Each person differs from others by a huge, truly inexhaustible number of individual features, that is, features inherent in him as an individual.
T. Chirkova gives the following definition: individuality is a peculiar combination of the individual properties of a person that distinguishes him from other people.
According to R.S. Nemov, the individuality of a person is characterized by its socially significant differences from other people and manifests itself in the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, its uniqueness, as well as in the traits of temperament, character, in the specifics of interests, qualities of perceptual processes (perception) and intelligence, needs and abilities of the individual. From the standpoint of materialism, the prerequisite for the formation of human individuality lies in the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the course of education, which has a socially conditioned character, giving rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality.
Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another.
According to S.L. Rubenstein, the most general dynamic structure of personality is the generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups, forming four main aspects of personality:
- 1. Biologically determined features (temperament, inclinations, simple needs).
- 2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, outlook).
- 3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
- 4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).
Not all individual psychological characteristics of these aspects of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.
Character is a core mental property of a person that leaves an imprint on all his actions and deeds, a property on which, first of all, a person’s activity in various life situations depends.
In other words, giving a definition of character, we can say that this is a set of personality traits that determines the typical ways of its response to life circumstances.
Under the character of R.S. Nemov does not understand any individual psychological characteristics of a person, but only the totality of the most pronounced and relatively stable personality traits typical of this person and systematically manifested in his actions and deeds.
According to B. G. Ananiev, character “expresses the main life orientation and manifests itself in a mode of action that is peculiar for a given person.” The word "character" in Greek means "sign", "feature".
Big influence temperamental features render characterological traits.
Temperament is a characteristic of an individual from the side of the dynamic features of his mental activity, that is, the pace, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states.
Temperament researchers distinguish such properties of it, which are most closely related to each other and to the qualities of character:
- - sensitivity - a feature of a person, manifested in the emergence of sensitivity (mental reaction) to an external stimulus of the smallest force;
- - reactivity - a feature of a person associated with the strength of an emotional reaction to external and internal stimuli;
- - activity - the ability of a person, which consists in overcoming external and internal restrictions in production, in socially significant transformations, in the appropriation of wealth, the assimilation of spiritual culture;
- - the rate of reactions - a feature of a person, which consists in the speed of the flow of mental processes, and to a certain extent, mental states;
- - plasticity - rigidity - the characteristics of a person to adapt flexibly and easily to new conditions, or to behave in a rigid, inert, insensitive manner in changing conditions;
- - extraversion-introversion - features of a person, expressed in the predominant orientation of the personality's activity either outward (to the world of external objects: surrounding people, events, objects), or inward (to the phenomena of one's own subjective world, to one's experiences and thoughts).
Temperament, being innate, is the basis of most personality traits. But it determines only the dynamics of their manifestation (sensibility, emotionality, impulsivity, anxiety).
The next individual-typological feature of the personality is abilities.
By definition, E.P. Ilyin, abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (provides) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. The concept of "ability", in his opinion, contains three ideas:
- - firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;
- - secondly, abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities;
- - thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, human abilities act as some kind of opportunity. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only a possibility in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only under the condition that the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. turn out to be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills.
R.S. Nemov notes that abilities are an opportunity, and the necessary level of skill in a particular business is a reality. The musical abilities revealed in the child are by no means a guarantee that the child will be a musician.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are common to man and animals, especially the higher ones. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete, practical actions.
Thus, individual psychological characteristics are the peculiar properties of a person's mental activity, which are expressed in temperament, character, motivational-need-to-requirement sphere and abilities. They are formed as a result of a systemic generalization of individual biological and socially acquired properties involved in the functioning of a person's behavioral system, as well as his activity and communication. They are associated with all mental processes: motivational-need, cognitive, emotional-volitional. Temperament and character denote the dynamic and meaningful aspects of behavior, and abilities are such personality traits that are a condition for performing one or another productive activity.
maternal representation psychological child
Psychologists answer the question, what is a personality, in different ways. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, determining his actions that are significant for people. Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social connections and relations by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are essential for himself and those around him. Along with the concept of "personality" in science, the term "individual", "individuality" is often used. The concept of "individual" includes both the qualities that distinguish this person from other people, and the properties that are common to him and many other people. Individuality is the narrowest concept in terms of content. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, such a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.
A personality can be characterized by revealing its individual psychological characteristics, such as temperament, abilities, character. When we try to understand and explain why different people, circumstances of life, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions, achieve different successes, we turn to the concept of ability, believing that the difference in successes can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. The same concept is used by us when we need to realize why some people acquire knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. Meanwhile, data from psychological studies and pedagogical experience testify that sometimes a person who initially did not know how to do something and therefore did not compare favorably with those around him, as a result of training, acquires skills and abilities extremely quickly and soon overtakes everyone on the way to mastery. He has more abilities than others. Abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (provides) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. In the concept of "ability", in his opinion, there are three ideas. “Firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities. Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, human abilities act as some kind of opportunity. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only a possibility in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only under the condition that the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. turn out to be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills. Abilities are an opportunity, and the required level of skill in a particular business is a reality. The musical abilities revealed in the child are by no means a guarantee that the child will be a musician. For this to happen, it is necessary special education. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. You can't talk about a person's ability to draw if you don't see his work. An ability that does not develop, which a person ceases to use in practice, is lost over time. The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many things. various types activities.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are common to man and animals, especially the higher ones. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Abilities can be called the ability to convince others, achieve mutual understanding, influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it is in social psychology has long been considered a special kind of ability. Until now, in psychology, primary attention has been paid specifically to subject-activity abilities, although interpersonal abilities are no less important for psychological development person. Without the ability to speak as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and the mental development of man would be simply impossible. The absence of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle just on the way of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
Among the individual psychological characteristics of a person are the properties of temperament (they are innate), which have a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determine his actions, his personality. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Under the dynamics understand the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes. The idea and the doctrine of temperament in their origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. In modern psychology, they use the classification of temperaments belonging to the German philosopher I. Kant. I. Kant divided human temperaments into two types: temperaments of feeling and temperaments of activity. In general, “only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic.”
The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears as an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in what only recently worried him and attracted him to himself. Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure comes into contact with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him.
The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, gives great importance everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on him.
The choleric temperament of activity characterizes a quick-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down, if they give way to him, go to a meeting. His movements are jerky, but short.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of his entry into work.
The properties of temperament exist and are manifested not by themselves, but in the actions of a person in various socially significant situations. Temperament definitely influences the formation of his character, but the character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical, but as a spiritual being.
It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties nervous system person. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. Psychological characteristic temperament are not the properties of the nervous system in themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate: activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by the extent to which a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a particular object or its aspect. One person remembers, recalls, considers, thinks about solving a problem faster than another. The productivity of all of the above cognitive processes can be judged by their products, by the results obtained within a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where at the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, imagine, solve more. Productivity should not be confused with efficiency. Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, termination or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.
In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various movements, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed.
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personal properties, primarily character. However, it determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties. Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament. The combination of these properties creates an individual type of temperament. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become a property of the individual, depend on training and education, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more. Temperament to some extent affects the development of human abilities, which include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these abilities, which include complex and precise movements with a difficult trajectory and uneven pace. They also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, and the need for long-term concentration.
Temperament is the natural basis of manifestation psychological qualities personality. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form in a person qualities that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and teaching practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here interesting fact from his life. In one of his letters to his wife O. L. Knipper-Chekhova, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: “You write that you envy my character. used to restrain himself, because it is not befitting for a decent person to dismiss himself. In the old days, I made the devil knows what. It is interesting to note that some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately develop certain methods themselves in order to master it. So did, for example, A. M. Gorky, who restrained the violent manifestations of his temperament. To do this, he deliberately switched to different side effects with items. With people who expressed views opposite to him, A. M. Gorky tried to be impassive and calm.
Literally translated from Greek, character means an imprint. Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person's attitude to people, to the work performed. Character is manifested in activity and communication (as well as temperament) and includes what gives a person’s behavior a specific, characteristic shade for him (hence the name “character”). Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Temperament affects the form of manifestation of character, peculiarly coloring one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. Choleric works energetically, passionately, phlegmatic - methodically, slowly. On the other hand, temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. High level abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inextricable connection with the team, the desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not to lose heart under the influence of failures, to work in an organized manner, to show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as diligence, initiative, determination, organization, perseverance occurs in the same activity of the child in which his abilities are formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, diligence as a character trait.
Behavior is understood as the external manifestations of a person's mental activity. Behavior takes place in outside world and is detected by external observation, and the processes of consciousness take place inside the subject and are detected by self-observation. Facts of behavior: firstly, all external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity, communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonations, glances, eye shine, redness, blanching, trembling, intermittent or restrained breathing, muscle tension, etc. ; secondly, individual movements and gestures, such as bowing, nodding, pushing, clenching the hand, knocking with the fist, etc.; thirdly, actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning. Finally, these are actions - even larger acts of behavior that, as a rule, have a public, or social, sound and are associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc. d.
The psychology of behavior arose at the beginning of the 20th century after the crisis in psychology (there was a change in the subject of psychology). It was not consciousness - Wundt, but human behavior - the founder was John Watson. The direction was called - behaviorism. He believed that psychology should not study consciousness, but human behavior, i.e. external manifestations of human mental activity. He argued that consciousness is not included in the category of scientific concepts, because. there are no scientific methods for studying consciousness. The scientific method must be objective (not dependent on the expert) and reproducible. Facts P: 1. All external manifestations of physiological processes - posture, facial expressions, intonations, looks, muscle tension, etc.; 2. Separate movements and gestures - nodding, pushing, squeezing hands, etc.; 3. Actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning - a request, an order, etc.; 4. deeds are even larger acts of behavior that have a social or social significance associated with norms of behavior. In Watson's scientific terms, behavior is a system of reactions. To study it, he proposed to divide behavior into the simplest behavioral districts. He offered to study St. Islands and see how more complex acts of behavior are formed on the basis of these districts. He believed that the behavioral r-tion fits the formula
S (stimulus) - R (r-tion). He declares the relationship S - R as a unit of behavior. As the general final tasks of psychology, he outlines: 1. to come to the situation (stimulus) to predict the behavior (reaction) of a person; 2. to conclude from the reaction about the stimulus that caused it, that is, from the behavior to predict R, and from R to conclude about S. Behaviorists experimented mainly on animals.
They did this not because they were interested in animals in themselves, but because animals, from their point of view, have a great advantage: they are "pure" objects, since their behavior is not mixed with consciousness. The results they obtained were boldly transferred to humans. J. Watson identifies innate reactions (sneezing, hiccupping, sucking, smiling, crying, movements, etc.) and acquired. A new step in the development of behaviorism was the study of a special type of conditioned reactions, the cat. were called instrumental (E. Thorndike, 1898) or operant (B. Skinner, 1938). The phenomenon of instrumental or operant conditioning consists in the fact that if any action of the individual is reinforced, then it is fixed and then reproduced with great ease and constancy. Patterns of behavior: Thorndike: not an external impulse, but a problem situation was taken as the initial moment of a motor act. Then the connection
S-R was characterized by the following features: 1) starting point - a problematic situation; 2) the organism resists it as a whole; 3) he is actively seeking choice; and 4) is learned through exercise. He formulated the foundations of his approach in several laws: 1. Laws of exercises, according to which, other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength.
2. The law of readiness: exercise changes the body's readiness to conduct nerve impulses. 3. The law of associative shift: if, with the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. This step reflected the “law of effect”: if frequency, strength and contiguity were mechanical determinants, then effects were understood as special states inherent in the biopsychic level of behavior determination.
The law of effect said: “any act that causes satisfaction in a given situation is associated with it, so that if it reappears, then the appearance of this act becomes more likely than before. On the contrary, any act that causes discomfort in a given situation is split off from it, so that when it reappears, the occurrence of this act becomes less likely. From this it followed that the result of the action is evaluated by the organism and, depending on this assessment, the links between S and R are fixed. Then neobikhev appeared. Founder - Tolman. He said that it was impossible to describe a simple behavioral r-tion according to Watson, because the formula does not take into account the internal states of a person, because different districts can be given for the same stimulus. Introduced a new parameter O - intermediate variables S - O - R - internal experiences of a person (desires, knowledge, goals). Bihev-ma merits: introduced a strong materialistic spirit into psychology - a natural-scientific path of development; introduced an objective method based on the registration and analysis of externally observable facts, processes, events; the class of objects under study has expanded (behavior of animals, pre-speech babies); separate sections of psychology have been advanced (problems of learning, education of skills). Disadvantages of behavior: convergence of the psyche of an animal and a person; ignoring consciousness; underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity.
Topic: Motives, their types and functions. Motive - an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of a need, i.e. the motivating and determining choice of the direction of activity is the subject of need. Motivation is an impulse that causes activity.
In foreign psychology, a number of features of the nature and functions of the motive in the regulation of behavior have been identified: 1. The motivating and guiding function of the motive. 2. Determination of human behavior by unconscious motives. 3. Hierarchy of motives. 4. The desire for balance and tension - here the motive is understood purely energetically.
In the theory of Leontiev's activity, the realization of needs in the course of search activity and, thereby, the transformation of its objects into objects of needs is considered as a general mechanism for the emergence of a motive. Hence: the development of the motive occurs through a change and expansion of the circle of activity that transforms reality.
In man, the source of motive development is the process of social production of material and spiritual values. Such potential motives in otnogenesis are the values, ideals, interests inherent in a given society, which, in the event of their internalization, acquire a motivating force and become a motive. According to Leontiev, in the course of search activity, a need usually meets its object. At the moment the need meets the object, the need is objectified. This is very significant event. It is important because in the act of objectification a motive is born. The motive is defined as the subject of need. If we look at the same event from the side of need, we can say that through objectification, the need receives its concretization. In this regard, the motive is defined in another way - as an objectified need. A motive is that objective that induces and directs activity, responding to one or another need, concretizing the need or satisfying it. That is, the main function of motives is to induce and direct activity. Following the objectification of a need and the appearance of a motive, the type of behavior changes dramatically, if up to this point the behavior was non-directional, search, now it acquires a “vector”, or direction. A motive is something for which an action is performed. “For the sake of” something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions.
A set of actions that are connected by one motive is called an activity, and more specifically, a special activity or a special type of activity. Correlation of motives and consciousness. Motives are not always recognized, therefore, two classes of motives are distinguished: those that are recognized and those that are not recognized. Examples of motives of the first class can be great life goals that direct a person's activities during long periods of his life - these are motives-goals. Relationship between motives and personality. It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually the hierarchical relationships of motives are not fully realized. They become clearer in a situation of conflict of motives. New motives are formed in the course of activity. In the theory of activity, a mechanism for the formation of new motives is described, which is called the mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal. The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that the goal, previously impelled to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes its own motive. The transformation of a goal into a motive can only happen if positive emotions accumulate. There are the following functions of motives: 1. incentive (to activity); 2. directing (the motive directs the activity towards itself); 3. goal-generating (the motive generates an action aimed at meeting the need. Goals form the basis of actions); 4. sense-forming (the motive gives the actions significance, importance). What we do acquires personal meaning for us, i.e. experiencing an increased subjective significance of an object or event associated with a motive.
Possible grounds for the classification of motives. 1) Actual motives - what is being done (professional choice, leisure). Potential - those that can organize an action. They determine the possible options for a person's life. When social conditions change, then motives change. When we are forced to make an unattractive choice for ourselves under the influence of conditions, then potential motives acquire significance (neuroses, withdrawals). 2) Leading and secondary motives. The motivational sphere of personality is hierarchized. Activity is motivated by several motives. Human activity is polymotivated, i.e. simultaneously regulated by two or more motives. 3) Meaningful and motive incentives. After all, a person in his activity objectively implements a whole system of relations: to the objective world, to the people around him, to society and to himself. Some motives, stimulating the activity, at the same time give it a personal meaning - they are called leading or meaning-forming. 4) According to the subject content: 1. Subject - organize the final direction of the activity. They always clearly indicate what should be (eg: build a house). The motive consists of the content and the active nature of the transformation. Modes of transformation: refusal, renunciation, acquisition, creation, maintenance, expression, preservation, aggression, avoidance. 2. Functional motives: for example, people's need for communication does not have a final focus. They motivate the activity. Something that is pleasant in the process itself, and not in its end (it's nice to read a book). Game activity is an element of targeting (hide so that they are not found). Motivating mass of intermediate goals (intermediate motivations). This is a motivation that is tied to separate small intermediate goals (an analogue in animals is instinct). 3. Normative: appear less frequently. Levin: barriers are something that does not organize, but limits activity, does not encourage individual activity. Moral motives.5) According to the level of generalization. Dodonov, Merey. What really motivates activity occurs at different levels of generality (love Beethoven's music or love his Moonlight Sonata). The idea of justice - different levels of generalization. Generalized, specific, individual motives. 6) According to the degree of awareness. Conscious and unconscious. Often a person is not aware of the motives of his behavior and invents reasons.
Motivation is a consciously imagined motive that has nothing to do with reality..
Topic Perception, its main properties and patterns.
Perception is a holistic reflection of reality (objects, situations, events and phenomena), arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
The difference from feeling perception reflects the object as a whole in the totality of its properties, and sensations reflect the individual properties of the stimulus. Types of perception. Depending on the forms of reflection, there are: 1. perception of space; 2. perception of movement; 3. perception of time. Depending on the goal, there are: 1. intentional perception, characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is connected with the volitional efforts of a person; 2. unintentional perception, in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with volitional efforts. Depending on the degree of organization, there are: 1. organized perception (observation) - this is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; 2. unorganized perception is the usual systematic perception of the surrounding reality. Naturally, visual, auditory, tactile perception is distinguished. Physiological bases of perception. It is caused by simultaneously acting complex stimuli, is carried out by the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers, and proceeds with the participation of the associative sections of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.
Properties of perception: 1. selectivity of perception - the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. It depends on the interests, attitudes and needs of the individual. 2. objectivity - the ability of a person to reflect the surrounding reality as the impact of its specific objects related to a certain class of phenomena. At the same time, the brain clearly distinguishes between the object, the background, the contour of perception.
3. apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of a person. Apperception gives an active character to perception. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them. 4. The meaningfulness of perception shows that the objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. 5. constancy of perception is the constancy in perception, which is determined by the knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as by the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. The constancy of perception is explained by the experience acquired in the process of individual development of the personality. 6. The integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. 7. Categoriality is manifested in the fact that perception is of a generalized nature, and we designate each perceived object with a word-concept, refer to a certain class. 8. historicity of perception.
Of all the psychological theories, the problem of perception has been the most gestalt psychologists and from their point of view the laws of perception:
1. Proximity - the closer objects are to each other in the visual field, the more likely they are organized into single, integral images; 2. similarity of processes in the visual field: the more unified and integral images, the more likely they are to be organized; 3. continuation - the more elements in the visual field are in places corresponding to the continuation of the regular sequence, i.e. function as parts of familiar contours, the more likely they are to organize into single holistic images; 4. isolation - the more the elements of the visual field form closed wholes, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.
Theories of perception:
Associative theories of perception. (Müller, Mach, Helmholtz, Goering, Wundt). A perceived image is a complex combination of primary elements - sensations, and a sensation is a conscious state of a sense organ that has been exposed to an isolated external stimulus. Consequently, the associative theories of perception are based on the principle of the specific energy of the sense organs and the receptor concept of sensations. The unification of sensations into perception occurs through associations of contiguity and similarity, where the leading role is given to past experience.
Structuralist school (Titchener): perception is a complex of sensations, therefore, the task of a psychologist is to find elementary sensations in his experience through self-observation. This is a method of analytical introspection. The theory of J. Gibson. Perception is the process of obtaining information about the environment, as a result of which the uncertainty of the position of the organism in it decreases. Associationists incorrectly asserted that point stimuli are reflected, since a single stimulus cannot carry any information about the object. Perception is an active process. Activity is necessary, since there is no initial isomorphism between the objects of the external world and their perception. Active movements of the whole organism and sense organs play a decisive role. It is important that the movements are highlighted in the stimulation stream in order to better navigate the environment. The theory of perceptual hypotheses by J. Bruner. Perception involves the act of categorization. We apply some influence to the input of the organism, and it responds, i.e. refers it to the corresponding class of things or phenomena.
Perception is a process of categorization: it is a movement from attributes to categories, and in many cases it occurs "unconsciously". Gestalt theory of perception. There are 3 types of gestalt: physical gestalt - studies outside; physiological gestalt - the study of the substance of the brain and neuro-connections; phenomenal gestalt - the study of what we see.
Gestalt theory deals with phenomena that are found in the visual field, which in turn is a dynamic distribution of energy, and its parts are interdependent due to their participation in the whole. A field is structured to the extent that within it there are differences in intensity or quality. To the extent that a field is structured, it contains potential energy capable of producing (perceptual) work. By visual field we mean the spatial structure (construct) into which the phenomena of the visual field can be ordered. The visible image is set by stimulation. Spatial relationships are set in the outside world through elements. Therefore, it is not the elements that are perceived, but the relationships that are assembled into a holistic image.
Topic: The concept of personality in psychology. Psychological structure of personality.
Personality is the basic concept in psychology - it is the social quality of the individual; subject of public relations. Personality - 1) an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity; 2) the systemic quality of the individual determined by involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.
Personality, according to Leontiev, is born twice: 1. preschool age - the beginning of the formation of a hierarchy of motives (obedience to social norms); 2. adolescence - is expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to realize their motives, and also carries out active work on their subordination and resubordination.
Leontiev identifies several personality parameters: 1. The richness of the individual's connections with the world; 2. The degree of hierarchization of activities, their motives. Thus, a high degree of hierarchization of motives is expressed in the fact that a person, as it were, tries on his actions to the main motive-goal for him - the so-called. life purpose. 3. General type of personality structure.
The structure of personality is a stable configuration of the main hierarchized motivational lines within itself. The motivational sphere of personality is always multi-top. “The internal correlation of the main motivational lines in the totality of human activities form, as it were, a general “psychological profile of the personality”.
The characteristics of an individual depend on his way of thinking, feelings and motives, therefore they are closely related to social conditions and specific circumstances.
which are repeated in typical situations, are character traits. People differ among themselves in courage or cowardice in moments of danger, isolation or sociability in relationships, and the like. Scientists have developed many classifications that describe the psychological The Russian school divides two directions of systematization of character properties.
1. mental processes form personality traits
The volitional sphere is responsible for the level of perseverance, determination, independence, organization, discipline, self-control.
emotional internal processes make a person impressionable, responsive, inert, indifferent, quick-tempered and sharp.
The level of intellectual development determines intelligence, curiosity, resourcefulness, thoughtfulness.
In the system of character orientation, a category of properties is divided in relation to oneself, to people, to the world around and to activity.
For example, a person relates to the world around him according to his own convictions or absolute unscrupulousness. The belief system is based on one's own experience and upbringing.
Psychological features nature in relation to activity are determined by vital goals. Character traits are manifested in priority interests. The instability of inclinations is visible against the background of the broken integrity of the personality and the lack of independence. On the contrary, people with constant attachments and interests are characterized in parallel as purposeful and persistent.
Psychological features of character differ in two people with the same interests. After all, they may relate differently to themselves or to others. Therefore, one is cheerful, and the second is sad, one is modest, and the second is obsessive, egoist or altruist. Two individuals with the same orientation differently understand the ways to achieve the goal, choose different models of behavior, because they have different motivations. The need for success determines the psychological characteristics in actions aimed either at the desire to simply avoid failure, or at an active struggle for victory. Therefore, someone takes the initiative, and someone deviates from the slightest responsibility.
In relation to people, there is deceit or honesty, sociability, politeness, responsiveness.
Attitude towards oneself is based on a healthy level of selfishness, while low or high self-esteem can be observed.
Psychological features of perception
The person in varying degrees developed visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and with the help of which the process of perception is carried out.
The perception of space consists in determining the distance of an object from the observer, from objects, its parameters and shape. Visual analyzers, hearing, skin and motor receptors work. Perception provides a person with a special organ, which is called it is located in the inner ear.
In order to perceive time, a person has to use analyzers of internal organic sensations, in addition to auditory, visual and motor sensations. Some individuals wake up at the right time without an alarm clock. Such people are said to have developed a sense of time in the course of their lives.
Not all types of perception have been completely studied yet; scientists are actively exploring this area of the human psyche.
In psychology, a person is called a personality as a carrier of consciousness. It is believed that a person is not born, but becomes in the process of being and working, when, communicating and interacting, a person compares himself with others, highlights his "I". The psychological properties (features) of a person are fully and vividly revealed in activities, communication, relationships, and even in the appearance of a person.
Personalities are different - harmoniously developed and reactionary, progressive and one-sided, highly moral and vile, but at the same time, each personality is unique. Sometimes this property - originality - is called individuality, as a manifestation of the individual.
However, the concepts of individual, personality and individuality are not identical in content: each of them reveals a specific aspect of the individual being of a person. Personality can only be understood in a system of stable interpersonal relationships mediated by the content, values, meaning of the joint activity of each of the participants (1).
Interpersonal connections that form a personality in a team externally appear in the form of communication or a subject-subject relationship along with a subject-object relationship characteristic of objective activity.
The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of features and characteristics that form its individuality - a combination of the psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in character traits, temperament, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes, in abilities, individual style activities. The way of life as a socio-philosophical concept selects in the variety of qualities and properties inherent in a given person, only socially stable, socially typical, characterizing the social content of her individuality, revealing a person, his style of behavior, needs, preferences, interests, tastes not from his psychological features that distinguish him from other people, but on the part of those properties and traits of his personality that are given by the very fact of his existence in a certain society. But if by individuality is meant not a feature of the external appearance or manner of human behavior, but a unique form of existence and a unique manifestation of the common in the life of the individual, then the individual is also social. Therefore, the lifestyle of a person acts as a deeply individualized relationship of the objective position of a person in society with his inner world, that is, it represents a kind of unity of socially typified (unified) and individual (unique) in behavior, communication, thinking and everyday life of people (3).
In other words, the worldview of the individual acquires a socially practical and morally valuable value insofar as it has become a way of life for a person.
From a moral point of view, a sign of a person’s personal development is his ability to act according to his inner conviction in the most difficult everyday situations, not to shift responsibility to others, not to rely blindly on circumstances, and not even just “reckon” with circumstances, but also to resist them, to intervene in the course of life. events, showing their will, their character.
The significance and role of the collective in the formation and education of the individual are great. The rule of education, formulated by the remarkable Soviet teacher A.S. Makarenko: proceed from the recognition of the educated person. And this must be done with all seriousness, without denying the educatees the recognition of the possibility of accomplishing those feats that the educator speaks of as lofty images of achieving exceptional results in the field of production, science and technology, literature and art (15).
You will not become a person by copying someone else. Only miserable one-sidedness can result. The construction of one's own personality cannot be carried out according to some standard project. As a maximum, only general settings can be obtained here. One must always count on the ultimate realization of human capabilities, never saying in advance: “I won’t succeed,” to test one’s inclinations comprehensively.
Therefore, human development is the process of personality formation under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrolled social and natural factors. Development manifests itself as a progressive complication, deepening, expansion, as a transition from simple to complex, from ignorance to knowledge, from lower forms of life and activity to higher ones.
Nature has given a lot to man, but gave birth to the weak. To make it strong, completely independent, you still need to work hard. First of all, to ensure physical development. In turn, physical and physiological development underlies psychological development as spiritual development. The processes of human reflection of reality are constantly becoming more complex and deepening: sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activity, abilities, interests, value orientations. The social development of man is a continuation of mental development. It consists in the gradual entry into its society - in social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal, professional and other relations, in the assimilation of one's functions in these relations. Having mastered these relations and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of man. It means understanding his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding the complex nature of the universe and striving for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, physiological, mental and social development. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core, the core of the formation of personality in man (12).
Humanity ensures the development of each of its representatives through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.
If a person draws all his knowledge, sensations, etc. from the sensory world and the experience received from this world, but it is necessary, therefore, to arrange the world so that a person in it cognizes and assimilates truly human, so that he cognizes himself as a person. If the character of a person is created by circumstances, then it is necessary, therefore, to make the circumstances humane.
Teacher K.D. Ushinsky was deeply convinced that the upbringing of a free, independent and active human personality is necessary condition social development.