The main features of the scientific style of speech
The most common a specific feature of this style of speech is the logic of presentation .
Any coherent statement must have this quality. But the scientific text is distinguished by its emphasized, strict logic. All parts in it are strictly connected in meaning and are arranged strictly sequentially; conclusions follow from the facts presented in the text. This is done by means typical of scientific speech: connecting sentences using repeated nouns, often in combination with a demonstrative pronoun.
Adverbs also indicate the sequence of thought development: first, first of all, then, then, next; as well as introductory words: firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, so, therefore, vice versa; unions: since, because, so that, therefore. Predominance union communications emphasizes the greater connection between sentences.
Another typical feature of a scientific style of speech is accuracy. .
Semantic accuracy (unambiguity) is achieved by careful selection of words, the use of words in their direct meaning, and the wide use of terms and special vocabulary. In scientific style, repetition of keywords is considered the norm.
Distraction And generality necessarily permeate every scientific text.
Therefore, abstract concepts that are difficult to imagine, see, and feel are widely used here. In such texts there are often words with an abstract meaning, for example: emptiness, speed, time, force, quantity, quality, law, number, limit; formulas, symbols, symbols, graphs, tables, diagrams, diagrams, and drawings are often used.
It is characteristic that even specific vocabulary here acts to denote general concepts .
For example: The philologist must carefully, that is, a philologist in general; Birch tolerates frost well, i.e. not a single object, but a tree species - general concept. This is clearly manifested when comparing the features of the use of the same word in scientific and artistic speech. In artistic speech, a word is not a term; it contains not only a concept, but also a verbal artistic image (comparison, personification, etc.).
The word of science is unambiguous and terminological.
Compare:
Birch 1) Deciduous tree with white (less often dark) bark and heart-shaped leaves. ( Dictionary Russian language.) A genus of trees and shrubs of the birch family. About 120 species, in the temperate and cold zones of the North. hemisphere and in the mountains of the subtropics. Forest-forming and decorative species. The most important farms are B. warty and B. downy. |
White birch Below my window (S. Yesenin.) |
The scientific style of speech is characterized by the plural form of abstract and real nouns: length, magnitude, frequency; frequent use of neuter words: education, property, meaning.
Not only nouns, but also verbs are usually used in the context of scientific speech not in their basic and specific meanings, but in a generalized abstract meaning.
Words: go, follow, lead, compose, indicateь and others do not denote movement itself, etc., but something else, abstract:
In scientific literature, especially mathematical literature, the form of the future tense is often deprived of its grammatical meaning: instead of the word will are used is, is.
Present tense verbs also do not always receive the meaning of concreteness: regularly used; always indicate. Widely used forms imperfect form.
Scientific speech is characterized by: the predominance of 1st and 3rd person pronouns, while the meaning of the person is weakened; frequent use of short adjectives.
However, the generality and abstractness of texts in the scientific style of speech do not mean that they lack emotionality and expressiveness. In this case, they would not have achieved their goal.
The expressiveness of scientific speech differs from the expressiveness of artistic speech in that it is associated primarily with the accuracy of the use of words, the logic of presentation, and its persuasiveness. Most often, figurative means are used in popular science literature.
Do not mix terms that are established in science and formed according to the type of metaphor (in biology - tongue, pestle, umbrella; in technology - clutch, paw, shoulder, trunk; in geography - base (mountains), ridge) using terms for figurative and expressive purposes in a journalistic or artistic style of speech, when these words cease to be terms ( pulse of life, political barometer, negotiations are stalled etc.).
To enhance expressiveness in a scientific style of speech , especially in popular science literature, in works of a polemical nature, in discussion articles, are used :
1) intensifying particles, pronouns, adverbs: only, absolutely, only;
2) adjectives like: colossal, most advantageous, one of the greatest, most difficult;
3) “problematic” questions: In fact, what kind of bodies does the cell find in the environment?, what is the reason for this?
Objectivity- another sign of a scientific style of speech. Scientific theories and laws, scientific facts, phenomena, experiments and their results - all this is presented in texts related to the scientific style of speech.
And all this requires quantitative and qualitative characteristics, objective and reliable. Therefore, exclamatory sentences are used very rarely. In a scientific text, a personal, subjective opinion is unacceptable; it is not customary to use the pronoun I and verbs in the first person. singular. Here, indefinite personal sentences are used more often ( think that...), impersonal ( it is known that...), definitely personal ( let's look at the problem....).
In the scientific style of speech, several substyles or varieties can be distinguished:
a) actually scientific (academic) - the most strict, accurate; he writes dissertations, monographs, articles in scientific journals, instructions, GOST standards, encyclopedias;
b) popular science (scientific journalistic) he writes scientific articles in newspapers, popular science magazines, popular science books; this includes public performance on radio, television scientific topics, speeches by scientists and specialists before mass audiences;
c) scientific and educational (educational literature on different subjects for different types educational institutions; reference books, manuals).
| Addressee purpose | Academic |
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| Selection of facts, terms | Academic | Scientific and educational All terms explained | Popular science Minimum terminology. |
| Leading type of speech Title | Academic Reasoning | Scientific and educational Reflects the type educational material | Popular science Narration Intriguing and arousing interest |
Lexical features of scientific style of speech
The main purpose of a scientific text and its vocabulary is to designate phenomena, objects, name them and explain them, and for this we need, first of all, nouns.
Most common features scientific style vocabulary are:
a) the use of words in their literal meaning;
b) absence figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, poetic symbols, hyperboles;
c) widespread use of abstract vocabulary and terms.
In scientific speech there are three layers of words:
The words are stylistically neutral, i.e. commonly used in different styles.
For example: he, five, ten; in, on, for; black, white, large; goes, happens etc.;
General scientific words, i.e. occurring in the language of different sciences, and not of any one science.
For example: center, force, degree, magnitude, speed, detail, energy, analogy etc.
This can be confirmed by examples of phrases taken from texts of various sciences: administrative center, center of the European part of Russia, city center; center of gravity, center of movement; center of the circle.
Terms of any science, i.e. highly specialized vocabulary. You already know that the main thing in the term is accuracy and its unambiguity.
Morphological features of the scientific style of speech
Verbs in the 1st and 2nd person singular are practically not used in scientific texts. They are often used in literary texts.
Verbs in the present tense with a “timeless” meaning are very close to verbal nouns: splashes down - splashdown, rewinds - rewinding; and vice versa: fill - fills.
Verbal nouns convey objective processes and phenomena well, which is why they are often used in scientific texts.
There are few adjectives in a scientific text, and many of them are used as part of terms and have a precise, highly specialized meaning. In a literary text, there are more adjectives in percentage terms, and epithets and artistic definitions predominate here.
In scientific style, parts of speech and their grammatical forms are used differently than in other styles.
To identify these features, let's do a little research.
Syntactic features of the scientific style of speech
Typical scientific speeches are:
a) special revolutions like: according to Mendeleev, from experience;
c) use of words: given, known, appropriate as a means of communication;
d) use of a chain of genitive cases: Establishing the dependence of the wavelength of X-rays of an atom.(Kapitsa.)
In scientific speech, more than in other styles, complex sentences are used, especially complex sentences.
Compounds with explanatory clauses express a generalization, reveal a typical phenomenon, one or another pattern.
Words as is known, scientists believe, it is clear etc. indicate when referring to a source, to any facts or provisions.
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason are widely used in scientific speech, since science reveals the causal relationships of real phenomena. In these sentences they are used as common conjunctions ( because, since, because, since), and book ( due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that, for).
In scientific speech, comparisons help to deeper reveal the essence of a phenomenon, to discover its connections with other phenomena, while in work of art their main purpose is to vividly and emotionally reveal the images, the picture, the words depicted by the artist.
Frequent use of participial and participial phrases.
Using expressive means
The generality and abstractness of scientific speech does not exclude expressiveness. Scientists use figurative language to highlight the most important semantic points and to convince the audience.
Comparison - one of the forms of logical thinking.
Ugly (devoid of imagery), for example: Borofluorides are similar to chlorides.
Expanded comparison
…In history new Russia we are met with an “excess” of factual material. It becomes impossible to include it entirely in the research system, since then we will get what is called “noise” in cybernetics. Let's imagine the following: several people are sitting in a room, and suddenly everyone starts talking about their family matters at the same time. In the end, we won't know anything. The abundance of facts requires selectivity. And just as acousticians choose the sound that interests them, we must select those facts that are needed to illuminate the chosen topic - the ethnic history of our country. (L.N. Gumilev. From Rus' to Russia).
Figurative comparison
Human society is like a turbulent sea, in which individual people, like waves, surrounded by their own kind, constantly collide with each other, arise, grow and disappear, and the sea - society - is forever seething, agitated and never silent...
Problematic issues
The first question that confronts us is: What kind of science is sociology? What is the subject of its study? Finally, what are the main departments of this discipline?
(P. Sorokin. General sociology)
Limitations on the use of language in a scientific style
– Inadmissibility of extraliterary vocabulary.
– There are practically no 2nd person forms of verbs and pronouns you, you.
– Limited use of incomplete sentences.
– The use of emotionally expressive vocabulary and phraseology is limited.
All of the above can be presented in a table
Features of the scientific style of speech
| In vocabulary | a) terms; b) unambiguity of the word; c) frequent repetition of keywords; d) lack of figurative means; |
| As part of the word
| a) international roots, prefixes, suffixes; b) suffixes that give an abstract meaning; |
| In morphology
| a) predominance of nouns; b) frequent use of abstract verbal nouns; c) the infrequency of the pronouns I, you and verbs of the 1st and 2nd person singular; d) the infrequency of exclamatory particles and interjections; |
| In syntax | a) direct word order (preferred); b) widespread use of phrases noun + noun in genus P.; c) the predominance of vaguely personal and impersonal sentences; d) rare use of incomplete sentences; e) an abundance of complex sentences; f) frequent use of participial and participial phrases; |
| Basic type of speech
| Reasoning and description |
Example of scientific style
Spelling reform 1918 brought writing closer to living speech (i.e., it abolished a whole series of traditional, rather than phonemic, orthograms). The approach of spelling to living speech usually causes a movement in the other direction: the desire to bring pronunciation closer to spelling...
However, the influence of writing was controlled by the development of internal phonetic tendencies. Only those orthographic features had a strong influence on literary pronunciation. Which helped to develop the Russian phonetic system according to the law of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay or contributed to the elimination of phraseological units in this system...
At the same time, it must be emphasized that, firstly, these features were known at the end of the 19th century. and that, secondly, even now they cannot be considered completely victorious in modern Russian literary pronunciation. Old literary norms compete with them.
scientific style English
Scientific style is one of the functional styles associated with the scientific sphere of communication and speech activity aimed at the implementation of science as a form of social consciousness. The main function of speech genres of the scientific style is informative (messages). The general content of the scientific style function can be defined as an explanation, which includes consolidating the process of cognition and storing knowledge (epistemic function), obtaining new knowledge (cognitive function), and transferring special information (communicative function).
Within the scientific style, a distinction is made between academic and popular science substyles. The first is designed for a trained reader, the second for a non-professional or insufficiently scientifically prepared addressee.
In the structure of the scientific style, substyles are also distinguished by areas of scientific knowledge: scientific-natural, scientific-humanitarian and scientific-technical literature.
The main qualities of the scientific style are emphasized logic, semantic accuracy (unambiguous expression of thoughts), informative richness, objectivity of presentation, hidden emotionality, generalized abstract nature of presentation, and the use of abstract vocabulary. The abstraction and generalization of the lexical level leads to a similar feature of the morphological level.
The basis of the linguistic design of scientific texts is standardization, that is, the choice of a clichéd language variant prescribed for given communication conditions.
As noted in the textbook by N.I. Kolesnikova, traditionally the scientific style is divided into six sub-styles: scientific itself, popular science, educational-scientific and scientific-business. Each of these substyles forms types of scientific documents:
1) with actually scientific substyle- articles in journals, scientific works, dissertations, monographs, reports;
2) popular science substyle- essays, books, lectures, articles;
3) educational and scientific substyle- textbooks, educational and methodological manuals, programs, collections of problems and exercises, lectures, notes, educational materials;
4) scientific and business substyle- technical documentation (contracts and instructions for enterprises, reports of tests and analyzes, etc.);
5) scientific information substyle- abstracts, annotations, patent descriptions;
6) scientific reference- encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books designed for scientists and specialists.
The actual scientific type correlates with the speech genres of a monograph, scientific article, and scientific report.
A monograph is a generalization of heterogeneous information obtained as a result of several research works devoted to one topic and containing more subjective factors than an article. It is created only after the accumulation of a certain amount of factual and generalized information.
A scientific journal article contains, in addition to factual information, elements of logical understanding of the results of a specific scientific study. Among the scientific articles we can highlight:
Brief communications containing a summary of the results of research work or their stages;
An original article, which is a statement of the main results and conclusions obtained during research and development work;
A review article that summarizes achievements in a particular area, records the current state or outlines prospects for future development;
A discussion article that contains controversial scientific provisions with the purpose of discussing them in the press;
According to the nature of the problems they solve, scientific articles can be divided into scientific-theoretical, scientific-methodological and scientific-practical. Scientific and theoretical articles outline the patterns of the objects under study.
Articles of an applied nature (methodological and practical) outline the practical side of the laws of the objects under study, the technique of their application in practice.
There are also articles of a population science nature devoted to social problems, such as, for example, the protection environment, the fight against AIDS, new means in the treatment of any diseases. Such articles are published, as a rule, by means mass media and go beyond the purely scientific style, acquiring certain features of a journalistic style.
While performing the function of information, the media also perform a popularization function, reporting on new scientific discoveries, achievements of science and technology. Hence the appeal to the means of scientific speech, manifested not only in articles popularizing scientific knowledge, but also in materials presenting an analysis and generalization of political, socio-economic and other problems. The theoretical orientation of the content and, consequently, the combination of analyticism and generality, as well as a certain abstraction when presenting facts and events, are expressed in the variety of language means, in the use of lexical and syntactic features of scientific speech. In accordance with this specificity, within the framework of the journalistic (newspaper-journalistic) style, a substyle of scientific journalism is distinguished.
Scientific and journalistic texts, distinguished in the newspaper and journalistic substyle, are characterized by a combination of the actual scientific and popularization in content and language style with the leading role of the scientific style itself. The latter allows us to consider scientific and journalistic genres as mixed either within the framework of a scientific or within the structure of a journalistic style.
The speech genres in which this subtype is realized are scientific and journalistic “article”, “note”, “chronicle”, “review”, “interview”, “report”. This variety of speech genres is characterized by: special terminology, means of speech expression associated with the task of popularization, and other style expressive inclusions (publicistic techniques, literary and colloquial clichés). Popular science articles, reviews, reviews, interviews, etc.) gravitate towards an analytical-generalized presentation and a character of speech and style that is close to scientific, but certainly with a journalistic, expressively impactful and clearly evaluative element.
The scientific information type of scientific text covers only secondary scientific documents. The basic requirements for information literature - relevance and reliability of the information reported, completeness of coverage of sources, brevity of presentation and efficiency of publication - turn out to be common for materials of all levels of information collapse.
The most important type of secondary information publications are abstract journals. They publish annotations and abstracts. The technique of designing these types of texts has national specifics in different cultures.
An abstract is an extremely condensed description of the primary source, having a purely informational value. Unlike an abstract, an abstract cannot replace the material itself. It should give only a general idea of the main content of the book or article. The abstract answers the question: what is said in the original source.
There are two types of annotations: descriptive and abstract.
A descriptive abstract provides only a description of the material, without revealing its content.
The abstract annotation indicates what exactly is contained in the annotated material (article, scientific work), that is, the material is presented in a coherent, albeit extremely condensed and generalized form. An example of an abstract would be an abstract placed on the back cover of a book.
Both descriptive and abstract abstracts can have the following structure:
2) general information(compressed characteristics) of the material;
3) additional information (about the work and its author).
An abstract, unlike an annotation, answers the question: what information is contained in the original source. He reports the new and most significant provisions and conclusions of the reviewed source. The purpose of the abstract is not only to convey the content of the original in the most concise form, but also to highlight what is particularly important or new that is contained in the material being reviewed. If necessary, the translator must give a general assessment (positive or critical) of the provisions stated in the commentary.
Based on the nature of the presentation of the material, abstracts-summaries and abstracts-resumes are distinguished.
A summary abstract requires a higher degree of generalization; it summarizes the main provisions of the original. Minor provisions that are not directly related to the topic are excluded.
The summary abstract summarizes all the main provisions of the original, including sometimes minor ones.
According to the coverage of sources, monographic, summary, review and selective abstracts are distinguished.
A monographic abstract is compiled based on one source, a summary abstract is compiled based on several articles, books or documents, a review abstract is compiled on a particular topic or in a particular area, in the form of brief reviews, and selective abstracts are performed on individual chapters, sections or materials.
When compiling an abstract, you can use the following structure:
The main idea (idea) of the abstract;
A generalized presentation of the material (content) of the work being reviewed;
Reference commentary, which may include: general comments on the topic (work) being presented; comments on the history of the issue (connection with past and present events and phenomena); factual clarifications and clarifications that must be specified by the referent; information about the author and source; indications of other sources and materials on this issue.
The scientific reference type of the text has the most high degree generalizations are implemented in reference books. They are compiled on the basis of factual information, contain proven information and recommendations for their practical application.
The educational and scientific type of text is represented by textbooks and teaching aids, lecture courses. They are distinguished by great accessibility of presentation, taking into account their didactic purpose.
The originality of the scientific style and its speech structure is revealed mainly in syntax and at the super-phrase level (i.e. in connections, relationships of sentences within the text and its components - paragraph and super-phrase unity, or a complex syntactic whole). It is in the functioning syntactic units and in the organization of interphrase connections and correlations in the text, such basic features of the scientific style as the generalized abstract nature of the presentation and its emphasized logic manifest themselves most fully.
Simple sentence. Among simple proposals, common ones predominate (90%) *, as a rule, with a very extensive system minor members sentences, with homogeneous members of the sentence (often with entire series homogeneous members); In the structure of simple sentences, semi-predicative formations are active (participial and adverbial phrases, and therefore isolations), as well as introductory words, introductory and inserted constructions. For example: The Greco-Roman tradition, thanks to the development of book printing and the division of literature into scientific and artistic (which is associated with the development of printing), consistently created rational rhetoric and poetics as the doctrine of style and the embodiment of thought in words(from the book by Yu. Rozhdestvensky “The Theory of Rhetoric”).
* Cm.: Kozhina M.N. About the speech systematicity of the scientific style in comparison with some others. Perm, 1972. P. 323.
Special calculations have shown that the average number of words in one sentence of a general scientific text is 24.88, but most sentences contain 17 words* (to be precise, word forms, i.e., prepositional-nominal combinations).
* See: Functional style of general scientific language and methods of its research / Ed. O.S. Akhmanova and M.M. Glushko. M., 1974. P. 22.
In the sphere of a simple sentence, indefinitely personal, impersonal, as well as generalized personal sentences are active.
Definitely personal sentences, naturally, are not relevant here, since the scientific style tends to an impersonal manner of presentation, to the actual elimination of the subject of speech as an active figure (the 1st and 2nd person forms are possible in polemical texts. However, in written texts of a polemical nature These forms are extremely rare; they are more natural in oral – academic – speech). As for the "author's We", then it has a generalized character. This confirms its synonymy with the impersonal sentence: So, we came to the conclusion... And So, we can conclude...
Most often in the scientific style, indefinite-personal sentences with a predicate verb expressed in the 3rd person form are used. plural. Such a predicate denotes (“timeless”) generally accepted phenomena, facts, patterns: Distinguish three types of yarn; Compound place into the flask.
Generalized personal sentences with a verbal predicate in the 1st person present and future plural are also active: Let's give function definition; We will produce summation of all terms; Let's take it this function to the class of differentiable functions.
Among impersonal sentences, three types are more common:
a) with modal words expressing possibility, impossibility, necessity, + infinitive (Need to find the curve; It is forbidden derive the formula);
b) in the predicate – an impersonal verb or an impersonal form of a finite verb (Required determine the current strength when connecting sources in series);
c) predicative adverbs (Any correct rational fraction easily express through simple fractions). Impersonal sentences that express the state of nature and man are not presented (It's freezing; It's drizzling; I feel sick).
In the scientific style, passive constructions clearly prevail over active ones. This can be explained by the desire for objectivity and generalization of presentation without indicating the subject of the action. Verb constructions presented (Installation produced for the first time; Ongoing additional hiring of workers); participial constructions (Dot deleted from the plane; Force attached to the body at a certain angle to the horizontal);
Regarding constructions with verbal nouns (Study of the phenomena of changing time scales in a gravitational field), then their activity in the scientific style is explained primarily by its nominal character (as well as the official business style), which is manifested in the functioning of verbal formations in scientific texts, along with the predominance of nouns over verbs, as well as the auxiliary function of verbs in a sentence.
Difficult sentence. In the scientific style, there is a clear predominance of complex sentences over complex sentences. This is explained by the fact that the former express causal, conditional, investigative, temporary relationships (which, of course, is very important for scientific presentation).
At the same time, in the scientific style, multicomponent syntactic structures are cultivated, in which, along with the subordinating connection, the coordinating connection is also presented, for example:
Thus, it was found that the phenomenon of desynchronization is observed upon stimulation of those estero- and interoceptive fields in which there are endings of somatic or cerebrospinal fibers going to the central nervous system without interruption, while the phenomena of synchronization are caused predominantly from those interoceptive fields (gastric mucosa ), in which, according to our data, there are endings of only or predominantly sympathetic afferent fibers going to the central nervous system most often with a synoptic break (one or more) in the autonomic ganglia.
Such complex formations are usually distinguished by clear grammatical and semantic connections and orderly internal organization. The above illustration is quite typical in its syntactic structure: to the main clause it was found There are two “chains” of subordinate clauses, the construction of which is characterized by parallelism.
Multicomponent constructions are often complicated by involved and participial phrases(judging by special studies, usually their number does not exceed two or three, but there are proposals with a much larger number of separations - from 8 to 12), plug-in structures.
Collocations. In the syntax of the phrase, substantive noun phrases are brought to the fore. Widespread genitive adjective (labor productivity, soil erosion, angle of attack), as well as (mainly in terminology) combinations like noun + adjective (Agriculture, economic geography, stressed consonant, culture shock...). This selectivity is due to the tendency of the scientific style towards nomination as a means of logicalizing reality, accurate information about reality (and science is concerned with obtaining objective information about the patterns and exact facts of natural, social and spiritual life), towards differentiation of nominations (in accordance with the tendency of scientific analysis to detail , differentiation of concepts).
In the scientific style, the highest percentage of uses of the genitive case is up to 46% (in the language fiction. – up to 22%). Accordingly, phrases with genitive adjectives are also very active.
Word combinations operating in a scientific style are very diverse in their structural structure. Multicomponent phrases attract attention, since they arose and arise as a result of the differentiation of concepts inherent in scientific analysis: primary winding of the transformer; alternating transmission system; launch spaceship reusable ; frequency-modulated audio carrier.
Superphrasal level. The specificity of a scientific text is that its content finds expression and becomes accessible to the reader thanks to strict logic, coherence and consistency of presentation.
As already noted, the logic of presentation in a scientific style is manifested to a great extent in the fact that complex sentences dominate here, the connections between parts are expressed incomparably more clearly, more varied, more differentiated than in complex sentences. To characterize the coherence of scientific speech, the overall high percentage of complex sentences (50.3%)* is indicative, as well as the fact that a simple sentence is complicated by phrases containing subordinate connections**.
* Cm.: Kozhina M.N. About the speech systematicity of the scientific style in comparison with some others. Perm, 1972. P. 325.
** Cm.: Lariokhina N.M. Questions of the syntax of the scientific style of speech (analysis of some structures of a simple sentence). M., 1979. P. 27.
The syntax of the scientific style is characterized by the richness of speech and text with a variety of means of expressing emphasized logic. The subject of special concern of the author of a scientific text is the identification and delimitation of the main thing in the content of the text from the secondary, the main, basic concepts from derivatives, clarity in the delimitation of theses. In this regard, in the presentation an important role is assigned to such formulations, presentation techniques, speech patterns, as a direct indication that the discussion this issue, thesis is completed and we're moving on to the next question, the thesis that this concept is fundamental, basic, etc. Introductory words like firstly, secondly, on the one hand, on the other hand, so, thus, therefore, introductory structures: as already noted, as established in the previous paragraph etc., various kinds of figures of speech and phrases activate the reader’s attention, help him systematize the material being presented, and follow the author’s presentation. For these purposes, the question-and-answer form, rhetorical question, “lecture We".
As an example, let us give an excerpt from the book by K.A. Timiryazev “Plant Life”:
So far we have considered leaf activity... Based The basic law of chemistry is that matter is neither created nor destroyed, we tried our best find the sources of this substance and the transformations that it... experiences.
But the plant body represents to us not only matter... hence, a reserve of heat has accumulated in the birch... The question arises: where did this warmth, this strength come from? For to find out we have to look to familiar chemical phenomena...
Semantic connections between sentences in the text are “provided” by a variety of syntactic ways of organizing presentation. One of these methods is repetition.
Repetition is presented in texts of different functional varieties of literary language. Thus, within the framework of the language of fiction, repetition is the most important factor in organizing a poetic text with lyrical content. See, for example, the beginning and final stanza of V. Bryusov’s poem “Heaps of Brought Snow...”:
The organizing role of repetition in the composition of lyric poems is determined by the specifics of this genre. In a scientific style, as in a formal business style, repetition acts as an important means of communication between sentences, which ensures the accuracy and logical validity of information.
Repetition as a way of organizing presentation is as follows:
Repetition of the same word (usually a noun) - so-called lexical repetition (The interaction of two atoms can only occur when collision these atoms. Collision must occur with sufficient kinetic energy);
Using a synonym of a word, generally a synonymous replacement of words, in a subsequent sentence - synonymous repetition (Potassium cyanide solution has an alkaline reaction and smells strongly of hydrocyanic acid. Similar properties possesses sodium cyanide);
Replacing part of the previous sentence with pronouns this, all of them, all of this– pronominal repetition (When an element is in a free state - it forms a simple substance, then the movement of electrons around all atoms of this substance occurs in the same way. This fair for everyone simple substances regardless of their structures).
Along with ensuring the coherence of the text and the connection between sentences, repetition participates in the logical development of the presentation. For example: Every organism represents a set of ordering of interacting structures that form a single whole, i.e. is system. Alive organisms have signs, which most people lack nonliving systems. However, among these signs there is not one that is unique to the living. Possible way to describe life- this is to list the main properties living organisms. (Here, words with the same root also act as a kind of repetition.)
This functional-style variety of the literary language serves various branches of science (exact, natural, humanities, etc.), the field of technology and production and is implemented in monographs, scientific articles, dissertations, abstracts, theses, scientific reports, lectures, educational and scientific-technical literature, reports on scientific topics, etc.
Here it is necessary to note a number of essential functions that this style variety performs: 1) reflection of reality and storage of knowledge (epistemic function); 2) obtaining new knowledge (cognitive function); 3) transfer of special information (communicative function).
The main form of implementation of the scientific style is written speech, although with the increasing role of science in society, the expansion of scientific contacts, and the development of mass media, the role of the oral form of communication is increasing. Implemented in various genres and forms of presentation, the scientific style is characterized by a number of common extra- and intralinguistic features that allow us to speak of a single functional style, which is subject to intra-style differentiation.
The main communicative task of communication in the scientific field is the expression of scientific concepts and conclusions. Thinking in this field of activity is generalized, abstract (abstracted from private, insignificant features), and logical in nature. This determines such specific features of the scientific style as abstraction, generality, and emphasized logic of presentation.
These extralinguistic features combine into a system all the linguistic means that form the scientific style, and determine secondary, more specific, stylistic features: semantic accuracy (unambiguous expression of thought), informative richness, objectivity of presentation, ugliness, hidden emotionality.
The dominant factor in the organization of linguistic means and scientific style is their generalized abstract nature at the lexical and grammatical levels of the language system. Generalization and abstraction give scientific speech a single functional and stylistic coloring.
The scientific style is characterized by the widespread use of abstract vocabulary, clearly predominant over concrete: evaporation, freezing, pressure, thinking, reflection, radiation, weightlessness, acidity, changeability, etc. In abstract and generalized meanings, not only words with abstract semantics are used, but also words that denote specific objects outside the scientific style. So, in the sentence In our area there are oak, spruce, birch, the words oak, spruce, birch do not denote individual, specific objects (a specific tree), but a class of homogeneous objects, a tree species, i.e. express not a particular (individual), but a general concept. Or in the sentence Microscope ¾ is a device that magnifies several hundred and even thousand times the words microscope, the device does not mean a specific microscope or device, but a microscope, a device in general (any, any, everyone).
In scientific presentation, words expressing single concepts and specific images are almost never used. The generalized abstract nature of speech is also emphasized by the use of special words such as usually, usually, always, constantly, systematically, regularly, every, any, every.
Since the field of science and technology requires the most accurate definition of concepts and phenomena of reality, reflecting the accuracy and objectivity of scientific truths and reasoning, a specific feature of the vocabulary of the scientific style is the use of terminology. Terms are characterized by a strictly defined meaning. “Term (from Latin terminus ¾ border, limit) ¾ a word or phrase that is the name of a special concept of any sphere of production, science or art. The term not only denotes this or that concept, but is also necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the concept.” For example: Lexicology is a section of linguistics that deals with the study of the vocabulary of a language (Linguistics).
Each branch of science has its own terminology, combined into one terminology system (medical, mathematical, physical, philosophical, linguistic, etc. terminology). Lexical meaning The term corresponds to the concept developed in this field of science. Terms that are part of several terminological systems are used in a specific text in one meaning, characteristic of a particular terminological system. For example: Reaction ¾ 1. Biol. Response to external and internal irritation. 2. Chem. Interaction between two or more substances (Russian Dictionary).
Compare also: crisis (political, biological, electrical), cell (structural, anatomical, biological, mathematical), stimulus (chemical, biological, electrical), adaptation (biological, ped.) , cooling (physical, chemical), etc.
A significant part of the vocabulary of scientific speech consists of words of general scientific use, used in various branches of knowledge: quantity, function, quantity, quality, property, value, element, experiment, process, set, part, time, result, consequence, condition, cause, relationship, analysis, synthesis, proof, system, based, absorb, accelerate, minimal, universal, etc. Such words are assigned to strictly defined concepts and are of a terminological nature.
Commonly used words in the style under consideration are used in their nominative meaning, which makes it possible to objectively indicate the essence of a concept or phenomenon. However, in a specific scientific text they can change their semantics. For example, the word suppose in mathematical texts means “to assume, to assume”: Suppose that the given triangles are congruent.
Polysemantic common words in scientific texts are assigned a special meaning. Thus, the noun ending, which has two meanings (1. Completion, bringing something to an end. 2. The final part of something), is used in linguistics as an unambiguous: ‘a grammatically changing part of a word; flexion'. The verb consider, which can be used in the following meanings: 1. Peering, to see, to discern. 2. Looking, peering, to become familiar with something. 3. Disassemble, think about, discuss (Dictionary of the Russian language), in a scientific style it is usually used in the third meaning: Consider this triangle.
Phraseological combinations of scientific style are also characterized by specific features. Here we use common literary, inter-style stable phrases that act in a nominative function: voiceless consonant, inclined plane, rational grain, decimal fraction, thyroid gland, focus of the disease, boiling point, magnetic storm, population explosion. Initially free phrases, due to the stability of the form and reproducibility, turn into phraseological units of a terminological nature (composite terms). Unlike other types of phrases, terminological phrases lose their figurative and metaphorical expression and do not have synonyms. The phraseology of the scientific style can also include various kinds of speech cliches: represent, includes, consists of..., is used in (for)..., consists of..., relates to..., etc.
Words and set phrases with emotionally expressive and colloquial connotations, as well as words limited use(archaisms, jargons, dialectisms, etc.).
The desire for generalization, for abstraction at the morphological level is manifested both in the choice and frequency of use of certain morphological categories and forms, as well as their meanings, and in the features of their functioning. The scientific style is characterized by a clear predominance of the name over the verb, the widespread use of nouns in -nie, -ie, -ost, -ka, -tion, -fiction, etc. with the meaning of a sign of action, state, change. Let us analyze an excerpt from the “Preface” to “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980, p. 3):
Attempts to solve theoretical issues and scientific systematization of facts are combined here with normative tasks: the book contains information about what possibilities of word formation, word forms, their accent characteristics, syntactic constructions are for current state literary language are the only correct ones and which ¾ are variable (allowed) in use along with others, equivalent or similar in meaning.
In this passage there are only 3 verbs and 18 nouns, most of which are abstract (decision, systematization, possibilities, word formation, state, use, etc.), lexically correlated with verbs (interaction ¾ interact, dependence ¾ depend, development ¾ develop, classification ¾ classify, etc.). Compared to correlative verbs, nouns are characterized by a more abstract meaning and, as a rule, are of a terminological nature. This explains their predominance over verbs.
The abstractness and generality of the scientific style is expressed in the widespread use of neuter nouns: radiation, definition, view, state of mind, redistribution, tension, emergence, oxidation, etc. Among the nouns are masculine and female there are numerous words with an abstract meaning: factor, impulse, stimulus, syncretism, period, method, method, process, result, opportunity, power, need, form, mass, size, intensification, etc.
The number and case forms of nouns are uniquely represented in scientific speech. Most nouns are used only in the singular form, which is due to the widespread use of verbal nouns, as well as nouns denoting names chemical elements, substances, etc. The scientific style is characterized by the use of the singular in the meaning of the plural: Magnifier ¾ is the simplest magnifying device; Jay ¾ bird, common in our forests; Every year thousands of people went to the taiga to hunt sable. In these cases, nouns denoting the objects being counted (magnifying glass, jay, sable) name a whole class of objects indicating their characteristic features or have a collective generalized meaning. However, abstract and material nouns in the scientific style are used in the plural form, acquiring a specific meaning (heart noise, power, capacity, etc.) or the meaning of ‘grade’, ‘variety’ (lubricating oils, active oxygens, low temperatures, white and red clays, etc.). The plural forms of abstract nouns appeared under the influence of terminological systems.
Among case forms The first place in terms of frequency of use is occupied by forms of the genitive case, which often act as a definition: reaction of a connection, attempt at a solution, melting point, norm of a literary language, language of interethnic communication, Pythagorean theorem, axiom of parallelism, sign of congruence of figures. After the genitive case, in terms of frequency of use, there are forms of the nominative and accusative cases; As part of passive constructions, forms of the instrumental case are common: discovered by Mendeleev, established by Newton, defined by Pavlov, created by the people.
In scientific speech, predominantly analytical forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are used (more complex, more compact, more inert, the simplest, the most important). Moreover, the superlative degree is usually formed by combining the positive degree of the adjective and the adverbs most, least; sometimes the adverb very is used and the adverb most is almost never used. The synthetic superlative form with the suffixes -eysh-, -aysh-, due to its emotional and expressive connotation, is atypical for scientific speech, with the exception of some stable combinations of a terminological nature: the smallest particles, the simplest organisms. Of the synonymous forms of the comparative degree above ¾, the second ones are usually used somewhat (slightly) higher.
Short adjectives in a scientific style, in digression from general pattern Russian language, express not a temporary, but a permanent sign of objects and phenomena: Pure ethanol colorless; Fluorine, chlorine, bromine are poisonous.
Features of the use of a verb are associated with its tense forms. The vast majority of verbs are used in the present tense. They most often express attributive meaning or the meaning of a statement of fact and appear in an abstract temporary meaning (present timeless): Carbon is part of carbon dioxide; Atoms move; When heated, bodies expand. The present timeless is the most abstract, generalized, and this explains its predominance in the scientific style.
Since verbs in the form of the present tense denote constant signs, properties, processes or patterns of phenomena, with them it is possible to use type determiners usually, always, as a rule, constantly and impossible ¾ at the present time, at this (given) moment, now, etc. P.
The abstraction of meaning extends to the forms of verbs of the future and past tense, acquiring a timeless meaning: Let's determine the area of the triangle; Let's make an experiment; Let's make an equation; The formula was applied; Research was carried out.
Of the aspectual forms of verbs, the imperfective forms are the most frequent in scientific speech as they are comparatively more abstractly generalized in meaning. In scientific speech they make up about 80%.
Perfective verbs are often used in the form of the future tense, synonymous with the present timeless, the aspectual meaning of such verbs turns out to be weakened, as a result of which the perfective form in most cases can be replaced by an imperfect one: draw (line) ¾ draw, compare (results) ¾ compare, consider (inequality ) ¾ are considered.
In the scientific style, the 3rd person singular and plural forms of verbs are common as they are the most abstractly generalized in meaning. The 1st person plural forms of verbs and the pronoun we used with them are characterized by additional semantic shades. They usually do not serve to designate any specific, specific persons, but to express an abstract, generalized meaning. This includes “we are together” (you and I), expressing a connotation of participation with the listener or reader, as well as the use of we to designate every person, a person in general: we can determine the area...; we will come to a conclusion...; if we designate... This meaning is often expressed by the personal form of the verb in the absence of a pronoun (we can define...; if we designate...). It is possible to replace the personal construction with an impersonal or infinitive one: you can define..., you can come to a conclusion..., if you designate...
The 1st person singular forms of verbs and the pronoun I are almost never used in scientific speech, since here attention is focused primarily on the content and logical sequence of its presentation, and not on the subject. The 2nd person singular and plural forms are practically not used as they are the most specific, usually indicating the author of the speech and the addressee. In scientific speech, the addresser and addressee are removed; What is important here is not who is speaking, but what is being said, i.e. subject of the message, content of the statement. Scientific speech is usually addressed not to any specific person, but to an indefinitely wide circle of people.
The desire for abstraction and generalization determines the tendency of the verb to desemantize. It manifests itself in the fact that, firstly, the scientific style is characterized by verbs of broad, abstract semantics: have, change, be observed, manifest, end, discover, exist, occur, manifest and etc.; secondly, many verbs in the scientific style act as connectives: to be, to become, to appear, to serve, to possess, to be called, to be considered, to be concluded, to differ, to be recognized, to be introduced, etc.; thirdly, a number of verbs perform the function of components of verbal-noun phrases (verbonominants), in which the main semantic load is carried by nouns, and verbs denote action in the broadest sense and express grammatical meaning: find application, make calculations (observations, measurements, calculations ), exert influence (impact, pressure, help, support, resistance), react (interact), lead to change (improvement, strengthening, weakening, expansion), etc. Verb-nominal phrases of this type allow a generalized representation of an action and at the same time contribute to semantic accuracy, since the use of a phrase instead of a full-nominal verb (to find application ¾ to apply, to resist ¾ to resist) allows you to extend the nominal component of the phrase with an adjective that specifies the description of the action or process: find broad ( widespread, etc.) application, provide strong (noticeable, constant, friendly, etc.) resistance.
In the scientific style, conjunctions, prepositions and prepositional combinations are active, in the role of which full-valued words, primarily nouns, can act: with the help, with the help, in accordance with, as a result, for the reason, on the basis of, in relation to, depending on ..., compared with..., in connection with..., in moderation, etc. Such prepositions and conjunctions allow one to express the meaning more definitely and accurately than simple ones, since the range of their meaning is narrower.
Emotional and subjective-modal particles and interjections are not used in scientific speech.
The abstractness and generality of scientific speech at the syntactic level is expressed primarily in the widespread use of passive (passive) constructions, since they highlight the action, and not its producer, as a result of which objectivity and an impersonal manner of presentation are ensured. For example: The points are connected by a straight line; Forces acting in different directions are applied to two points; “Russian Grammar” reflects and describes many phenomena of colloquial and specialized speech.
The desire for information richness determines the selection of the most capacious and compact syntactic structures. In the scientific style, simple common and complex conjunctive sentences predominate. Among the former, the most common are indefinite personal ones with a direct object at the beginning of a sentence, synonymous with passive constructions (Applying fertilizers during plant growth is called fertilizing. Plants are fed with those mineral fertilizers that they require at a given period of life). Generalized personal sentences with the main member expressed by a verb in the form of the 1st person plural of the present or future tense in a timeless meaning are widespread (Let's draw a straight line; Place the composition in a flask; Let's turn to consideration...; Gradually heat the solution), as well as impersonal sentences of different types (with the exception of those that express the state of man and nature): It is necessary to prove a theorem; It is required to determine the volume of the body; The formula can be applied; It is important to emphasize that...
Usage nominative sentences in scientific texts is quite limited. They are usually used in headings and wording of plan points: Spacecraft launch; Determining the effectiveness of indexing systems; The relationship and ratio of the underground and aboveground parts of the plant.
Of the two-part sentences, the most frequent are sentences with a compound nominal predicate, which is closely related to those noted above morphological features scientific style and is determined by the task of scientific statements (to determine the signs, qualities, properties of the phenomena being studied). Moreover, in such a predicate in the present tense the use of the copula is characteristic: Language is the most important means of human communication.
Such a specific feature of scientific speech as emphasized logic determines the frequency of use of certain types of complex sentences. Among complex sentences in scientific speech, conjunctive complex and complex sentences with a clearly defined syntactic connection between the individual parts predominate.
The predominance of allied sentences over non-union sentences is explained by the fact that the connection between the parts of a complex sentence with the help of unions is expressed more accurately and unambiguously. Compare:
Of the conjunctional sentences, the most commonly used are complex ones, since with subordination the relationships between individual clauses are expressed more differentiated and clearly. Compare:
Among complex subordinates, the most common are sentences with attributive and explanatory subordinate clauses, in which the main information is contained in the subordinate part, but the main information does not perform a significant information function, but serves only to move from one thought to another: It should be said that...; It must be emphasized that...; It is interesting to note that...; Let us pay attention to the fact that...; Observations show that...; Let us note (emphasize, prove) that...
The most common and typical type of connection between sentences in scientific speech is the repetition of nouns, often in combination with demonstrative pronouns this, that, that: In modern grammatical science, a variety of ways to describe the grammatical structure of a language are used. These descriptions implement different, very dissimilar concepts...
The need for a clear logical structure of scientific speech determines the widespread use of adverbs, adverbial expressions, as well as other parts of speech and combinations of words in the connecting function: therefore, therefore, first, then, in conclusion, so, so, thus, finally, in addition and etc. They, as a rule, stand at the beginning of a sentence and serve to combine parts of the text (in particular paragraphs), logically closely related to each other: The grammatical norms of colloquial speech are fixed unsystematically and randomly ¾ mainly in connection with the fixation of written norms and by contrast them. Therefore, spoken language is often defined as uncodified; Suppose that these lines intersect or are parallel. Then both of them lie in a certain plane.
In scientific texts that represent reasoning or presentation of findings, generalizations, conclusions, introductory words or phrases expressing the relationship between the parts of the statement are common: DS^MK. Consequently, direct MK is ¾ the axis of symmetry of the tetrahedron. Thus, this tetrahedron has three axes of symmetry of opposite edges.
Sentences are often complicated by participial and participial phrases, inserted constructions, clarifying members, isolated phrases: In the language of fiction and related genres of writing (essays, feuilletons, memoirs, literary processed diary entries, etc.), written and spoken language, special speech, vernacular.
The desire for semantic accuracy and informative richness determines the use in scientific speech of constructions with several insertions and explanations that clarify the content of the statement, limit its volume, indicate the source of information, etc.: In terms of the composition of the instruments, quintets are homogeneous, for example, bowed strings (two violins , two violas, cello, less often ¾ two violins, viola and two cellos) and mixed (for example, strings with clarinet or piano).
Thus, at the syntactic level, first of all, one of the main specific features scientific style ¾ emphasized logic, which is also manifested in the features of the composition. For a scientific text, a three-part structure (introduction, main part, conclusion) is almost universal as the most successful way of logical organization of the conveyed content.
Bibliography:
1. Azarova, E.V. Russian language: Textbook. allowance / E.V. Azarova, M.N. Nikonova. – Omsk: Omsk State Technical University Publishing House, 2005. – 80 p.
2. Golub, I.B. Russian language and speech culture: Textbook. allowance / I.B. Blue – M.: Logos, 2002. – 432 p.
3. Culture of Russian speech: Textbook for universities / ed. prof. OK. Graudina and prof. E.N. Shiryaeva. – M.: NORMA-INFRA, 2005. – 549 p.
4. Nikonova, M.N. Russian language and culture of speech: A textbook for non-philological students / M.N. Nikonova. – Omsk: Omsk State Technical University Publishing House, 2003. – 80 p.
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1. Scientific texts widely use abstract, abstract vocabulary: equilibrium, knowledge, attribution.
There are many abstract nouns:
– words formed from verbs: transformation, study;
– words of the neuter gender: property, phenomenon, perception(Academician V.V. Vinogradov argued that neuter forms, in contrast to masculine and feminine forms, are characterized by “a general abstract meaning of material objectivity”).
2. In scientific style, words are usually used to indicate general concepts, rather than specific items. This even applies to specific nouns (denoting in language objects that can be seen, touched, counted): Common in central Russia Linden cordifolia; Birch tolerates frost well. In such cases, the singular form denotes plurality (i.e., there is a contextual transition from specific nouns to collective nouns).
However, the opposite phenomenon is also noted: words that usually do not form a plural form (abstract and real nouns) are found in this form - also with the meaning of generalization: frequencies, length,warmth, climates.
3. Short adjectives which are usually called temporary sign, in a scientific text (as well as in official business) indicate a constant feature: Copper oxide is insoluble. Short participles can also be used with the meaning of a constant attribute.
4. Verbs(such as go, follow, wear, make up, indicate) V scientific text are used not in their primary, specific meanings, but in secondary, figurative, generalized-abstract. Wed: follow me –hence the conclusion; carry firewood – the conclusion is approximate.
5. Generality is achieved through the use adverbs, adjectives And pronouns, which denote permanent or general quality, action, state: usually, regularly, Always, any, every, all; Every metal has the ability to conduct electric current; Every modern literary language is a style system.
6. Verbs and personal pronouns predominate in the form 3 persons, which allows you to focus on the subject of consideration, and not on the personality of the scientist, etc.: I require a special commentno use of the verb betray.
7. Personal pronoun We used instead of pronouns I (the predicate verb takes the corresponding form): So we can conclude that... Such use of numerical forms also contributes to the fact that the personality of the researcher is not brought to the fore.
8. Among the few verbs, 70% are verbs present time; of which 98% have timeless meaning: Mercury changes from liquid to solid at a temperature of –79°C(always moves on).
9. Forms are also used future time since timeless meaning: Let's write down the condition of the problem(typical action when solving problems).
10. Verbs are more often (in 80% of cases) used in forms imperfect form, which are more abstract compared to perfective forms.
11. Used a lot reflexive verbs: counts, is being considered, applies.
12. Passive designs prevail over active ones.
The predicates in such constructions can be expressed:
– reflexive verbs in the passive voice form: At the end of the experiment, the remaining acids are counted;Dissonant relationship between form and content observed only in the area of permissive meanings of imperative statements;
- passive participles: Dot deleted from the plane; Among the sources of precedent texts, the names of paintings were identified.
The subject of the action in such constructions, as a rule, is not named.
13. Frequently used impersonal offers. The predicates of such sentences are usually expressed by an impersonal verb, a personal verb in an impersonal meaning, or a combination of a word of the state category (with a modal meaning) and an infinitive: In modern Russian there are about 150 color terms; It should be noted that contextual markedness of symbolic meanings is not regularly present in the text.
A generalized abstract character can also be imparted to a scientific text through the use of vaguely personal proposals: Bromine is produced similarly to chlorine.
LOGICALITY AS A PROPERTY OF SCIENTIFIC STYLE: MEANS OF ITS FORMATION.