^ National composition of the population Canada can be described as very complex and at the same time quite simple. It is complex because this country is inhabited by more than 100 distinct ethnic groups speaking dozens of languages. different languages. Among them (in descending order) are English, French, Chinese, Italian, German, Punjabi, Polish, Ukrainian, Spanish, Dutch, Greek languages. And it’s simple because none of them, except the first two, are spoken by more than 3% of the country’s population. So all the numerous languages, with the exception of English and French, can be called languages of national minorities. In reality, Canada is actually binational country, The national composition of the population is determined by two large nations - Anglo-Canadians and French Canadians. At the same time, neither one nor the other constitutes a majority in it.
This feature national composition population of Canada is associated with the uniqueness of its historical development. After all, Canada, like the United States, is a country of massive European colonization. It is estimated that at least 13 million people arrived here from Europe over the past 400 years.
Formation English-Canadian nation began in the 17th century. along with the first migration flows from the British Isles, which included the English, Scots, and Irish. After 1763, when Canada came into the possession of Great Britain, they increased markedly. After the War of Independence and the formation of the United States, a stream of “loyalists” poured here - those English settlers in the United States who did not want to stay in this country and supported the British army during the war, and after its defeat chose to move to the rest English Canada. At the same time, the assimilation of various non-British ethnic groups by Anglo-Canadians began, primarily through mixed marriages of people from the British Isles with people of German, Dutch and Scandinavian origin.
Today, the number of Anglo-Canadians in Canada is 18 million people, or 58% of the total population. This share is less than in late XIX c., when Anglo-Canadians made up 2/3 of the country's total population. However, it is the largest nation in modern Canada. Anglo-Canadians form the main population in nine out of ten provinces (except Quebec). In each of them, communication predominates English language, and in many provinces it is spoken by more than 9/10 of the inhabitants.
Canada's second largest nation is French Canadians. It was based on those few early French settlers (mainly from northern France) who settled here back in the 17th century. After the already mentioned transition of French Canada to Great Britain in 1763, French Canadians found themselves completely separated from their homeland - France. This contributed to their particularly close internal cohesion, the intertwining of family ties and ultimately the formation of a special nation that preserved the ancient dialect French, national customs and folklore. Mixed marriages are not typical for French Canadians, which increases their isolation.
Today, the number of French Canadians in Canada is more than 7 million people, or 22% of its total population. This share is also less than at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when French Canadians made up 1/3 of the country's total population. To a certain extent, this is explained by the fact that recently the birth rate among French Canadians has sharply decreased, although before that it had been at its highest for more than two centuries. Approximately 4/5 of all French Canadians are concentrated in the former French Canada - in the province of Quebec, where they make up approximately the same share of the total population.
Separate compact groups of French Canadians also live in the provinces of Ontario and New Brunswick (the former French colony of Acadia).
In addition to the two large "founding nations", a significant part of the Canadian population is formed by quite numerous transitional ethnic groups, or national minorities. The assimilation of part of the population of these groups with the Anglo-Canadians is compensated by the influx of new migrants. Typically, such transitional groups do not have their own clearly defined ethnic territories, forming only isolated inclusions in the general English-Canadian background of settlement, and in major cities grouped into separate quarters.
The three largest transitional groups in Canada are German, Italian and Ukrainian. Canadian Germans are settled everywhere, but their stratum is especially large in the steppe provinces. Unlike the Germans, long-time migrants, Italians are relatively recent migrants. They live mainly in cities, especially Montreal and Toronto. Ukrainians began to emigrate to Canada at the end of the 19th century, with the peak of this emigration occurring in the period before the First World War. They settled mainly in the steppe provinces, forming fairly compact national areas. Like French Canadians, Canadian Ukrainians retain native language and participate little in mixed marriages. Other transitional groups include people from Europe (Scandinavians, Dutch, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Jews, Greeks) and from non-European countries (Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Indians, Arabs).
Rice. 211. Administrative divisions of Canada before 1999
Finally, among the Canadian population, the following deserve special mention: indigenous peoples. The country's Constitution of 1982 includes three groups. Firstly, these are representatives of numerous Indian tribes, speaking 58 languages, numbering 800 thousand people. Including 600 thousand people who have the corresponding “Indian status” and enjoy certain privileges, are classified as status Indians. About half of them live on 2,000 reservations, which together occupy 30 thousand km 2. Secondly, these are Indian-European mestizos (about 200 thousand of them), descendants of marriages between the British and French with Indian women, concluded during the initial development of the Canadian West and North. Thirdly, these are Canadian Eskimos (self-name Inuit, which means “man”, “people”). There are approximately 50 thousand of them, and they make up the bulk of the inhabitants of the Northern coast Arctic Ocean and the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
^ National relations in Canada they sometimes became more acute in the past. But this especially applies to the last decades, when they began to literally shake the entire building of the federation. There are three main problems of this kind.
The first of them is the problem of French-Canadian nationalism. IN modern history Canada has perhaps no more pressing problem.
At first glance this may seem strange. In fact, French-Canadian Quebec is the largest in area (its territory could accommodate three Frances) and the second most populous province of Canada, providing more than 1/5 of the country's total GNP. A deep-sea waterway along the river passes through the territory of Quebec. St. Lawrence. On this river there are cities such as Montreal, where almost half the population of the province lives and which is often called the Canadian Paris, and Quebec, almost the entire population of which is French Canadian. But what is especially important is that the French language, along with English, serves state language Canada. The equality of these two languages is strictly observed. Not only official documents, but even labels of goods sold, advertisements and inscriptions throughout the country are made in two languages.
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that French Canadians in Canada experience ethnic discrimination. It began with the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, when the binational character of the state was not properly reflected in the country's constitution. The prevailing order in Canada assigned French Canadians the role of “secondary” citizens, and the province of Quebec itself the role of a kind of economic appendage of the English-speaking provinces.
The national and especially economic inequality of the two “founding nations” began to become especially evident in the middle of the 20th century. It turned out that Anglo-Canadians occupy key positions in the country's economy and in its social hierarchy, that the standard of living of French Canadians lags significantly behind the national average, that their earnings are not commensurate with the earnings of Anglo-Canadians living in Quebec, that unemployment in this province is much higher, and the level of education and health care is lower than in the English-speaking provinces. It may also be mentioned that, in contrast to the neighboring province of Ontario, the basis of the Quebec economy was and still is constituted by industries belonging to the “lower floors”.
All this in the 60-70s. XX century caused a rapid rise in French-Canadian nationalism. There were widespread demands not only for the expansion of French language rights in the English-speaking provinces, but also for the creation of a two-unit Canadian federation. Moreover, organizations, movements and groups began to emerge in Quebec calling for full self-determination of this province - even to the point of separating it from Canada and creating a “sovereign Quebec”. Such extreme separatist tendencies paved the way for the emergence of terrorist organizations and even led to the introduction of temporary martial law in 1970. Then the negotiation process continued. Nevertheless, Quebec was the only Canadian province that did not sign the country's new constitution in 1982. This was a response to the Anglo-Canadians’ refusal to recognize Quebec’s status as a “special society.”
Subsequently, conciliation negotiations continued in 1987, and all ten provinces accepted new document, which defined Quebec as a "unique society" within Canada. However, it was never approved by the appointed deadline (June 1990), mainly due to the opposition of some Anglo-Canadian provinces. In 1992 it was agreed new project constitutional reform, but he also did not gather a majority of votes in a pan-Canadian referendum, which stimulated a new wave of French-Canadian separatism. And in 1994, the Quebec party, which advocated its full sovereignty, won the elections to the National Assembly of Quebec. A direct consequence of this was a referendum held in October 1995 on the issue of full independence for the province. If it were successful, Canada would split into two geopolitically and economically independent parts, which could cast doubt on its entire future existence. But the Francophone separatists did not win this referendum.
However, one cannot ignore the fact that 2,361 thousand people voted against secession of Quebec from Canada, and 2,308 thousand people voted for secession: therefore, to win the referendum, supporters of secession only needed 53 thousand votes, or a little more than 1 %. Immediately after the referendum, Canadian federal authorities intensified their policies in two directions. On the one hand, they offered Quebec the most favorable conditions for it, declaring the province a “special community” and endowing it with additional constitutional rights. On the other hand, they appealed to the country's Supreme Court with a request to see whether Quebec even has the right to unilaterally secede from the federation. To the above, we can add that in Quebec itself, not all French Canadians are in favor of secession from Canada. At the beginning of 2003, the Quebec party lost the elections to the liberal party advocating the preservation of the federation. In 2006, the Prime Minister proposed declaring Quebec "a nation (country) within a united Canada." But controversy surrounding this issue continues.
The second pressing national problem can be identified indigenous peoples problem Canada. The indigenous population has also recently intensified the fight for their rights. To a certain extent, this is explained by the reorientation of part of it from hunting to hired work and, accordingly, relocation to the cities of the Canadian North. Aboriginal peoples have long demanded a special amendment to the country's constitution providing for their right to self-determination. As a result, in 1993, a provision was introduced into the Constitution Act stating that the country's indigenous peoples have an inalienable right to self-government within Canada. And this right was realized in 1999. Another, thirteenth, subject of the federation emerged called Nunavut (translated from Eskimo as “our land”). The territory of Nunavut was separated from the Northwest Territories, the area of which was reduced by 2/3 as a result. Nunavut occupies 2 million km 2, or 1/5 of the entire area of Canada (Fig. 212), although it is inhabited by only 21 thousand people, mostly Inuit, with an average population density of 1 person per 100 km 2. The rights of the territory of Nunavut are similar to those of the Yukon and the Northwest Territories: a legislative assembly, an executive cabinet, and a court were created here. Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chretien called the formation of Nunavut a great day not only for this territory, but for all of Canada.
This is how D.V. Zayats describes this day in an article dedicated to the education of Nunavut. “On the night of March 31 to April 1, 1999, the starry sky over Iqualuit, a small northern Canadian town, bloomed with amazingly beautiful fireworks. The Canadian anthem sounded solemnly. To the applause of numerous spectators, among whom were the Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien, Governor General Romeo Le Blanc, representing in Canada Queen of England, and Minister of Indigenous Affairs and Northern Development Jane Stewart, a yellow-red-white flag slowly began to rise along the flagpole. The evening of the next day was decorated with a gala concert, never seen before in this cold polar region, in which popular artists participated. Canadian national television broadcast live festivities throughout the country. The National Bank issued a special commemorative coin on the same day.”
The third problem is problem of foreign immigration. Immigration has always been a feature of Canada. But recently its composition has changed noticeably. In contrast to the past, today among immigrants (about 200 thousand people annually) immigrants from Europe account for only 19%, while immigrants from Asia account for 57%, Latin America – 13%, Africa – 7% (the rest are from the USA). From the above figures it follows that nowadays “colored” immigration to Canada sharply predominates, which has become widespread.
Rice. 212. Territory of Nunavut (according to D.V. Zaits)
Previously, non-European immigrants lived relatively secluded lives within their own city neighborhoods, but now they are spread throughout the country. Chinese, for example, became the third most widely spoken language in Canada, and Vancouver, the administrative center of British Columbia, where many Chinese people live, began to be jokingly called Chaiwan (from the English China - China). Hence the constant increase, starting from the second half of the 1960s, of intransigence towards “alien” immigrants and the increase in the number of racist organizations.
Under these circumstances, the Canadian government is conducting multicultural policy(multiculturalization), which, according to the plan, should contribute to the formation of a unified Canadian society, reflecting the interests of every citizen, regardless of his ethnic origin. This policy is implemented in the form of a series of special programs.
133. Mining Industry of Canada
Modern Canada is one of the largest mining powers of the world. Among the economically developed countries of the West, the development of this industry is second only to the United States. IN mining industry Canada employs 350 thousand people, and its share in the country's GDP is 4%. Per capita, approximately $700 worth of fuel and raw materials is produced annually (50 in the USA). In addition, the country's mining industry is extremely diverse: 26 types of metallic, 24 types of non-metallic raw materials and all known types of fuel are mined here.
It is clear that the natural basis for such a powerful development of this industry was the exceptional natural wealth Canada's mineral resources. Suffice it to say that its depths contain more than 4/5 of all reserves of potassium salts of Western countries, about 2/3 of nickel and zinc reserves, 2/5 of lead and uranium reserves, about 1/3 of iron and copper ore reserves, titanium, and tungsten. To this list we can add quite large reserves of oil and natural gas, coal, cobalt, platinum, gold, silver, asbestos and some other minerals.
This diversity is explained primarily by the peculiarities of the geological and tectonic structure of Canada. Basins and deposits of iron, copper, nickel, cobalt ores, gold, platinum, and uranium are genetically associated primarily with the Precambrian Canadian Shield, which is composed of crystalline rocks exposed to the surface. Occupying an area of 4.6 million km 2, it stretches from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago to the Great Lakes and the river. St. Lawrence. In the west of the country, where there is mainly an area of Mesozoic folding and the Cordillera belt passes, basins and deposits of copper, polymetallic, molybdenum, tungsten, and mercury ores are especially common. And oil, gas, and coal basins on the tectonic map of Canada should be sought within the marginal trough of the Cordillera and smaller intermountain troughs.
Table 70 provides a general overview of the Canadian mining industry.
The data in Table 70 indicates that large-scale mining of fuel, ore, and non-metallic minerals is carried out in Canada. At the same time, in terms of cost of production, the non-competitive first and second places are occupied by oil and natural gas (Fig. 214), although the place of Canadian oil in world production, as follows from the same table, is more modest. In the mining of ore minerals, the picture is, one might say, the opposite. Their share in the structure of the Canadian mining industry is relatively small, but in global terms it is very significant. This is evidenced by Canada's first place in the production of uranium, second in the production of cobalt and nickel, and third in primary aluminum. You can also add iron ore, copper, lead, titanium, tungsten, gold, silver, and platinum to this list. Canada's position is also very strong in the extraction of certain types of non-metallic raw materials (potassium salts, asbestos, native sulfur).
Table 70
MINING INDUSTRY IN CANADA 2005–2007
* Made from imported raw materials.
The most important feature of the Canadian mining industry is its export orientation more than 4/5 of all products from the extractive industries are supplied to the world market. Canada is the world's leading exporter of uranium, nickel, copper, zinc, titanium, molybdenum, silver, platinum, asbestos, and potassium salts. In value terms, about 60% of Canadian mineral exports come from the United States, 25% from Western Europe and 10% for Japan.
Let us now turn to geographical aspects this industry. There are various options for mining zoning in Canada. In the most general form, we can obviously talk about the most developed Southern region, which coincides with the main strip of settlement in the country, and the Canadian North.
Within the Southern region, which has the most favorable economic and geographical position, a wide variety of minerals are mined - coal, oil, natural gas, copper, polymetallic, nickel and other ores, uranium, gold, potassium salts, asbestos. The mining of nickel, potassium salts and asbestos is of global importance.
The most famous nickel deposit is Sudbury in Ontario. Nickel reserves here exceed 60 million tons with an average metal content in ore of 1.5%. In addition, the ores of this deposit contain copper (1.2%), cobalt, gold, silver, platinum group metals, selenium and tellurium, which are extracted along the way. The Sudbury field has been exploited since the end of the 19th century, and the depth of development here has exceeded 1.5 km. The main asbestos deposits are located in the south of the province of Quebec. They are developed by both underground and open-pit methods.
Rice. 213. Canadian mining industry structure (by product value)
Potash salts in the province of Saskatchewan were discovered during oil drilling only during the Second World War. Further exploration showed that the largest potassium basin is located here, the salt-bearing strata of which extend for 800 km and a width of 250 km. Potassium salts occur in the upper part of this sequence at a depth of 700–800 m in the north to 2500 m in the south. Their total reserves exceed 10 billion tons of K20, and the average content of potassium oxide in working layers is 25–35%. In the 1990s. The production of potassium salts in this basin amounted to 9-10 million tons. It is carried out using the mine method. However, the excavation of mine shafts is difficult due to quicksand, which have to be frozen, and the shafts themselves must be secured with cast iron tubing, as in the construction of the subway.
The Canadian North is the largest area of new development, the “face” of which is primarily determined by the mining industry. The bulk of oil and natural gas, iron ore, tungsten, and some non-ferrous metals are mined here. Important distinguishing feature The Canadian North is extremely poorly populated. Only 400 thousand people live here, or 1.3% of the country’s total population, while the North’s share of Canada’s area is 70%. Therefore, the development of mineral resources in the Canadian North is carried out primarily on a rotational basis.
The essence of the rotation method is that shifts (shifts) of workers fly from the base city for several weeks or a month or two, and then return home, while a new shift arrives in their place. At the same time, only small rotational camps with the necessities for life usually arise near mines, mines and open-pit mines. social facilities. Even in the larger mining towns of the Canadian North, the number of inhabitants, as a rule, does not exceed 5-10 thousand people.
The Canadian North, in turn, is usually divided into two parts: the Middle North and the Far North.
Part ^ Mid North includes the northern territories of the provinces of Newfoundland, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. It covers an area of approximately 3 million km2 with a population of 300 thousand people. Many minerals are mined within its boundaries, but oil, gas, uranium and iron ore can be particularly highlighted.
More than 80% of Canada's oil and natural gas comes from northern Alberta. Hydrocarbon deposits were discovered here in the late 40s and early 50s. XX century, which served as the main incentive for the rapid growth of both the administrative center of the province, Edmonton, and the “oil capital” of all Canada, Calgary; both of them stand out for their arrangement, abundance of skyscrapers, etc. Oil and natural gas are transported through pipelines from here to other provinces of Canada, especially in the eastern direction - to the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. A significant portion of oil and natural gas is exported to the United States. For this purpose, the Edmonton-Regina-Chicago oil pipeline was built. The United States also acts as the sole importer of Canadian natural gas (in the amount of 60–70 billion m 3 per year).
Rice. 214. Share of individual Canadian provinces in the country's mining output
In addition, in the province of Alberta, 400 km northeast of Edmonton, there are the world's largest deposits of tar sandstones, located in the basins of the Athabasca, Peace River, etc. These sands, containing approximately 14% of petroleum products, occupy an area of 80 thousand km 2. The potential reserves of liquid hydrocarbons in them are estimated at a huge figure of 75 billion tons; it means that a significant part of all possible hydrocarbon resources on the planet is concentrated here. The development of Alberta's tar sands and the extraction of oil from them began in the 1960s. Interest in them especially increased after the energy crisis of the mid-1970s. But even after world oil prices fell again and this interest noticeably decreased, enterprises for extracting oil from sands continue to operate here, producing 60 thousand tons of liquid fuel daily. In 2000, due to rising oil prices, Canada's oil resources were revised towards a significant increase - from 1 to 24 billion tons! As a result, according to this indicator, the country took 2nd place in the world after Saudi Arabia. Overall, the province of Alberta accounts for more than half of Canada's total mining output (Figure 214).
In the neighboring province of Saskatchewan, in the lake area. Athabasca contains Canada's largest deposits of uranium ore, providing 3/5 of all uranium production in the country. The first uranium settlement, Uranium City, arose here back in the 1960s. Nowadays, production is carried out mainly at the Kay Lake and Cigar Lake fields, which are among the largest in the world (annual production 5000–6000 tons).
And the northern part of the province of Quebec, more precisely, the Labrador Peninsula, stands out especially for iron ore. The iron ore basin on this peninsula was explored during the Second World War and after it. It is located in the Labrador trough of the Canadian crystalline shield and stretches from north to south in a narrow horseshoe-shaped 600-kilometer strip (Fig. 215). The average iron content in the rich ores of this basin is 55–60%, but there are even larger reserves of relatively poor ores. Iron ore mining, which began in the mid-1950s, is carried out primarily by open-pit mining. A special ore carrier was built to transport iron ore. Railway from the main development centers of Schefferville and Labrador City to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. From here, 3/4 of the iron ore is exported to the USA and Western Europe, the rest is used in Canada itself. Despite the recent decline in production, more than 30 million tons of iron ore are mined here annually.
The largest nickel mines are underway in northern Manitoba.
Also makes its contribution to the development of the country's mining industry ^ Far North Canada is a vast region located mainly north of the 60th parallel and occupies 3.9 million km 2 with a population of about 100 thousand people. The Far North includes the Yukon, Northwestern and Nunavut territories.
Yukon Territory at the end of the 19th century. became famous throughout the world for the “gold rush” that swept the river basin. Klondike. The fate of gold miners who fell ill with this “fever” was described as a participant by Jack London. Nowadays, gold, silver, copper, and polymetals are also mined here. Before World War II, the vast Northwest Territories were distinguished by uranium mining in the Great Bear Lake region. Now gold, polymetals, tungsten and other ores are mined here.
Rice. 215. Iron ore industry of the Labrador Peninsula
The prospects for oil and natural gas production at the mouth of the river are not very clear. Mackenzie, as well as within the so-called Extreme North - on the shelf and islands of the Canadian Arctic archipelago. Back in the 1970s. projects for two trans-Canada gas pipelines were developed, which were supposed to connect these new areas with the gas pipeline network of the South of Canada and the United States. However, for environmental and other reasons, a moratorium was imposed on these projects, and work on the Arctic shelf was suspended. Private firms and the Canadian government preferred to first engage in exploration work in more southern areas of the shelf. The same applies to projects for transporting northern oil by tankers.
Rice. 216.
Forests of Canada
On the other hand, in the early 1990s. Interest in the diamond deposits of the Northwest Territories has sharply increased, where geologists have discovered rich kimberlite pipes.
134. Forestry Canada
Canadian forestry forms an important component of global forestry. It employs approximately 800 thousand people, and its annual output exceeds $50 billion. Such high figures are largely explained by favorable natural conditions for the development of forestry.
Population of Canada
About 90% of the population is concentrated along the 160 km Canada-US border. Ethnic composition: Anglo-Canadians - 40% of the population, French-Canadians - 27% of the population, other Europeans - 20%, American Indians - 1.5%, other ethnic groups, mostly Asians - 11.5%. During the first census of Canadians in 1871, it was determined that the country was home to 50% of British descent and 30% of French descent. From that time on, a steady decline in these two communities began. This process is explained by two reasons: a decrease in emigrants from Great Britain and France and an increase in the number of emigrants from other countries in Europe, Southeast Asia and Latin America. Settlers arriving in Canada settle in areas similar in climate and nature to their historical homeland, form fairly close-knit communities, and preserve their language, traditions and religion. For example, Ukrainians live mainly in the forest-steppe and steppe regions of the country, the Dutch live on the plains of Southwestern Ontario, where they are engaged in vegetable growing, like their ancestors in Europe. Chinese, Portuguese, Greeks, and Italians form large communities in large cities, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Before the colonization of Canada, according to preliminary estimates, up to 200 thousand Indians and Eskimos lived in the country. The subsequent wars and the spread of diseases led to a reduction in their numbers. But in the 20th century. With the improvement of medical care and an increase in the birth rate, the revival of Indian tribes began. Indian status is legally determined by the Indian Act of 1876. According to it, about 542 tribes occupy more than 2,250 reserves in Canada. Due to the limited natural and productive resources, their standard of living is lower than in the rest of the country. Moreover, in last years A legal incident arose: during the formation of Canada as a state, the lands that previously belonged to the Indians were not legally transferred to the jurisdiction of the British crown. Indian leaders are making claims (and in the courts) for compensation for these losses.
Eskimos, a group of peoples who speak one of the Paleo-Asian languages, number no more than 27 thousand people. They live in villages of 50 to 500 inhabitants. Industrial offensive in the North of Canada at the end of the 20th century. led to the deterioration of their habitat, and the decline in fur prices only worsened the situation of these peoples. Currently the government subsidizes social and educational programs for this community. Catholics make up 45% of believers, adherents of the Canadian United Church - 12%, Anglicans - 8%, other churches - 35%.
Number Canadian population is more than 33 million people, and by this indicator Canada can be compared with the state of California in the USA.
Due to the vast territory, the average population density is only 3 people per 1 km 2, which is almost three times less than in Russia. Canada is characterized by extreme uneven population distribution: 90% of the country's population lives on 10% of its territory, no further than 150 km from the southern border with the United States.
Canada belongs to the countries of the first type of population reproduction. The birth rate is 12 ‰, the mortality rate is 7 ‰, and the natural increase rate is 5 ‰.
Over the past decades in gender composition The population of Canada has undergone significant changes, and currently women have become predominant in Canada.
Age composition Canada's population has the highest proportion of the working population among Western countries - 68%. Children make up only 20% of the country's population, and pensioners only 12%.
Like most economically developed countries, Canada has a long life expectancy: the average life expectancy in Canada is 78 years.
Canada was recently called a binational country, since the overwhelming majority of the population were English-Canadians and French-Canadians. However, it has now become a multi-ethnic country, and national composition of Canada continues to become more complicated. About a third of the country's population now consists of various ethnic groups, the most numerous of which are Germans, British, Italians and Ukrainians (each with more than 1 million people). The indigenous population of Canada (Indian peoples and Eskimos) makes up less than 2% of the total population.
The overwhelming majority of Canada's religious population are Christians, almost equally represented by Catholics and Protestants.
Canada is a highly urbanized country: 80% of its population lives in cities. Canada has three millionaire cities: Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Canada, like the United States, is characterized by a process of suburbanization, which mainly covers the southeastern regions, where the formation of a new megalopolis is underway.
The main form of rural settlement throughout Canadian history has been the farm.
Canada is characterized by active internal and external population migration. In internal migrations, two types of migrations should be especially noted: pendulum and to new areas of development (north). Canada is a typical country of labor immigration. The main directions of resettlement of immigrants are Europe - Canada and the USA - Canada. Material from the site
Canadian Workforce are characterized high level qualifications. The literacy rate in Canada is one of the highest in the world - 99%. However, Canada experiences some shortage of labor resources, especially in areas of new development.
The employment structure of Canada's economically active population is typical for countries with a post-industrial economic structure: over 60% of the economically active population is employed in non-production sphere, a quarter - in industry and only 4% - in agriculture.
Canada is one of the world leaders in the quality and standard of living of the population, and according to the so-called index human development(longevity, level of education and standard of living) it occupies one of the first places in the world.
In 1867 it received the status of the first British dominion, that is, a completely self-governing overseas possession of the British crown. The head of state is the Queen of England, represented by the Governor General. But real legislative power belongs to parliament, and executive power belongs to the government.
While Canadians fought for their independence, their country's economy was gradually subordinated to its wealthy southern neighbor. The Americans invested money in resource development. Canadians received jobs and wages, Americans received their profits.
Canada is a multinational country. The population is based on two peoples - French Canadians and Anglo Canadians. Seven million people French Canadians descend from ten thousand immigrants from France in the 17th - 18th centuries, this is 31% of the total population of Canada. 11% are indigenous people and immigrants from other countries.
The majority of the country's population are Anglo-Canadians (about 58% of Canadians); their ancestors migrated from Great Britain. The official languages are English and French. Anglo-Canadians occupy the main positions in the economy and this leads to an exacerbation of interethnic conflicts. French Canadians settle in the province of Quebec and put forward demands for the creation of an independent French-Canadian state.
Indigenous people - Indians (1 million people) and (50 thousand people). The first of them came to this land more than 25 thousand years ago from Asia. 1/3 of Canada's population consists of several dozen other ethnic minorities. These are the Germans (1 million people), the Dutch (500 thousand), the Chinese, Greeks, Portuguese, Arabs, Russians, Ukrainians.
The northern regions, occupying 70% of the country's territory, are home to 1.5% of its inhabitants. These are mainly indigenous peoples - Indians and Eskimos, and the islands of the Canadian archipelago are uninhabited. The average population density in the country is 2.8 people/km2. The urban population is 80%. Canadian cities have the same appearance as US cities. Large financial and commercial, administrative, transport, scientific and cultural centers countries are Toronto, . The “capital of the Far West,” Vancouver, and the “oil and gas capitals,” Edmonton and Calgary, are rapidly developing. The development of the northern regions is associated a large number of geographically scattered small settlements.
14% of the country's population is employed in material production sectors, and 75% in non-production sectors.
The national composition of Canada's population can be described as very complex and at the same time quite simple. It is complex because this country is inhabited by more than 100 distinct ethnic groups speaking dozens of different languages. Among them (in descending order) are English, French, Chinese, Italian, German, Punjabi, Polish, Ukrainian, Spanish, Dutch, Greek. And it’s simple because none of them, except the first two, are spoken by more than 3% of the country’s population. So all the numerous languages, with the exception of English and French, can be called languages of national minorities. In reality, Canada is actually a binational country, the national composition of the population of which is determined by two large nations - English Canadians and French Canadians. At the same time, neither one nor the other constitutes a majority in it.
This feature of the national composition of Canada's population is associated with the uniqueness of its historical development. After all, Canada, like the United States, is a country of massive European colonization. It is estimated that at least 13 million people arrived here from Europe over the past 400 years.
The formation of the English-Canadian nation began in the 17th century. along with the first migration flows from the British Isles, which included the English, Scots, and Irish. After 1763, when Canada came into the possession of Great Britain, they increased markedly. After the War of Independence and the formation of the United States, a stream of “loyalists” poured here - those English settlers in the United States who did not want to stay in this country and supported the British army during the war, and after its defeat chose to move to the remaining English Canada. At the same time, the assimilation of various non-British ethnic groups by Anglo-Canadians began, primarily through mixed marriages of people from the British Isles with people of German, Dutch and Scandinavian origin.
Today, the number of Anglo-Canadians in Canada is 18 million people, or 58% of the total population. This share is less than at the end of the 19th century, when Anglo-Canadians made up 2/3 of the country's total population. However, it is the largest nation in modern Canada. Anglo-Canadians form the main population in nine out of ten provinces (except Quebec). In each of them, communication in English predominates, and in many provinces it is spoken by more than 9/10 of the inhabitants.
The second largest nation in Canada is French Canadians. It was based on those few early French settlers (mainly from northern France) who settled here back in the 17th century. After the already mentioned transition of French Canada to Great Britain in 1763, French Canadians found themselves completely separated from their homeland - France. This contributed to their particularly close internal cohesion, the interweaving of family ties and ultimately the formation of a special nation that preserved the ancient dialect of the French language, national customs and folklore. Mixed marriages are not typical for French Canadians, which increases their isolation.
Today, the number of French Canadians in Canada is more than 7 million people, or 22% of its total population. This share is also lower than at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when French Canadians made up 1/3 of the country's total population. To a certain extent, this is explained by the fact that recently the birth rate among French Canadians has sharply decreased, although before that it had been at its highest for more than two centuries. Approximately 4/5 of all French Canadians are concentrated in the former French Canada - in the province of Quebec, where they make up approximately the same share of the total population.
Separate compact groups of French Canadians also live in the provinces of Ontario and New Brunswick (the former French colony of Acadia).
In addition to the two large "founding nations", a significant part of the Canadian population is formed by quite numerous transitional ethnic groups, or national minorities. The assimilation of part of the population of these groups with the Anglo-Canadians is compensated by the influx of new migrants. Typically, such transitional groups do not have their own clearly defined ethnic territories, forming only isolated inclusions in the general English-Canadian background of settlement, and in large cities they are grouped into separate neighborhoods.
The three largest transitional groups in Canada are German, Italian and Ukrainian. Canadian Germans are settled everywhere, but their stratum is especially large in the steppe provinces. Unlike the Germans, long-time migrants, Italians are relatively recent migrants. They live mainly in cities, especially Montreal and Toronto. Ukrainians began to emigrate to Canada at the end of the 19th century, with the peak of this emigration occurring in the period before the First World War. They settled mainly in the steppe provinces, forming fairly compact national areas. Like French Canadians, Canadian Ukrainians retain their native language and participate little in intermarriage. Other transitional groups include people from Europe (Scandinavians, Dutch, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Jews, Greeks) and from non-European countries (Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Indians, Arabs).
Finally, among the Canadian population, indigenous peoples deserve special mention. The country's Constitution of 1982 includes three groups. Firstly, these are representatives of numerous Indian tribes, speaking 58 languages, numbering 800 thousand people. Including 600 thousand people who have the corresponding “Indian status” and enjoy certain privileges, are classified as status Indians. About half of them live on 2,000 reservations, which together occupy 30 thousand km2. Secondly, these are Indian-European mestizos (about 200 thousand of them), descendants of marriages between the British and French with Indian women, concluded during the initial development of the Canadian West and North. Thirdly, these are the Canadian Eskimos (the self-name of the Inuit, which means “man”, “people”). There are approximately 50 thousand of them, and they make up the bulk of the inhabitants of the coast of the Arctic Ocean and the islands of the Canadian Arctic archipelago.
National relations in Canada have sometimes become tense before. But this especially applies to the last decades, when they began to literally shake the entire building of the federation. There are three main problems of this kind.
The first of these is the problem of French-Canadian nationalism. There is perhaps no more pressing problem in Canada's recent history.
At first glance this may seem strange. In fact, French-Canadian Quebec is the largest in area (its territory could accommodate three Frances) and the second most populous province of Canada, providing more than 1/5 of the country's total GNP. A deep-sea waterway along the river passes through the territory of Quebec. St. Lawrence. On this river there are cities such as Montreal, where almost half the population of the province lives and which is often called the Canadian Paris, and Quebec, almost the entire population of which is French Canadian. But what is especially important is that French, along with English, serves as the official language of Canada. The equality of these two languages is strictly observed. Not only official documents, but even labels of goods sold, advertisements and inscriptions throughout the country are made in two languages.
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that French Canadians in Canada experience ethnic discrimination. It began with the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, when the binational character of the state was not properly reflected in the country's constitution. The prevailing order in Canada assigned French Canadians the role of “secondary” citizens, and the province of Quebec itself the role of a kind of economic appendage of the English-speaking provinces.
The national and especially economic inequality of the two “founding nations” began to become especially evident in the middle of the 20th century. It turned out that Anglo-Canadians occupy key positions in the country's economy and in its social hierarchy, that the standard of living of French Canadians lags significantly behind the national average, that their earnings are not commensurate with the earnings of Anglo-Canadians living in Quebec, that unemployment in this province is much higher, and the level of education and health care is lower than in the English-speaking provinces. It may also be mentioned that, in contrast to the neighboring province of Ontario, the basis of the Quebec economy was and still is constituted by industries belonging to the “lower floors”.
All this in the 60-70s. XX century caused a rapid rise in French-Canadian nationalism. There were widespread demands not only for the expansion of French language rights in the English-speaking provinces, but also for the creation of a two-unit Canadian federation. Moreover, organizations, movements and groups began to emerge in Quebec calling for full self-determination of this province - even to the point of separating it from Canada and creating a “sovereign Quebec”. Such extreme separatist tendencies paved the way for the emergence of terrorist organizations and even led to the introduction of temporary martial law in 1970. Then the negotiation process continued. Nevertheless, Quebec was the only Canadian province that did not sign the country's new constitution in 1982. This was a response to the Anglo-Canadians’ refusal to recognize Quebec’s status as a “special society.”
Subsequently, conciliation negotiations continued in 1987, and all ten provinces adopted a new document that defined Quebec as a “unique society” within Canada. However, it was never approved by the appointed deadline (June 1990), mainly due to the opposition of some Anglo-Canadian provinces. In 1992, a new draft constitutional reform was agreed upon, but it also did not gather a majority of votes in a pan-Canadian referendum, which stimulated a new wave of French-Canadian separatism. And in 1994, the Quebec party, which advocated its full sovereignty, won the elections to the National Assembly of Quebec. A direct consequence of this was a referendum held in October 1995 on the issue of full independence for the province. If it were successful, Canada would split into two geopolitically and economically independent parts, which could cast doubt on its entire future existence. But the Francophone separatists did not win this referendum.
However, one cannot ignore the fact that 2,361 thousand people voted against secession of Quebec from Canada, and 2,308 thousand people voted for secession: therefore, to win the referendum, supporters of secession only needed 53 thousand votes, or a little more than 1 %. Immediately after the referendum, Canadian federal authorities intensified their policies in two directions. On the one hand, they offered Quebec the most favorable conditions for it, declaring the province a “special community” and endowing it with additional constitutional rights. On the other hand, they appealed to the country's Supreme Court with a request to see whether Quebec even has the right to unilaterally secede from the federation. To the above, we can add that in Quebec itself, not all French Canadians are in favor of secession from Canada. At the beginning of 2003, the Quebec party lost the elections to the liberal party advocating the preservation of the federation. In 2006, the Prime Minister proposed declaring Quebec "a nation (country) within a united Canada." But controversy surrounding this issue continues.
The second pressing national problem is the problem of the indigenous peoples of Canada. The indigenous population has also recently intensified the fight for their rights. To a certain extent, this is explained by the reorientation of part of it from hunting to hired work and, accordingly, relocation to the cities of the Canadian North. Aboriginal peoples have long demanded a special amendment to the country's constitution providing for their right to self-determination. As a result, in 1993, a provision was introduced into the Constitution Act stating that the country's indigenous peoples have an inalienable right to self-government within Canada. And this right was realized in 1999. Another, thirteenth, subject of the federation emerged called Nunavut (translated from Eskimo as “our land”). The territory of Nunavut was separated from the Northwest Territories, the area of which was reduced by 2/3 as a result. Nunavut occupies 2 million km2, or 1/5 of the entire area of Canada (Fig. 212), although it is inhabited by only 21 thousand people, mostly Inuit, with an average population density of 1 person per 100 km2. The rights of the territory of Nunavut are similar to those of the Yukon and the Northwest Territories: a legislative assembly, an executive cabinet, and a court were created here. Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chretien called the formation of Nunavut a great day not only for this territory, but for all of Canada.
This is how D.V. Zayats describes this day in an article dedicated to the education of Nunavut. “On the night of March 31 to April 1, 1999, the starry sky over Iqualuit, a small northern Canadian town, bloomed with amazingly beautiful fireworks. The Canadian anthem sounded solemnly. To the applause of numerous spectators, including Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, Governor General Romeo Le Blanc, who represents the Queen of England in Canada, and Minister of Indigenous Affairs and Northern Development Jane Stewart, a yellow-red-white flag slowly began to rise up the flagpole. flag. The evening of the next day was decorated with a gala concert, never seen before in this cold polar region, in which popular artists participated. Canadian national television broadcast live festivities throughout the country. The National Bank issued a special commemorative coin on the same day.”
The third problem is the problem of foreign immigration. Immigration has always been a feature of Canada. But recently its composition has changed noticeably. In contrast to the past, today among immigrants (about 200 thousand people annually) immigrants from Europe account for only 19%, while immigrants from Asia account for 57%, Latin America – 13%, Africa – 7% (the rest are from the USA). From the above figures it follows that nowadays “colored” immigration to Canada sharply predominates, which has become widespread.