30.11.16
The revolutionary movement in Europe and Asia after the First World War
Reasons for Revolution
The trials that befell peoples in the First World War, dissatisfaction with the policies of the victorious powers in the defeated, colonial and dependent countries led to the rise of the revolutionary movement in many parts of the world. The most large-scale revolutionary events took place in 1917 in Russia, which became the center of support for revolutionary forces in other countries.
Lesson task
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
The results and nature of the revolution
Soviet Russia as the base of the "world revolution".
The party that came to power in Petrograd in October 1917 belonged to the revolutionary wing of the Social Democratic movement. He was characterized by conviction, that the contradictions inherent in capitalism , during the war they escalated so much that a small push is enough to cause a chain of revolutions in the warring countries who will end both the war and the capitalism that gave rise to it.
Comintern
Created in 1919, the Third Communist International, which included left-wing groups of the Social Democratic movement, organizationally formed into communist parties, became in the eyes of many leaders of Soviet Russia the forerunner of the world communist government. However, the events of 1919-1920. for all their contradictory nature and ambiguity, they have by no means proved that the “world revolution” is on the agenda.
Women's Demonstration for Peace (1920s)
The hopes of the leaders of the Comintern for the rise of the revolutionary movement in the countries that won the First World War did not come true from the very beginning. The example of the forcible seizure of power by the Bolsheviks, the ensuing bloody and destructive civil war showed the majority of the population of highly developed countries the danger of being carried away by revolutionary ideas. The movement of solidarity with Soviet Russia that arose in the Entente powers was pacifist in nature, its main demand was to provide Russia with the opportunity to decide its own fate. True, in conditions when the Entente countries did not exclude interference in the civil war in Russia, such solidarity was saving for the Russian Bolsheviks.
The 1918 revolution in Germany
The Comintern had high hopes for deepening the political and economic crisis in countries that had lost the First World War. So, in Germany, after the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and paralysis of power, following the example of Soviet Russia, self-government bodies began to arise - councils led by the Social Democrats. The Council of Berlin on November 10, 1918 created a new government - the Council of People's Commissioners, which was headed by the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany F. Ebert.
The Social Democratic Government proclaimed Germany republic
and carried out a number of reforms.
- democratic freedoms established
- estate privileges are canceled
- elections to the Constituent National Assembly, which was to adopt a new constitution, are scheduled.
The All-German Congress of Soviets in December 1918 supported the course of the government of F. Ebert, aimed at establishing a bourgeois-democratic republic in Germany.
Council of People's Commissioners. F. Scheidemann,
O. Landsberg, F. Ebert, G. Noske, R. Wissel.
Revolutionary soldiers and sailors at the Branderburg Gate
Left-wing Social Democrats calling themselves the Spartak group
believed that Germany should, following Russia's example, become a socialist Soviet republic. Having broken with the Social Democratic Party of Ebert, they established the Communist Party of Germany (KKE) on December 30, 1918. At the call of the KKE on January 5, 1919, demonstrations of its supporters began in Berlin. They passed under the slogans of the resignation of the Ebert government, the transfer of all power to the soviets, the liquidation of the old, imperial, apparatus of state administration, and the expropriation of the property of the bourgeoisie.
Speech by Karl Liebknecht in Berlin.
December 1918
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
Manifestations and strikes escalated into an armed uprising. By order of the Minister of War Noske, who announced at a cabinet meeting that he would have to play the role of a "bloody dog", the officer units suppressed the uprising by January 12. KKE leaders R. Luxemburg and C. Liebknecht were shot without trial.
Bavarian Soviet Republic
In April 1919, the Communists managed to seize power in the German state of Bavaria and proclaim the Soviet Republic there. The formation of the Red Army began, but already in May, troops loyal to the government occupied the Bavarian capital of Munich.
Weimar Republic
After the elections to the National Assembly, which the communists boycotted, the Social Democrats turned out to be the largest party faction (39% of the seats). Together with the parties of the centrist orientation, they achieved the adoption of a constitution proclaiming Germany Democratic Republic . The constitution was called Weimar, because the National Assembly met in the city of Weimar. The president of the Weimar Republic was F. Ebert.
Friedrich Ebert
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
Germany, November 1918
The results and nature of the revolution
1. The deepening political and economic crisis after the First World War.
The anti-monarchist, democratic revolution, its outcome - the proclamation of the Weimar Republic led by President Eber.
The 1919 revolution in Hungary
The revolutionary movement also failed in the Habsburg empire, which collapsed as a result of the war, Austria-Hungary. The new states that arose on its territory, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Hungary proclaimed themselves republics. The revolutionary mass movement unfolded only in Hungary.
Republic! Poster M. Biro. 1919
Hungarian Soviet Republic
Decision of the Paris Conference on transfer of Slovakia and Transylvania , where there was a significant share of the Hungarian population, Czechoslovakia and Romania caused a political crisis in Hungary . Power in March 1919 peacefully passed into the hands of the Social Democrats, who concluded an agreement with the Communists on unity of action.
Hungary had no other way to defend its interests in the international arena than the proclamation of the Soviet Republic and the appeal for support to Soviet Russia against the Entente. The idea of \u200b\u200bestablishing the dictatorship of the proletariat was supported by almost all sections of Hungarian society.
The defeat of the revolution
The Red Army of Hungary managed to occupy Slovakia, where the Soviet Republic was also proclaimed. However, very soon Hungary began to lose in the war on two fronts - against Czechoslovakia and Romania. The threats of the Entente Supreme Military Council to move French troops to Budapest forced Hungary to accept the peace conditions imposed on it. Her government agreed to withdraw troops from Slovakia, which was immediately occupied by the army of Czechoslovakia.
Seeing the futility of continuing resistance, the Social Democrats secured the resignation of the Soviet government, which lasted 133 days. The dissolution of the Red Army was announced, the nationalization of banks and factories was canceled. Power passed into the hands of Admiral Horthy, who banned the Communist Party.
Miklos Horthy
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
Hungary, March 1919
The results and nature of the revolution
- Mass dissatisfaction of the people with the rule of the Habsburg dynasty.
- 2. The economic disruption caused by the war
The anti-monarchist, democratic, Soviet republic lasted 133 days.
Canceled nationalization banks and factories. Power passed into the hands of Admiral Horthy, who banned the Communist Party.
The recession of the revolutionary wave in Europe and the foreign policy of the USSR
IN 1920 The hopes of a world revolution were dealt a heavy blow. After the outbreak of the Soviet-Polish war, when the Red Army approached Warsaw and Lviv in the summer of 1920, the leaders of Soviet Russia and the Comintern expected the working people of Poland to meet Soviet troops as liberators from the power of the bourgeois government. There was hope that the working people of Germany, encouraged by the successes of the Soviet state, would rise to the revolutionary struggle, which would ensure the victory of the revolution throughout Europe.
Soviet-Polish war
These calculations did not materialize.
Most of the population of Poland regarded the entry of the Red Army into its territory as a threat to the national independence of the country, and rose to fight the invaders. Serious military-technical assistance to Poland was provided by France. The troops of Soviet Russia were defeated near Warsaw and retreated to German territory, where they were interned. In 1921, Soviet Russia was forced to make peace with Poland, giving it the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.
Hey, who is a Pole, with hostility!
Change of landmarks
The defeats of the revolutionary movements in European countries forced the Bolshevik party to admit that "the world revolution is somewhat delayed." With the end of the civil war in Russia (it ended completely in 1922, when Japanese troops were withdrawn from the Far East), the Soviet government was faced with the need to restore the economy destroyed by the first world and civil wars. This required the normalization of relations with other countries, including trade and economic ties.
Royal debts
At conferences in Genoa and The Hague (1922) on the problems of resolving financial claims, the Soviet delegation invited the Entente countries, first of all, to compensate for the damage caused to Russia by intervention and the economic blockade. No final decision was made. Settlement of controversial issues was postponed in view of the difficult economic situation of the Soviet state.
M.M. Litvinov and V.V. Thieves - members of the Soviet
delegations to the conference in Genoa. Photograph of 1922.
Rapal Treaty of the USSR-Germany
The great success of Soviet diplomacy was the conclusion in 1922 in the suburbs of Genoa Rapallo agreement between the USSR and Germany on the rejection of mutual claims. Thus began the period of economic and military-technical cooperation between the two countries. Contrary to the conditions of the Versailles peace, secret agreements were subsequently signed, according to which Germany got the opportunity to develop aviation and tank equipment at Soviet training grounds, train personnel for pilots and tank crews, which was important for its future rise, strengthened its position in disputes with recent winners.
Following Germany, not wanting to lose the Soviet market, other European countries began to look for ways to normalize relations with the USSR.
Representatives of the Soviet and
german parties in Rapallo
QUESTIONS AND QUESTIONS
- How did the change in the nature of power in Russia and the class approach of the Bolsheviks to foreign policy issues reflect on international relations? By whom, for what purpose was the Communist International created?
- Why in Germany, Hungary in 1918-1919 there were revolutions? What was common in these events? What made them different? What influence did these revolutions and their defeat have on Russia?
- What is the echo in the world of revolutionary events, the civil war in Russia?
- Why in the 1920s Has the USSR changed the direction of its foreign policy? What results have been achieved?
National Liberation Movements of the 1920s in Asia
In 1920, the victorious powers demanded that Turkey comply with the decisions they made to divide its territory and transfer part of it to Greece, as well as establish international control over the Black Sea straits. Acceptance of these conditions by the Sultan government caused outrage in the country and the army. It grew into a national democratic revolution.
A government was created, headed by General M. Kemal, who commanded an army on the Caucasian front during World War II. He became the first president of Turkey, as a sign of his merits he was awarded the honorary title of Ataturk - the father of the Turks.
Ataturk Mustafa Kemal
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
The results and nature of the revolution
1. The requirement of the victorious countries to divide the territory of Turkey and transfer its part of Greece.
2. Establishment of international control over the Black Sea straits.
National Democratic Revolution led by Mustafa Kemal. Turkey defended its integrity, became a republic.
Revolution in Iran
Iran became the arena of the revolutionary movement. During the war years, it was occupied by Russian and British troops. In 1919, Great Britain signed an agreement with the Shah of Iran, securing his status as a dependent country. In particular, it was assumed that the British advisers would lead the Iranian army and government departments. This agreement has caused discontent in various sectors of Iranian society, including the clergy and merchants. The weakening of central authority caused in many provinces of Iran, especially in the north of the country, the rise of separatist movements.
In 1921, the government palace in Tehran was captured by military units commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Reza Khan, who later became the Shah of Iran. The new Iranian government refused to ratify the treaty with England, and established friendly relations with Soviet Russia. The signed Soviet-Iranian treaty secured the status of Iran as an independent state. Iran pledged to prevent the use of its territory for activities hostile to Russia. Otherwise, Russia had the right to send troops to Iran. This clause guaranteed Iran protection from British military intervention, which was then considered a state hostile to Russia.
Reza Shah Pahlavi
Afghanistan
In 1921, Afghanistan concluded a friendship treaty with Russia. This was preceded by the invasion of Afghanistan (1919) by the British Forces, who sought to establish complete control over this country, but failed. The British were opposed by the leaders of the Pashtun tribes, who lived not only in Afghanistan, but also in the North-West of British India. The Provisional Revolutionary Government of India was created in Kabul, which caused the British serious concern, forcing them to abandon the continuation of the war against Afghanistan.
The main political party of the richest and most populous British colony, India, was the Indian National Congress (INC). The party acted legally from the last century and collaborated with the colonial authorities. She hoped that the assistance provided by India to Britain in the World War, gives grounds for the provision of self-government to this colony. However, the British authorities in 1919 decided to create only advisory bodies that have no real power.
Mahatma Gandhi
She included indians' refusal to cooperate with the authorities, termination of work in the administration and in British companies, educational institutions, boycott of English goods, manifestations . The campaign could not be held solely within the framework of non-violence. On April 13, 1919, in the city of Amritsar, British troops opened fire on participants in a peaceful rally, about 1 thousand people were killed.
It was not possible to intimidate the participants in the anti-colonial movement. In many provinces, rebellions began against the power of the colonialists. Only in 1922, on the initiative of the INC, whose leaders feared that the situation would completely get out of control, the campaign was stopped
The leader of the INC, M. Gandhi, in the framework of the concept of non-violence developed by him and meeting the traditions of India, announced the launch of a campaign of civil disobedience.
Gandhi Mahatma (1869-1948) - leader of the national liberation movement of India.
“Only when a person scrupulously follows the laws of society, is he able to judge which of the laws are good and fair, and which are unfair and perverse. Only then does he have the right to civil disobedience to certain laws in precisely defined circumstances. We are soldiers of nonviolence, ready to give their lives if circumstances so require. It is true that to some extent nonviolence is effective even in the hands of the weak. And in this case, this weapon is useful to us. But if someone uses non-violence to disguise their weakness or helplessness, this is cowardice. Such a person works on two fronts, he cannot live like a man, although he certainly cannot become a devil . A thousand times better when we die trying to use force. The bold use of physical strength is much preferable to cowardice. " (Anthology of world political thought. M, 1997. T 2. S. 148-152)
Identify the fragmentary views of M. Gandhi on the methods of struggle for the independence of India. Do you share the author’s conviction of the “power of non-violence”? Explain your judgment.
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
India, April 1919-1922
The results and nature of the revolution
British Authority Requirement for Self-Government in India
The rise of the liberation movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, campaigning civil disobedience. Discontinued by decision of the INC due to increased violence.
The arena of the largest revolutionary events in the 1920s. became china
The decisions of the Washington Conference, which returned China to the position of the beginning of the century, a dependent country with "open doors" for foreigners, caused the rise of the national movement. The Communist Party, created in China with the support of the Comintern, together with the bourgeois-nationalist Kuomintang, created a united anti-imperialist front. The formation of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) began, to the creation of which the USSR made a great contribution. The NRA was equipped with Soviet weapons; military instructors and volunteers from the USSR, led by the Soviet military commander V.K., were in its ranks. Blucher.
Chief Military Advisor Vasily Blucher
and Kuomintang Chiang Kashi party leader
Civil war
In 1925, the creation of the national government of China was announced in Guangzhou (Canton). The NRA launched a campaign to the North, defeating the troops of local, provincial feudal militarist cliques.
Fears that China would be controlled by a political force sent from the USSR prompted Great Britain and the USA in 1927 to intervene in the course of the civil war. Squadrons of these powers bombarded Nanjing. Under these conditions, the Kuomintang leader, General Chiang Kai-shek, preferred to compromise with the countries of the West. The Chinese Communists, whose left wing has long irritated the Kuomintang with attempts to start building socialism in China, were expelled from the government and were subjected to repression.
Chiang Kai-shek
Civil War
In China, a long-standing civil war broke out, which continued intermittently until 1949. Those parts of the NRA, in which the influence of the Communists and Soviet advisers were strongly influenced, became the basis of the Chinese Red Army. In 1931, the creation of the workers 'and peasants' government of the Chinese Soviet Republic was proclaimed, led by the leader of the Communist Party Mao Zedong . It controlled the northern regions of the country, relying on the support of the USSR.
Country and date of revolution
Reasons for the revolution
China, 1923-1949
The results and nature of the revolution
Washington Conference Decision Returning China to Dependent Country
The rise of the national liberation movement, the creation of the NRA (national revolutionary army) and the national government in 1925. The coup of Chiang Kai-shek in 1927 and the expulsion of the Communists from the government. The Civil War in China, with interruptions until 1949. The struggle of the Communists, led by Mao Zedong for the Sovietization of the country.
QUESTIONS AND QUESTIONS
- Describe the features of the liberation, revolutionary movement in the countries of Asia. How did the policy of solidarity between the USSR and national liberation forces influence their development?
After the shocks caused by the First World War and its consequences, the colonial system survived, but the events of the 1920s. clearly demonstrated that the collapse of colonialism is a very real prospect
First stage
The war began with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand (the heir to the Habsburg Empire) and his wife, Serbian nationalist terrorist Gavrila Princip. The murder led to a conflict between Serbia and Austria, and, in fact, served as an occasion for the outbreak of war, long overdue in Europe. Austria in this war was supported by Germany. This country entered the war with Russia on August 1, 1914, and two days later - with France; further, the German army broke into the territory of Luxembourg and Belgium. The enemy armies advanced to the sea, where the line of the Western Front eventually closed. For some time the situation here remained stable, and France did not lose control of its coast, which German troops tried unsuccessfully to capture. In 1914, namely in the middle of August, the Eastern Front opened: here the Russian army attacked and quickly seized territories in the east of Prussia. The battle of Galicia, victorious for Russia, took place on August 18, which temporarily put an end to the fierce clashes between the Austrians and Russians.
Serbia conquered Belgrade captured earlier by the Austrians, after which no particularly active battles ensued. Japan also opposed Germany, capturing its island colonies in 1914. This protected the eastern borders of Russia from invasion, but from the south it was attacked by the Ottoman Empire, which was on the side of Germany. At the end of 1914, she opened the Caucasus Front, which cut off Russia from convenient communications with allied countries.
Second phase
The Western Front intensified: here in 1915 fierce fighting between France and Germany resumed. The forces were equal, and the front line remained almost unchanged at the end of the year, although one and the other side suffered significant damage. On the Eastern Front, the situation changed for the worse for the Russians: the Germans made the Gorlitsky breakthrough, having conquered Galicia and Poland from Russia. By autumn, the front line had stabilized: now it passed almost along the pre-war border between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia.
In 1915 (May 23), Italy entered the war. At first she announced the war of Austria-Hungary, but soon Bulgaria also joined the hostilities, opposing the Entente, which ultimately led to the fall of Serbia.
In 1916, the Battle of Verdun took place, one of the largest battles in this war. The operation lasted from late February to mid-December; during this confrontation, a flamethrower was first used between German troops, which lost 450,000 soldiers, and Anglo-French forces, which suffered losses of 750,000. On the Western Russian front, the Brusilov breakthrough was made by Russian troops, after which Germany transferred most of its troops there, which played into the hands of England and France. Fierce battles were also fought on the water at that time. So, in the spring of 1916 there was a major battle of Jutland, which strengthened the position of the Entente. At the end of the year, the Fourth Alliance, which had lost its dominant position in the war, proposed a truce, which the Allies rejected.
Third stage
In 1917, the United States joined the allied forces. The Entente was close to victory, but Germany kept a strategic defense on land, and also tried to attack the forces of England with the help of an submarine fleet. Russia in October 1917, after the Revolution, almost completely out of the war, absorbed in internal problems. Germany liquidated the Eastern Front by signing a truce with Russia, Ukraine and Romania. In March 1918, the Brest peace treaty was concluded between Russia and Germany, the terms of which were extremely difficult for Russia, but soon this treaty was canceled. Under Germany there was still the Baltic, part of Belarus and Poland; the country transferred the main military forces to the west, but, together with Austria (the Habsburg Empire), Bulgaria and Turkey (the Ottoman Empire), was defeated by the forces of the Entente. Finally, exhausted Germany was forced to sign the Act of Surrender - it happened in 1918, November 11th. This date is considered the end of the war.
Consequence of the first world war became widespread socialist ideas. Many people in different countries have embarked on the path of struggle for a change in the state and socio-economic system. The world revolutionary movement, initiated by the revolution in Russia, became the most important factor in social development in the 20th century. In March 1919 in Moscow was organized IIICommunist International (Comintern), which was supposed to contribute to the practical implementation of the Marxist theory of the world character of the socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks, who headed the Co-Mintern, coordinated the activities of the communist parties created in different countries of the world.
In the Western European states, the positions of the Social Democrats were still strong, believing that workers could achieve their goals by democratic methods, without the use of revolutionary violence. The socialist and social democratic parties have recreated their international union, the Socialist Worker International. Extremely hostile relations have developed between this association and the Communists.
A striking example of the conflict between the Social Democrats and the Communists was the events in Germany. Revolution, which broke out there in November 1918, was primarily caused by the defeat in the war. Failures at the front, the collapse of the economy and famine led to the uprising of soldiers and workers. Emperor Wilhelm II renounced the pre-table, power was in the hands of the Social Democrats. Communists, dissatisfied with the moderate policies of the new government, demanded the expansion of the revolution, its transformation into a socialist one, the transfer of power to the Soviets. In January 1919, they raised an uprising in Berlin with the goal of overthrowing the government of the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert. The speech was suppressed, and Communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg were killed. But revolutionary movement in Germany has not died out. In April 1919, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed, which existed, however, only a few weeks.
In the summer of 1919 in the city of Weimar, the Constituent Assembly adopted German Constitution, established the republican democratic system (Weimar Republic). The first president of the Weimar Republic was F. Ebert, who held this post from 1919 to 1925. The Constitution was to stabilize the situation in the country. However, attempts by the extreme right and extreme left forces to seize power did not stop.
Hungary became another country where a powerful revolutionary movement. In October 1918, as a result of the collapse of the defeated Austro-Hungarian War, it was proclaimed an independent state. The Entente-oriented government came to power. In the spring of 1919 a political crisis erupted: the Entente powers demanded that Hungary sign a peace treaty, according to which its territory would decrease significantly. Under the current conditions, the former government resigned, and the new one was formed by the Social Democrats and the Communists.
On March 21, 1919, the formation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Social transformations began in the country, similar to those that took place in Soviet Russia: banks and industrial enterprises were nationalized, expropriatedlandowner land. The Red Army was created, which fought with the troops of the Entente countries and its allies - Romania and Czechoslovakia, who sought to force the Hungarian government to recognize the terms of the peace treaty. In August 1919, the Hungarian Soviet Republic fell. The country established a nationalist dictatorship of Admiral Miklos Horthy. Hungary signed a peace treaty on the terms of the Entente, losing 2/3 of its territory. Material from the site
New revolutionary upsurge in Europe occurred in the 1920s. In October 1923, the German Communists, with the support of the Comintern, organized a workers' uprising in Hamburg, which was defeated. Also, the Communists ’uprising in Bulgaria in 1923 ended unsuccessfully. The revolution that began in Russia never gained a worldwide scale.
General history. The latest story. Grade 9 Shubin Alexander Vladlenovich
§ 3. The revolutionary wave after the First World War
The formation of new nation states
One of the results of World War I was the collapse of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. The revolution of 1917 turned Russia into a republic and caused the rise of national movements. After the Bolsheviks came to power, many representatives of national movements opposed them. Following the previously proclaimed principle of "the right of nations to self-determination, up to secession," the government of V. I. Lenin granted independence to Finland, Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic countries and Transcaucasia. At the same time, the Bolsheviks hoped to bring the Communists to power in these countries and, in fact, reunite them with Russia. This plan was a success with respect to Ukraine and the countries of Transcaucasia. In Finland, the communist uprising in January - March 1918 was suppressed by the joint actions of the Finnish army, commanded by General Karl Mannerheim, and German interventionists.
Comrade Lenin cleans the earth of evil. Poster of artists M. Cheremnykh and V. Denis. 1920
The rulers of Poland tried to include the territory of Ukraine in their state, but their attack on Kiev in 1920 failed. However, the Soviet-Polish war led to the defeat of the Red Army near Warsaw, and part of the territories populated by Ukrainians and Belarusians became part of Poland. Thanks to the help of the German and White Guard detachments of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, they also managed to defend their independence.
In October 1918, the democratic revolution began in Austria-Hungary. In Vienna, the Social Democrats seized power, and in the capitals of national provinces - the leaders of the local National Democratic parties, which proclaimed the independence of their countries. As a result, Austria has become a small German-speaking republic. At the same time, the creation of the Republic of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed by the interim national assembly of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The South Slavic peoples freed from Austro-Hungarian domination united with Serbia and Montenegro into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
November revolution in Germany
After the breakthrough of the German front in 1918, Hindenburg was about to throw the German fleet into battle. However, in response to this order, the sailors in Kiel revolted and marched on Berlin. They were supported by the masses of workers tired of the war. Wilhelm II fled the country, deputies of the Reichstag proclaimed Germany a republic. The fall of the German Empire led to a sociopolitical revolution and opened up the possibility of choosing a further development path for a ruined and ruined country. Bodies of workers' self-government — councils — began to be created throughout the country. As in Russia in the spring of 1917, the majority in the councils were Social Democrats. They were members of the moderate Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (NSDG). Both parties advocated a socialist system, but the ways of its establishment were seen by them differently. The SPD advocated more moderate, gradual action, and the SDPG advocated more decisive action. The Berlin Council transferred power to the Council of People's Commissioners (government) led by the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert. The government immediately allowed free union activity, strikes, and introduced an 8-hour work day.
Risen soldiers and workers. Berlin. 1919
The fate of the country was to be decided by the Constituent Assembly, the elections of which were scheduled for January 1919. Political parties launched campaigning. The SPD advocated for a democratic parliamentary republic, the protection of the social rights of workers, equal agreements between trade unions and entrepreneurs (social partnership). But all this was conceived while maintaining capitalist relations. The leaders of the Nazi Social Democratic Party, including the veteran of Social Democracy Karl Kautsky, believed that already under the conditions of the ongoing revolution it was possible to create the foundations of new socialist relations: develop workers' self-government, combine parliamentary democracy with Soviet one. The Union of Spartak, headed by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, acted as part of the NSDP. They advocated Soviet power and the transition from the bourgeois revolution to the socialist one. In December 1918, the Spartacists withdrew from the Nazi Party and created the Communist Party of Germany (KKE).
Revolution in Germany
What are the most important centers of the German revolution. Show what their weakness was from a military point of view.
In January, a spontaneous demonstration of sailors and workers escalated into street battles in Berlin. Supporters of the Spartacists were defeated. Despite the fact that Liebknecht and Luxembourg did not participate in the uprising, they were captured by conservative officers and killed.
Remember how the parliamentary and Soviet principles of power organization differ.
Weimar Republic and the end of the revolution in Germany
The elections to the Constituent Assembly were won by the Social Democrats, liberals and conservatives. The Communists did not participate in the elections. The assembly began work in February 1919 in the city of Weimar, far from the radical working masses. The constitution adopted by him and the republic itself were called the Weimar. Ebert was elected the first president. Germany became a federal republic, since its individual lands were granted great rights. The government of the new state was to form a chancellor appointed by the president. The actions of the government should have been approved by the Reichstag (parliament). This system, based on the principle of equilibrium of powers, could easily lead to paralysis of government in the event of a conflict between the president and the parliamentary majority. The constitution enshrined democratic freedoms — speech, assembly, strikes, etc. But in the event of a threat to “public security,” the president could, by decree, suspend these freedoms.
Caricature of the Weimar Republic
The constitution could not improve the socio-economic situation in the country, the revolution continued. In March 1919, the communists and the hungry workers who supported them revolted, a civil war broke out. But the Communist Party, which was trying to create Soviet republics in the lands, did not have strong and famous leaders. Moderate Social Democrats were more popular, they teamed up with conservatives, and managed to attract experienced officers to their side. Volunteer military units arose that crushed the hotbeds of rebellion. In May, the last Soviet republic fell in Bavaria.
After the defeat of the left, the forces raised their heads, wishing to restore the previous, pre-revolutionary order. In the spring of 1920, a division of reactionary volunteers entered Berlin. In response, the Berliners began a general strike, and the rebellion was crushed. These events went down in history by the name of one of the organizers as the Kappovsky putsch.
In 1921 and 1923 the communists again attempted to overthrow the republic and establish Soviet power. But now their influence was already small. In October 1923, the last communist uprising led by Ernst Thalmann was crushed in Hamburg. At the same time, leftist governments in the lands of Thuringia and Saxony were dispersed. The revolution is over.
Soviet power in Hungary
After the defeat of Austria-Hungary in the war, Hungary was considered one of the defeated countries and had to abandon all territories inhabited mainly by Slavs, and from Transylvania, inhabited by Hungarians and Romanians. The Carolian government did not want to make peace on such conditions and transferred power to the left social democrats. Those, in turn, decided to rely on the help of Soviet Russia and for this united with the Communists in a socialist party. The new government proclaimed Soviet power. He was led by Social Democrat Sandor Gorbai, and the communist Bela Kun became People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. The new government refused to recognize the states that arose during the collapse of Austria-Hungary, which immediately led to a conflict with Czechoslovakia, Romania and other countries. In April 1919, with the support of the Entente, the armies of these states invaded Hungary.
Bela Kun and other leaders of the Hungarian revolution
The Soviet government proclaimed an 8-hour working day, introduced insurance for workers and free education. Factories and banks were transferred to the state. In the hands of the state, production could not develop effectively, but the workers felt they were masters of the country and bravely fought at the front. In May, the Red Army stopped the advance of the enemy and invaded Slovakia. In June, the Slovak Soviet Republic was proclaimed. The Hungarian Red Army hoped to unite with the Red Army of the RSFSR and spread the “world revolution” throughout Europe. But peasant uprisings in Ukraine and the attack of Denikin did not allow the troops of Soviet Russia to help the Hungarians. In July, Romanian troops again launched an offensive on the Republic of Hungary. They were supported by the Hungarian counter-revolutionaries led by Miklos Horthy. In August 1919, the Soviet government resigned, its leaders left the country. In 1920, power passed to Horthy, who established an anti-communist dictatorship. Hungary made peace with the Entente on unfavorable conditions.
Revolution in Hungary
Show in what direction the Hungarian Red Army came closest to the forces of Soviet Russia. Show on the map how the situation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic would change if the armies of these two states were joined.
The revolutionary movement and formation of the Comintern
In the years 1917-1923. revolutionary events swept many countries of the world. In September 1920, Italian workers began a general strike and seized the enterprises. Moreover, in some factories, workers were able to establish production without capitalists, that is, take a step towards socialism. But still, the proletarian movement was poorly organized; the Social Democrats did not support it. After concessions from the employers, the workers returned the factories to them.
Comintern Poster
A wave of opposition to imperialism swept the colonies and semi-colonies - India, China, Afghanistan, Egypt, Korea. The revolution in Mexico continued. In 1917, a democratic constitution was adopted here and agrarian reform began - the land of the landowners was transferred to the peasants. It seemed to many socialists that a world revolution was beginning, capable of overthrowing the capitalist system on the whole Earth. But the world organization of socialists at that time did not exist. The Second International collapsed with the outbreak of World War II because the leaders of the Social Democrats supported the military efforts of their governments and thus opposed their comrades in other countries. In 1919, the Social Democratic parties announced their readiness to restore the International, but by this time it turned out that the socialists were torn by sharp ideological contradictions. Some of the Russian Social Democrats, headed by Lenin, advocated an early transition to socialism, for a socialist revolution. From the point of view of most social democrats, the conditions for socialism have not yet matured, since socialism cannot exist without the democratic culture of the working people. But Lenin and his Bolshevik supporters considered it possible to neglect democracy for the speedy overthrow of capitalism. Their example inspired some left-wing socialists around the world. In March 1919, the Communist (third) International (Comintern) was created in Moscow. It included the Bolshevik and other communist parties, some of which stood out from the Social Democratic parties. The Comintern used Russia's resources to prepare revolutions in different countries. Such an “export of revolution" usually ended in uprisings that were not supported by the people and therefore were suppressed, as was the case, for example, in Germany and Estonia in 1923–1924. Only in Mongolia with the support of the Comintern in 1921 did the revolution win. This country was dependent on Soviet Russia.
In 1920, the Social Democrats recreated the Second International, which was then transformed into the Socialist (Socialist). The Social Democrats were also called simply Socialists, distinguishing them from the Communists of the Third International. Despite allegations of opportunism and posibilism on the part of the Communists, the majority of workers in Western Europe voted for socialists; socialist ministers were able to significantly expand the rights of workers and improve their living conditions. The greatest successes the socialists achieved in Sweden, where since 1920 they have been in power several times.
Education of the Republic of Turkey
The collapse awaited the Ottoman Empire. Her army was defeated, and most of the territory was occupied by the Entente. The southern provinces were divided between Britain and France, the east of Asia Minor was to go to the Kurds and Armenia, and the west to Greece.
In 1919, the Turks began a guerrilla war against the invaders. The leader of the national movement was General Mustafa Kemal.
Mustafa Kemal
In April 1920, the old parliament of the Ottoman Empire proclaimed the declaration of independence of Turkey, for which it was immediately dispersed by the forces of the Entente. The Sultan government signed the Sevres Peace Treaty, which cut off a significant part of Asia Minor from Turkey. Then, in the very center of the country, in Ankara, the Turkish Grand National Assembly was convened, declaring itself the sole legitimate authority. The meeting did not recognize the contract. In response, the Greek army launched an offensive on Ankara. In 1921, on the outskirts of Ankara, the beautifully equipped Greek army was defeated by the newly created Turkish, commanded by Kemal. Great military assistance to the Kemalists in the fight against imperialists was provided by Soviet Russia. In 1922, the Greek army was defeated. In 1923, in Lausanne, Turkey concluded an agreement with the Entente countries, according to which the entire territory of Asia Minor remained behind it. In 1923, Mustafa Kemal was elected President of Turkey and lifelong chairman of the ruling People’s Republican Party in the country. In 1934, with the introduction of surnames in Turkey, carried out on his initiative, Mustafa Kemal received the surname Atatürk - “father of the Turks”.
Remember what secularization is.
Strengthening his power, Kemal established a dictatorship, defeated democratic and communist organizations, and set about reforms. Turkey was proclaimed a republic, church lands were secularized. Islamic law, the alphabet, and even traditional clothing were forcibly replaced by European ones. The economy pursued a policy of statism, that is, nationalization. But private trade continued. Authorities banned polygamy, granted suffrage to women, and created a secular education system. So the foundations of the modern Turkish state were laid.
Division of the Ottoman Empire
Show which states and peoples are most affected by Turkey’s military successes.
To summarize
At the final stage of the World War and after its end, a wave of revolutions and mass social movements swept through Europe, which led to the collapse of the largest empires and the fall of a number of monarchies. The most radical revolutionary actions were led by the Communists, who, after the Bolshevik victory in Russia, created their own international, the Comintern. But the Communists outside the former Russian Empire failed to win in any country in Europe. Europeans have chosen a more democratic capitalist path of development. Gradually, the revolutionary wave subsided, and the situation in Europe stabilized.
Socio-political revolution - the struggle of broad social strata for changing the principles of social structure, which is accompanied by the destruction of the old structures of power and the creation of new ones.Opportunism, Possibilism - adaptation to existing social conditions, gradual action.
1918, November - The beginning of the revolution in Germany.1920 - The formation of the Republic of Turkey.
“A revolution is the only form of“ war ”where the ultimate victory can be prepared by a series of defeats. It is important under what circumstances a defeat was suffered: because the violent fighting energy of the masses broke up on the insufficient maturity of the historical premises, or because the revolutionary action was paralyzed by its own halfness, indecision, and internal weakness. "
(Rosa Luxemburg about the situation in Germany at the beginning of the revolution)
1. Why did the empires that existed in Europe before the World War broke up?
2. What was the German state system under the Weimar Constitution?
3. What was the difference between the views of the leaders of the Comintern and the Socialist?
4. Why did the supporters of Soviet power gain power in Hungary?
1. “The proletarian dictatorship is not a country of sweet and sour banks and milk rivers,” Bela Kun claimed. What did he mean? How did this opinion affect the course of the revolution in Hungary?
2. The original version of the Weimar Constitution stated: “German Austria, upon joining the German power, receives the right to participate in the Reichsrat (upper house of parliament) with the number of votes corresponding to its population. Until then, representatives of Austria have been using an advisory voice. ” This provision was repealed at the request of the Entente. Explain why.
From the book History of China the author Meliksetov A.V.Chapter XIV. China after the First World War (1918-1927)
From the book Foreign Legion the author Balmasov Sergey StanislavovichRussians in the French Foreign Legion after the First World War From the end of 1918, the French began to actively recruit prisoners of war, former soldiers and officers of the Russian imperial army into the legion ranks. These people heroically fought for Russia during the First
From the book Country of the Rising Sun. History and culture of Japan the author author unknownJapan after the First World War The First World War seriously affected the further formation of the Japanese economy. Revision of treaties with the Western powers, development of external contacts, control of China and Korea - all this made Japan practically
From the book of the First World War. The roots of the modern financial crisis author Keyman RomanPART FOUR. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR, MASON'S FEBRUARY REVOLUTION AND ITS “DEEPENING” BY THE GROUPING OF LENIN I do not pretend to be complete in its conclusions on the topic, however, historical facts and various information around the events of 1914-1917. quite
From the book Zionist Movement in Russia author Maor YitzhakPart Three Zionism in the period after the death of Herzl and before the First World War
the author Tkachenko Irina Valerevna5. How did the map of Europe change after the First World War? After a truce was concluded on November 11, 1918, and Germany admitted defeat, the victorious powers faced the problems of a post-war settlement. This question was
From the book General History in Questions and Answers the author Tkachenko Irina Valerevna16. What were the results of the Second World War? What changes in Europe and the world occurred after the Second World War? The Second World War left a mark on the entire history of the world of the second half of the twentieth century. During the war, 60 million lives were killed in Europe, to which many
From the book Russia in 1917-2000 A book for everyone interested in domestic history the author Yarov Sergey ViktorovichRussian diplomatic maneuvers after the end of World War I. In the last days of the war, when the defeat of Germany became apparent, Soviet diplomacy took a number of steps to end the intervention. Her appeals to US President W. Wilson on October 24 and
From the book Domestic History: Crib the author author unknown99. EDUCATION OF THE WORLD SOCIALIST SYSTEM AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE COLD WAR FOR THE USSR After the end of World War II, the balance of power between the leading powers changed fundamentally. The United States significantly strengthened its position, while
From the book Political History of France of the 20th Century the author Arzakanyan Marina TsolakovnaFrance after the First World War. Government of Georges Clemenceau. The year before the end of World War I, the cabinet of ministers in France for the second time formed the radical Georges Clemenceau (November 1917 - January 1920). Having taken office at the last, decisive stage of the war, chapter
From the book History of India. XX century. the author Yurlov Felix NikolaevichChapter 6 INDIA DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND AFTER IT The declaration of war by Germany by England in August 1914 had a great impact on the development of events in India. She was automatically involved in the war on the side of the metropolis and its allies. However, the leadership
From the book History of Ukraine from ancient times to the present day the author Semenenko Valery IvanovichTheme 9. Ukraine during the First World War, Revolution and Civil War The First World War and the Ukrainian Question Two powerful military-political blocs took shape at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries, with the goal of redistributing the spheres of influence in the world. On the one hand, it’s
From the book General History. The latest story. Grade 9 the author Shubin Alexander VladlenovichChapter 2 World after the First World War "Politicians turned the Treaty of Versailles into a simple truce in a long European civil war, spreading across the planet." Historian Pierre Thibault Paris Peace
From the book Return. Jewish History in the Light of Old and New Testament Prophecies author Grzesik Julian7. “Hunters” after the First World War “... And then I will send many hunters, and they will drive them from every mountain and from every hill and from ravines of rocks” (Jer. 16, 16). The “hunt” was to extend to each “mountain” (autocratic kingdoms), each “hill” (states with less
From the book New Templars. The confessors of the "black order" the author Vasilchenko Andrey VyacheslavovichChapter 8. AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began to disintegrate even before it lost the First World War. At its base, the so-called "patchwork state" first appeared. Then it fell into several independent states. Autumn 1918
From the book American Submarines from the Beginning of the 20th Century to the Second World War author Kashcheev LB