enemy’s positions (reconnaissance function) and for delivering strikes, that is, bombing.
The First World War is a war where there is no longer much room for valor and courage. Due to the fact that the war already in 1915 took on a positional character, there were no direct clashes when one could see the enemy’s face, look into his eyes. There is no enemy in sight here. Death begins to be perceived in a completely different way, because it appears out of nowhere. In this sense, the gas attack is a symbol of this desacralized and demystified death.
"Verdun Meat Grinder"
The Battle of Verdun - fighting on the Western Front, fought from February 21 to December 18, 1916
The First World War brought a colossal number of victims, unprecedented before. We can remember the so-called “Verdun Meat Grinder”, where there were 750 thousand killed on the side of France and England, and 450 thousand on the side of Germany, that is, the total losses of the parties amounted to more than a million people! History has never seen bloodshed on such a scale. The horror of what is happening, the presence of death out of nowhere causes aggression and frustration. That is why, in the end, all this causes such embitterment, which will result in outbreaks of aggression and violence already in peacetime after the First World War. Compared to 1913, there is an increase in cases of domestic violence: fights in the streets, domestic violence, conflicts at work, etc.
In many ways, this allows researchers to talk about the population’s readiness for totalitarianism and violent, repressive practices. Here we can recall, first of all, the experience of Germany, where National Socialism triumphed in 1933. This is also a kind of continuation of the First World War.
That is why there is an opinion that it is impossible to separate the First and Second World Wars. That it was one war that began in 1914 and ended only in 1945. And what happened from 1919 to 1939 was just a truce, because the population still lived with the ideas of war and was ready to fight further.
Map of Germany 1919 // Alisa Serbinenko for PostNauki
Woodrow Wilson - 28th President of the United States (1913-1921)
Consequences of the First World War
The war, which began on August 1, 1914, continued until November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. By 1918, the Entente was represented by France and Great Britain. The Russian Empire will leave this union in 1917, when a revolutionary Bolshevik coup takes place in October. Lenin's first decree was the Decree on Peace without annexations and indemnities to all warring powers on October 25, 1917. True, none of the warring powers will support this decree, except Soviet Russia.
At the same time, Russia will officially leave the war only on March 3, 1918, when the famous Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty of 1918 is signed in Brest-Litovsk, according to which Germany and its allies, on the one hand, and Soviet Russia on the other hand, they stopped hostilities against each other. At the same time, Soviet Russia was losing some territories, primarily in Ukraine, Belarus and the entire Baltic region. No one even thought about Poland anymore, and, in fact, no one needed it. The logic of Lenin and Trotsky in this matter was very simple: we do not bargain for territories, because the world revolution will win anyway. Moreover, in August 1918 it will be signed additional agreement to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, according to which Russia will undertake to pay indemnities to Germany, the first transfer will even be made - 93 tons of gold. So, Russia is leaving, which will be a violation of the allied obligations that the tsarist government assumed and to which the Provisional Government was faithful.
By 1918, the need to find a way to compromise with the Entente countries became obvious to the German leadership. At the same time, I wanted to lose as little as possible. It was for this purpose that a counteroffensive was proposed on the Western Front in the spring and summer of 1918. The operation was extremely unsuccessful for Germany, which only increased discontent among the troops and among the civilian population. In addition, a revolution occurred in Germany on November 9. Its instigators were sailors in Kiel, who rebelled, not wanting to carry out the orders of the command. On November 11, 1918, the Compiegne Armistice was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. Let us note that the truce was signed in Compiegne in the carriage of Marshal Foch not by chance. This will be done at the insistence of the French side, for which it was very important to overcome the defeat complex in the Franco-Prussian War. France will insist on this place in order for an act of revenge to be accomplished, that is, satisfaction will occur. It must be said that the carriage will surface again in 1940, when it will be brought in again so that Hitler will accept the surrender of France in it.
On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty with Germany is signed. It was a humiliating peace for her; she lost all her overseas colonies, part of Schleswig, Silesia and Prussia. Germany was prohibited from having submarine fleet, develop and have latest systems weapons. The treaty, however, did not specify the amount that Germany had to pay as reparations, since France and Britain could not agree with each other due to France’s excessive appetites. It was not profitable for Britain to create such a strong France. Therefore, the amount was not entered in the end. It was finally determined only in 1921. According to the London Agreements of 1921, Germany had to pay 132 billion gold marks.
Germany was declared the only culprit in starting the conflict. And, in fact, all the restrictions and sanctions imposed on it flowed from this. The Treaty of Versailles had disastrous consequences for Germany. The Germans felt insulted and humiliated, which led to the rise of nationalist forces. During the 14 difficult years of the Weimar Republic - from 1919 to 1933 - any political force aimed at revising Treaty of Versailles. First of all, no one recognized the eastern borders. The Germans turned into a divided people, part of which remained in the Reich, in Germany, part in Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), part in Poland. And in order to feel national unity, it is necessary for the great German people to reunite. This formed the basis of the political slogans of the National Socialists, Social Democrats, moderate conservatives, and other political forces.
The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of great powers
For Austria-Hungary, the consequences of defeat in the war resulted in a national catastrophe and the collapse of the multinational Habsburg empire. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, who became something of a symbol of the empire during his 68-year reign, died in 1916. He was replaced by Charles I, who failed to stop the centrifugal national forces of the empire, which, coupled with military defeats, led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary. Four died in the crucibles of the First World War greatest empires: Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and German. In their place, new states will arise: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. At the same time, grievances and disagreements remained, as well as territorial claims of the new countries to each other. Hungary was dissatisfied with the borders that were determined for it in accordance with the agreements reached, because Greater Hungary should also include Croatia.
Everyone thought that the First World War would solve problems, but it created new ones and deepened old ones.
Bulgaria is dissatisfied with the borders that it received, because Great Bulgaria should include almost all the territories up to Constantinople. The Serbs also considered themselves deprived. In Poland, the idea of Greater Poland - from sea to sea - is becoming widespread. Probably Czechoslovakia was the only happy exception among all the new Eastern European states that was happy with everything. After the First World War, many European countries began to develop the idea of their own greatness and significance, which led to the creation of myths about national exceptionalism and their political formation in the interwar period.
How the First World War took place (1914 - 1918): reasons, stages, results briefly. The years of the war, its beginning and end, the entire chronicle of events and who won and won. Let's look at the file of losses, how many died and what losses each country suffered. The table of calculations will help you understand the details and see the full picture. You will also find out who were the most famous heroes in Russia and their exploits.
The First World War began on August 1, 1914, and ended on November 11, 1918. During this period, 38 states took part in hostilities, which means that 62% of the world's population were at war at the same time.
The First World War is one of those wars that historians call ambiguous and extremely controversial. One of the reasons for the war was the overthrow of the autocracy in Russia, which the opponents managed to achieve. The Balkan countries played the most significant role in the course of events, but their decisions and actions were directly influenced by England. So, it was impossible to call these countries independent. Germany also had some influence (in particular on Bulgaria), but it quickly lost its authority in the region.
Who with whom?
Two groups of countries took part in the First World War. On one side there was the Entente, on the other - the Triple Alliance. Each group had its own leaders and allies.
The Entente included: the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France. On the side of these countries were the USA, Italy, as well as Romania, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.
The Triple Alliance included: Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. During the hostilities, the Bulgarian kingdom also joined them, which is why the coalition was later called the Quadruple Alliance.
| A country | Entering the war | Exit from the war |
|---|---|---|
| 🌏 Austria-Hungary | July 27, 1914 | November 3, 1918 |
| 🌏 Germany | August 1, 1914 | November 11, 1918 |
| 🌏 Türkiye | October 29, 1914 | October 30, 1918 |
| 🌏 Bulgaria | October 14, 1915 | September 29, 1918 |
| 🌏 Russia | August 1, 1914 | March 3, 1918 |
| 🌏 France | August 3, 1914 | |
| 🌏 Belgium | August 3, 1914 | |
| 🌏 UK | 4 August 1914 | |
| 🌏 Italy | May 23, 1915 | |
| 🌏 Romania | August 27, 1916 |
At the very beginning, Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, but as soon as the outbreak of the First World War was announced, this country declared its neutrality.
Causes
The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the claims of the leading (at that time) world powers to redistribute the world. England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary planned to expand their spheres of influence in one way or another.
Already by the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial system, which fed the leading powers so well, suddenly failed. European countries had been stealing valuable resources from Africans and Indians for decades by exploiting their colonies. But the world has changed, now resources could not be obtained so easily - the powers decided to take them from each other by force.
Against this background, contradictions grew stronger and stronger:
- England and Germany: the first power did everything possible to prevent the second from strengthening its position in the Balkans. At the same time, Germany not only sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, but also made efforts to deprive England of its naval supremacy on the world stage.
- Germany and France: the French dreamed of returning Alsace and Lorraine - lands lost during the war of 1870 - 1871. France was also interested in the Saar coal basin, which at that time belonged to Germany.
- Germany and Russia: The Germans were hunting for Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states, which at that time belonged to the Russian Empire.
- Russia and Austria-Hungary: For these two powers, the main contradictions centered on the desire to influence the Balkans. And Russia also wanted to take the Bosporus and Dardanelles for itself.
Reason for starting the war
The impetus that triggered the First World War occurred in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina): nineteen-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist from the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
“Young Bosnia”, within which Gavrilo Princip acted, being a member of the “Black Hand” organization, fought for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary. The murder of the heir to the throne was that very step on the path to liberation, but the resonance received on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo was greater than the participants in those events probably expected.
German helmets from the First World War Austria-Hungary received a reason to attack Serbia, but at the same time it could not start a war on its own. She needed the help of England, which, in turn, acted aggressively, trying to manipulate Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. On the one hand, the British insisted that Nicholas II and the Russian Empire help Serbia in case of aggression. On the other hand, the English press exposed the Serbs as real barbarians who could not be left unpunished, thereby pushing Austria-Hungary to take active action.
Thus, the resulting conflict turned into the raging flames of a world war. And England played no small role in this as the leading power of that time.
In textbooks we stick to only the most common facts - the casus belli is the assassination of the Archduke on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. But you need to understand that behind the scenes fertile ground was being prepared for the ignition of a full-fledged world conflict:
- Influential French politician Jean Jaurès was assassinated on June 29, the day after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Jean Jaurès opposed the war.
- A few weeks before these two murders mentioned above, an attempt was made on the life of Rasputin, an ardent opponent of the war, who had serious influence on Nicholas II, Emperor of the Russian Empire.
- Russian Ambassador Hartley died in the Austrian embassy in Serbia in 1914. By the way, in 1917, his correspondence with Sozonov, the next Russian ambassador to Serbia, mysteriously disappeared.
British diplomats acted “on two fronts”: they egged on Germany, promising to take Germany’s side in the war with the Russian Empire or, as a last resort, to maintain neutrality; and at the same time, Nicholas II received confirmation that England’s assistance was being prepared for him in a potential war against Germany.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the powers of Russia and Germany were approximately equal in their global influence. Even after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, these two powers took a wait-and-see attitude, not daring to open military action. If England had made it clear to both Russia and Germany that it would not allow war in Europe, none of these countries would have decided to go to war. Austria-Hungary would also not go to war with Serbia, despite the murder. But England did everything so that each country prepared to fight, promising each side its help behind the backs of the others.
When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, it was not yet the First World War. To grow from a small war between two states over murder into a world war, all the major powers of the time had to be drawn into the conflict. Each of them was at a different level of readiness for war.
Nicholas II understood perfectly well that the Russian Empire was not ready for military action, but could not remain on the sidelines, given that its authority in the Balkans, which had been so hard won earlier, was at stake. As a result, the emperor signs a decree on mobilization. And despite the fact that all-Russian mobilization is not yet a declaration of war, Germany and Austria-Hungary took the Russian mobilization as a signal for active action. These two powers even demanded that Russia stop mobilization, but there was no answer. On August 1, the German ambassador Count Pourtales arrived in Russian Ministry Foreign Affairs with a note declaring war.
Military power of powers
Map of military operations in 1914 – 1915 (clickable) Let's look at the balance of forces and military weapons key countries in the First World War:
| A country | Number of common weapons | Of these heavy guns |
|---|---|---|
| 🌏 Russian Empire | 7088 | 240 |
| 🌏 Austria-Hungary | 4088 | 1000 |
| 🌏 Germany | 9388 | 3260 |
| 🌏 France | 4300 | 198 |
Germany and Austria-Hungary turned out to have significantly more heavy guns, but at the same time Germany developed its military industry even more actively. For comparison, England produced up to 10 thousand shells per month, and Germany produced more than 250 thousand per day alone.
Now let's compare the weapons and equipment availability of the leading powers of the First World War:
| Side in the war | A country | Weapon | Artillery | Tanks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Entente | Russia | 3328 | 11,7 | |
| Entente | France | 2812 | 23,2 | 5,3 |
| Entente | England | 4093 | 26,4 | 2,8 |
| Triple Alliance | Germany | 8827 | 64 | 0,1 |
| Triple Alliance | Austria-Hungary | 3540 | 15,9 |
It is obvious that the military power of the Russian Empire was greatly inferior not only to Germany, but also to France and England. This could not but affect the course of military operations and losses as a result of the war.
It remains to analyze the number of fighting infantry at the beginning and end of the war, as well as the losses of each side:
| Side in the war | A country | Beginning of the war | End of the war | Losses |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Entente | Russia | 5.3 million | 7.0 million | 2.3 million |
| Entente | France | 3.7 million | 4.4 million | 1.4 million |
| Entente | England | 1 million | 3.9 million | 0.7 million |
| Triple Alliance | Germany | 3.8 million | 7.6 million | 2 million |
| Triple Alliance | Austria-Hungary | 2.3 million | 4.4 million | 1.4 million |
What conclusion can we draw from this summary? England suffered the least human losses, which was not a surprise, because this country almost did not take part in major battles.
As a result of the war, it turned out that those countries that invested the most in this war lost the most. While Russia and Germany were losing 4.3 million people between them, France, Austria-Hungary and England together lost 3.5 million. In fact, the war was fought between Russia and Germany and it was these two powers that were left with nothing: Russia lost lands and signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and Germany lost its independence as a result of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
Chronicle of events
July 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The countries of the Triple Alliance and the Entente were drawn into the conflict.
August 1, 1914. The Russian Empire entered the war. Nikolai Romanov, the uncle of Nicholas II, was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
As soon as the First World War began, St. Petersburg was immediately renamed Petrograd: the capital of the Russian Empire could not have a name with German origin.
Military operations in 1914
What happened on the fronts:
- North Western Front . Military operations took place from August to September 1914. Russian troops carried out East Prussian operation, which ended in the complete defeat of the first and second Russian armies.
- Southwestern Front. Military operations during the Galician operation also lasted from August to September 1914 against the Austro-Hungarian troops. The latter received reinforcements from Germany, which saved them.
- Caucasian Front. From December 1914 to January 1915, the Sarykamysh operation against Turkish troops took place, as a result of which it was occupied most of Transcaucasia.
Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1914
The Russian Empire opposes Germany and Austria-Hungary. Türkiye also joined the latter.
📌 Military operations on the Eastern Front were not successful for either side - no one achieved a tangible victory.
Germany developed a plan to defeat France, then Russia, with lightning speed, but this plan failed miserably. It was called the Schlieffen plan and its essence was to destroy France from the Western Front in 40 days, and then fight Russia on the Eastern Front. The Germans focused on 40 days because they believed that this was the time the Russian Empire needed to mobilize.
The advance of German troops started successfully - on August 2, 1914 they captured Luxembourg, and on August 4 the Germans had already invaded Belgium, which at that time was a neutral country. On August 20, Germany moved towards France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River. A battle took place there with a total of 2 million people fighting.
Germany thought that it could cope with France while Russia mobilized its troops, but Nicholas II entered the war without a full mobilization of the army. Russian troops attacked East Prussia on August 4, which the Germans did not expect and even retreated at first. But in the end, Germany repulsed the attack, since the Russian Empire did not have full resources or proper organization. Russia lost the battle, but also prevented Germany from implementing Schlieffen’s lightning plan: while the Russian Empire was losing the first and second armies, France saved Paris.
Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1914
In parallel with the offensive in the East, the Russian Empire went to Galicia, where the Austro-Hungarian troops were located. Despite assistance from Germany, which sent additional divisions to the allied Austria-Hungary, this operation was more successful for the Russian army: Austria-Hungary lost 400 thousand soldiers, another 100 thousand were captured. At the same time, Russia lost 150 thousand.
📌 After the Galician operation, Austria-Hungary left the war, no longer able to fight on its own.
Results of 1914:
- The German Schlieffen plan to capture the French and Russian armies at lightning speed failed miserably.
- None of the powers gained a significant advantage during the war.
- As a result of 1914, the First World War became a positional war.
Military operations in 1915
When it became clear that the Schlieffen Plan had failed, Germany sent all its forces to the Eastern Front to fight Russia. At that moment, it seemed to Germany that the Russian Empire was the weakest country of the Entente and was much easier to deal with than the others.
The strategic plan for command on the Eastern Front was developed by General von Hindenburg. The Russian Empire thwarted this plan as well, but spent enormous effort on it and only got out at the cost of incredible losses.
What happened on the fronts:
- Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from January to October 1915. As a result of the German offensive, Russia loses Poland, Western Belarus, Ukraine and part of the Baltic states. The Russians take a defensive position.
- Southwestern Front. Military operations lasted from January to March 1915. During the Carpathian operation against the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Russian army loses Galicia and goes on the defensive.
- Caucasian Front. From June to July 1915, the Alashkert operation lasted near lakes Van and Urmia against the Turkish army. In December 1915, the Erzurum operation began.
Military operations on the Northwestern Front in 1915
From the beginning of 1915 until October, Germany actively attacked Russia, as a result of which the latter lost Poland, Western Ukraine, partially the Baltic states and Western Belarus. During this German offensive, the Russian Empire lost 850 thousand people and 900 thousand soldiers were captured.
Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not capitulate after these military actions, but went on the defensive, the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would not recover from its losses.
📌 After a successful attack for Germany and the defeat of the Russian army, Bulgaria joined this side - from October 14, 1915.
Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1915
The German army with the remnants of the surviving Austro-Hungarian army in the spring of 1915 makes the Gorlitsky breakthrough. Russia retreats along the Southwestern Front and loses Galicia, which it only conquered in 1914. On the German side there was not only a significant technical advantage, but also strategic mistakes of the Russian command.
📌 At that time, Germany had 2.5 times more machine guns, 4.5 times more light artillery, and the number of heavy artillery was 40 times greater.
Military operations on the Western Front in 1915
On the Western Front, war broke out between Germany and France. Actions on both sides were sluggish and lack of initiative. Germany focused more on the Eastern Front, while England and France at that time were mobilizing armies in preparation for further actions.
Nicholas II repeatedly turned to France for help, at least to make it more active on the Western Front, but in vain.
Results of 1915:
- The German plan to destroy the Russian army failed, but the losses of the Russian Empire were colossal, although not huge enough to take Russia out of the war.
- After 1.5 years of hostilities, neither side has gained a strategic advantage or superiority. The war dragged on.
Military operations in 1916
The 16th year of the 20th century began with Germany losing the strategic initiative. Successful Russian offensive in Once again into the hands of allied France - the fortress of Verdun was saved. At this stage, Romania joins the Entente.
Let's take a brief look at what happened in the third year of the war:
- Northwestern Front. From spring to autumn, defensive battles are fought on the western border.
- Southwestern Front. From May to July 1916, the Russian army advances and makes the Brusilov breakthrough. During these actions, Russia recaptures Bukovina and Southern Galicia, destroying the Austro-Hungarian troops.
- Caucasian Front. The Erzurum operation comes to an end and the Trebizond operation begins, as a result of which Erzurum and Trebizond are captured.
Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1916
In February 1916, German troops decisively advance into France to capture Paris. Defended the capital Verdun - a fortress on the outskirts of Paris. It was to Verdun that Germany went. 2 million people died in that battle, and it lasted until the very end of 1916.
📌 Considering how much time was spent capturing the Verdun fortress, and how many people died, those battles were called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France managed to survive, but only because Russia came to its aid.
Russian troops had been actively advancing along the Southwestern Front since May 1916. This offensive went down in history as the Brusilov breakthrough, since General Brusilov was in command. The offensive lasted for 2 months.
The actual breakthrough occurred on June 5 in Bukovina. The Russian army not only broke through the defenses, but also advanced 120 km inland. The losses of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in that breakthrough amounted to 1.5 million people - wounded and prisoners in total. The Russian offensive was stopped only after the transfer of additional German divisions, which at that time were located near Verdun and in Italy.
Having entered the war on the side of the Entente, Romania was unable to resist the German army. Germany quickly dealt with the Romanian troops, inflicting a serious defeat on them. As a result, Russia has 2 thousand km of additional front, which means additional losses.
Results of 1916:
- The strategic initiative was on the side of the Entente.
- France re-defended Paris from attack, retaining the fortress of Verdun. But, like the first time, this happened thanks to the help of the Russian Empire.
- In the third year of the war, Romania joined the Entente, but Germany quickly destroyed its army.
- A significant achievement of the Russian Empire this year was the Brusilov breakthrough.
Military operations in 1917
The year 1917 was fatal for the Russian Empire. On all fronts, Russian troops carry out unsuccessful operations: Germany captures Riga, and then the Moonsund archipelago in the Baltic. The Russian army is demoralized, and popular unrest is directed towards peace. Changes are ripe within the country - on November 20 (December 3) the Bolsheviks seize power and negotiate for peace. As a result of these negotiations, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.
Armored Train in the Carpathians (New York Public Library Archives) Both in Germany and in Russia, against the backdrop of the war in 1917, the economic situation. For example, in the Russian Empire, during the first 3 years of the war, food prices increased 4–5 times. A dissatisfied people, a grueling war, great human losses - all this served as fertile ground for the revolutionaries, who hastened to take advantage of the moment to seize power. A similar picture emerged in Germany.
As for the balance of power in the First World War, the position of the Triple Alliance was seriously weakened: Germany could no longer fight on two fronts, and then the United States entered the war.
The end of the First World War for the Russian Empire
In the spring of 1917, Germany tried to carry out an offensive on the Western Front, but the Provisional Government in Russia, trying to fulfill the agreements signed by the Russian Empire, sent its troops to Lvov on the offensive.
Once again, the allies are saved, but the Russian army is suffering crushing losses step by step - the provisions are meager, the uniforms and provisions for the soldiers leave much to be desired, but even in such circumstances, the Russian troops are trying to move forward. Meanwhile, Russia's allies are not actively participating or providing the necessary assistance.
On July 6, when Germany launched a counteroffensive, 150 thousand Russian soldiers died. The front collapsed, and the Russian army ceased to exist. Russia had nothing and no one else to fight with.
In such conditions, the Bolsheviks, having seized power in the country in October 1917, signed the decree “On Peace”, thereby leaving the war, and already in 1918, on March 3, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, according to which Russia:
- makes peace with Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey;
- renounces claims to Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Finland and part of Belarus;
- inferior to Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Turkey.
Having entered the First World War, the Russian Empire:
- ceased to exist as a power, giving power to the Bolsheviks;
- lost 1 million sq. m of territory;
- lost a quarter of the population;
- seriously weakened in the agricultural sector and in the coal/metallurgical industry.
Military operations in 1918
With the Eastern Front gone, Germany could no longer be split into two directions. In the spring, she headed to the Western Front, but achieved no success there. It became obvious that she needed a break.
Decisive events occurred in the fall of 1918, when the United States and the Entente countries attacked the German army, displacing it from the territories of France and Belgium. Already in October, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey concluded a truce with the Entente powers and now Germany found itself in complete isolation. The Triple Alliance capitulated and, like the events in Russia, fertile ground for revolution was formed in Germany, which occurred on November 9, 1918 - Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.
War heroes and their exploits
A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). He commanded the Southwestern Front and carried out a successful operation, which was later called the Brusilov breakthrough. The army of military leader Brusilov forced the enemy to think from which side the main blow was being delivered. The tactic of simultaneous attacks in several directions worked in four cases at once. In 3 days, more than 100 thousand people were captured. Over the entire summer, the Russian army took territory from the Germans and Austro-Hungarians all the way to the Carpathians.
M.V. Alekseev (1857 – 1918). Infantry general and chief of staff of the Russian army on the Southwestern Front. He led the largest operations, leading the Russian army.
Kozma Kryuchkov- the first person to receive the St. George Cross in the First World War. He served in the Don Cossack Regiment and, with other comrades, once met a patrol of German cavalrymen. Of the 22 enemies, he personally killed ten, among whom was an officer. He himself received 16 wounds. His name is not so well known, because in 1919 Kryuchkov gave his life in battles with the Bolsheviks, serving in the ranks of the White Army.
The St. George Cross was also received by Vasily Chapaev, Georgy Zhukov, Konstantin Rokossovsky, Rodion Malinovsky.
A.I. Denikin (1872 – 1947). Military leader and general of the First World War. He was the commander of the “iron brigade”, which distinguished itself in battles more than once.
P.N. Nesterov (1887 – 1914). Russian pilot who invented the aerial loop named after him. He died in 1914, in battle, after ramming an enemy airplane.
End of the First World War
The First World War ended on November 11, 1918, when Germany signed its surrender. In the Compiègne forest at the Retord station, near Paris, French Marshal Foch accepted the surrender of the defeated power. As a result, Germany:
- admitted defeat in the war;
- pledged to return Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the Saar coal basin to France;
- abandoned all her colonies;
- transferred an eighth of its territories to its neighbors.
In addition, the signed surrender required that:
- Entente troops were stationed on the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years;
- until May 1921, Germany had to pay the Entente powers (except Russia) 20 billion marks;
- for 30 years, Germany was obliged to pay reparations, the amount of which the victorious countries could change during these 30 years;
- Germany did not have the right to form an army of more than 100 thousand people, while the army itself must be voluntary for citizens.
All these conditions were so humiliating for Germany that they actually deprived it of its independence, making it an obedient puppet in the hands of other powers.
Results of the First World War
World War I involved 14 major countries and a total of 38 powers in total. This meant that during the 4 years of the war, 1 billion people or 62% of the planet's population were involved. During the entire war, 74 million people were mobilized, of whom 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured.
The political map of Europe has been redrawn:
- New states appeared, such as: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Finland, Estonia, Albania.
- Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, splitting into 3 independent states: Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
- The borders of France, Italy, Greece and Romania expanded.
The losing countries that lost land were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria and Turkey. During the war, 4 empires ceased to exist: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman.
So, it was the First World War 1914 - 1918: causes, stages, results briefly and in pictures. We looked at the years - the beginning and end of the battles (including separately for Russia), who won and how many people died (a card index of countries' losses in the table), and also found out who the war heroes were and their exploits. Do you have any questions? Ask them in the comments.
Sources
- Ardashev A.N. The Great Trench War. Positional massacre of the First World War
- Pereslegin S.B. First World War. War between Realities
- Basil Liddell Hart. History of the First World War
- Evgeniy Belash. Myths of the First World War
- Anatoly Utkin. World War I
- Badak A.N. The World History. Volume 19