Question to point I 1. When was the Golden Horde formed? When did it become an independent state?
What peoples were part of the Golden Horde? What was the name of the bulk of the inhabitants of this state?
The Golden Horde is a Russian name, the inhabitants themselves called it Ulus Jochi. Ulus (or great states) were originally constituent parts of the empire of Genghis Khan. The future Golden Horde was formed even before the conquest of the Old Russian state for the eldest son of Genghis Khan named Jochi and also his descendants. In fact, the state became independent under Batu Khan (Batu), and his younger brother Mengu-Timur gained formal independence when he ascended the throne in 1266.
The population of the Golden Horde was called Tatars, but in fact included Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.) and North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkas and others). others) peoples.
Question to point I 2. Who was the Grand Duke of Moscow at that time?
Vasily I Dmitrievich was on the Moscow throne at that time.
Question to paragraph 1. Why do you think the state of Tamerlane collapsed?
Timur's state collapsed for the same reasons as the Old Russian state and many other medieval powers. The great conqueror distributed the lands to his sons and grandchildren. At the same time, many of these lands were independent before the conquest, therefore they did not economically depend on the center and could secede again. Despite the fact that Timur left the throne to only one of the descendants, the rest had the resources to fight for the inheritance or part of it.
Question to paragraph 2. What peoples were part of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates?
The inhabitants of all these khanates were called Tatars. But the Volga Bulgars lived in Kazan (it was actually formed on the territory of their ancient Kaganate), Cheremis (Udmurts) and Morians, in the Siberian - the Bashkirs and other peoples, in the Astrakhan - the Kipchaks (Polovtsians).
Question to paragraph 3. Describe the occupations of the population of the heirs of the Golden Horde. What religions did the inhabitants of these states profess?
There were many nomadic pastoralists in the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates. But traders and artisans also flourished due to the trade route along the Volga. In the Siberian Khanate, the ruling Tatars continued to engage in nomadic cattle breeding, and the subordinate (who paid tribute to them), mainly the Finno-Ugric peoples, continued to engage in hunting and gathering - they were largely at the primitive stage of development.
The Tatars professed Islam, but the primitive peoples, subject to the Siberian Khanate, retained their pagan beliefs and shamanism.
Question to paragraph 4. How did the relationship of the new states develop with Russia?
Relations developed in different ways, they differed both with different states and with one state in different periods. So the Kazan Khanate tried to subjugate Moscow, but having achieved from the last tribute did not demand more and switched to peaceful trade. At first, the Crimean Khanate was Moscow's ally against the Great Horde, but after the destruction of the latter, raids began on the Russian lands as well.
Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 1. Using the Internet and additional literature, compile in a notebook a chronological table showing the main stages in the development of relations between the Moscow principality and the Kazan and Crimean khanates until the middle of the 16th century.
Relations with the Kazan Khanate:
1439 - the first campaign of the Kazan Tatars against Moscow, the beginning of attempts to subjugate it;
1445 - in order to ransom from captivity, Vasily II, in addition to the ransom itself, gave tribute to the Kazan people, their officials arrived in the Russian cities - trade between states began, but Kazan was richer from it, and Moscow remained in a subordinate position;
1467 - the campaign of Moscow troops against Kazan (an unsuccessful attempt to put on the throne Tsarevich Kasim, who had previously fled from Kazan): the beginning of the offensive campaigns of Moscow;
1487 - Moscow troops took Kazan and put Mohammed-Amin on the throne, who was friends with Moscow;
1505 - apparently, not without the knowledge of Muhammad-Amin, the beating of Russian merchants in Kazan began, the result was a series of wars against Moscow;
1552 - the capture of Kazan by the Russian troops and the destruction of the Khanate.
Relations with the Crimean Khanate:
1480 - the alliance of Crimea and Moscow, the beginning of it was laid by an alliance against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Great Horde, which at first prevented Lithuania from attacking Moscow simultaneously with the Great Horde, and then forced Khan Akhmat to leave the Ugra River, thanks to which the standing on it ended with the victory of the Moscow troops;
The turn of the XV-XVI centuries - with the weakening of the Great Horde, the Crimean Khanate no longer needed the Moscow state as an ally and began to make frequent raids on it, which went deep into the Russian lands (in 1571, Khan Devlet Gerey even burned Moscow).
Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 2. Find out which descendants of the peoples who inhabited the territories of the states formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde are currently living in the Russian Federation.
Until now, the Bashkirs, Mordovians, Mari (Cheremis), Votyaks (Udmurts) and some other peoples have not dissolved among other peoples. Tatars are considered a separate people.
THE DECAY OF THE GOLDEN HORDE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
1. List the social groups that were interested in the unification of Rus, the creation of a single state with a center in Moscow. State the reasons for this interest for each social group.
In addition to the prince, they were interested in creating a unified Russian state. service princely people, which formed the backbone of the administrative and military "machine" of the state. Since for faithful service they were allocated estates that were not inherited, the welfare of the landowners, the size of their land holdings depended on the Grand Duke. Therefore, they were interested in strengthening his power and creating a unified state.
For the creation of a single state were and boyars, owners of hereditary estates... The fact is that in accordance with the princely agreements, the boyars did not have the right to buy land on the territory of other principalities. Since the boyars also had ambitions to expand their own possessions, they were interested in annexing new lands to the Moscow principality, and therefore were interested in the unification of Rus.
Support in the creation of a centralized state was provided by Church... Over time, the Church became a large landowner, accumulating properties that she received as a gift or bought from the patrimonies as payment for debts. Having become a large landowner, the Church actively supported the current government in an effort to unite the Russian lands.
Supported the centralization of the state and artisans, and merchants, since the expansion of handicraft production and trade in Moscow rallied North-Western Russia around Moscow and created the economic prerequisites for unification.
2. List the consequences of the internecine war of the second quarter of the 15th century.
Consequences:
- the death of many ordinary people;
- a blow to the economy - villages and cities were ruined;
- strengthening the power of the Golden Horde;
- the dynastic principle of transferring power from father to son won out.
The war between the Moscow princes slowed down the unification of the Russian lands, increased dependence on the Horde, and brought suffering to the people. The strife once again demonstrated the need to unite the lands and create a single state. The lesson that the Russian people should have learned from this event is as old as the world - any internal strife makes the state weak, and only in the unity of the whole people is tremendous strength hidden.
Test control
1. The difference between the internecine war of the second quarter of the 15th century. from the strife of the previous period:
1) the struggle of princes for the Vladimir throne
2) the struggle of princes for the Moscow throne
3) attracting the forces of the Golden Horde
4) the use of brutal methods of struggle
2. In the strife between the Moscow princes, the Russian Orthodox Church:
1) took a wait and see attitude
2) sided with Vasily II
3) supported Dmitry Shemyaka
4) supported Vasily Kosoy
3. In his will Dmitry Donskoy:
1) ordered his sons to obey Khan Tokhtamysh as his father
2) divided the Moscow principality equally between the sons
3) transferred the Moscow principality and the Vladimir throne to the eldest son
4) transferred the Moscow principality and the Vladimir throne to his youngest son
4. Edigei organized a campaign against Russia in 1408 in order to:
1) make Vasily pay tribute to the Horde
2) help Basil I to establish himself on the Moscow throne
3) help Timur to conquer Russia
4) support the prince of Lithuania Vitovt
5. Vasily I bequeathed the Moscow throne:
1) little brother
2) to a young son
3) wife Sofya Vitovtovna
4) Dmitry Shemyaka
6. The war between the Moscow princes:
1) accelerated the process of unification of Russian lands
2) slowed down the progress of the unification of Russian lands
3) weakened dependence on the Horde
4) did not affect the economy of the Moscow principality
Questions in the text of the paragraph
What changes have occurred in Eastern Europe as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde?
Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Hush, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. A gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus Orda-Ejena gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the devastation of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.
At the beginning of the 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed (the capital is the city of Siberia), in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s, the capital is Saraichik) and the Kazakh Khanate ( 1465). After the death of Kichi-Muhammad Khan, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
The Big Horde formally continued to be considered the main among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, the khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt failed, and Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed in an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Big Horde ceased to exist. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, in alliance with the Moscow troops, finally defeated the Big Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate was consolidated on a part of its territory. The capital of the new state was the city of Khadzhi-Tarkhan (Astrakhan).
When was the Golden Horde formed? When did it become an independent state?
The Golden Horde or Ulus Jochi was formed as a result of the division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224. Until 1266, the Golden Horde was part of the Mongol Empire. In 1266, under Khan Mengu-Timur, it acquired complete independence, retaining only formal dependence on the imperial center. In the early 1320s, under Khan Uzbek, Islam became the state religion.
What peoples were part of the Golden Horde? What was the name of the bulk of the inhabitants of this state?
The Golden Horde was inhabited by the Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongol elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. And by the beginning of the 15th century, the entire nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by one word “Tatars”. It was in the Golden Horde that such nationalities as the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars emerged. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.
Who was the Grand Duke of Moscow during the time of Timur?
Timur (Tamerlane) was born in 1336 and died in 1405. Thus, formally, during the time of Timur, the princes of Moscow were Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily Dmitrievich. However, Dmitry Donskoy never encountered Timur's actions, since by the beginning of Timur's campaign against the Golden Horde in 1395, Dmitry Donskoy had already died (1389). Therefore, during the active phase of the war between Timur and Tokhtamysh, Vasily I was the prince of Moscow.
Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph
1. Why do you think the state of Tamerlane collapsed?
Tamerlane left behind a large family clan. The very next day after his death, quarrels, forceful pressure and palace coups began. Strife within the Timurid clan led to the collapse of the empire.
2. What peoples were part of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates?
The Kazan Khanate was inhabited mainly by the descendants of the ancient Bulgars. Immigrants from the Golden Horde also settled here. Mordvinians, Chuvashs, Mari, Udmurts were citizens of the Kazan Khanate.
The Siberian Khanate was inhabited by Turkic-speaking tribes. The influence of the Siberian Khanate extended to such peoples as the Khanty, Mansi, and Trans-Ural Bashkirs.
The main population of the Astrakhan Khanate were the Astrakhan Tatars and Nogai, whose ethnic basis was made up of such ancient peoples as the Siraks, Uisuns, Uighurs, Kangly, Kipchaks, Ases, Kereits, Dormans, Naimans, Mangyts, Bulgars, Bayys, Bodyraks, Katagans, Kaneges Baidars, Mazhars, Argyns, etc., who lived in the Irtysh region, Northwestern Mongolia, Central Asia, the Southern Urals, the Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Northern Black Sea region, the Don region, the Azov region and the Lower Dnieper region.
3. Describe the occupation of the population of the heir to the Golden Horde. What religions did the inhabitants of these states profess?
The main occupation of the population of the Kazan Khanate was agriculture; in the steppe regions, semi-nomadic cattle breeding remained. Transit trade played an important role. Leatherworking, jewelry, blacksmithing, and pottery have developed significantly. Slavery was also developed in the Kazan Khanate. Russian prisoners captured as a result of raids were made slaves.
In the Astrakhan Khanate, nomadic cattle breeding was the main occupation of the population. Also, its inhabitants were engaged in craft and trade.
Siberian Tatars were engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture, pottery and furrier craft, spinning, weaving, smelting and processing of metals. In the northern part of the Siberian Khanate, they were engaged in hunting, fishing and reindeer husbandry.
All the heirs of the Golden Horde preached Islam.
4. How did the relations of the new states develop with Russia?
The relationship of the new states with Russia developed in different ways. The periods of hostilities were followed by times of peaceful trade. Wars were fought and alliances were made. So, the Khan Ulu-Muhammad, expelled from the Horde, who became the ruler of the Kazan Khanate, tried to restore his dominance over Russia and force the Moscow prince to pay tribute as before, only to him, and not to the Khan of the Great Horde. For this, he several times made campaigns to Russia. In one of the campaigns, his sons managed to capture Prince Vasily II, who was later released on the promise of a huge ransom. The period from 1446 to 1466 was a time of strengthening trade ties between Moscow and Kazan. And in 1452, one of the sons of Ulu-Muhammad, Kasim, generally switched to the service of the Moscow prince, for which he granted him a town, which since then began to be called Kasimov. The Kasimov Khanate, dependent on Moscow, was formed here.
The Big Horde, considering itself the heir to the Golden Horde, also sought to restore the dependence of Russia. For this, the khans of the Great Horde entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The confrontation with the Great Horde temporarily brought the Moscow principality and the Crimean Khanate closer together, which at the beginning of the 16th century led to the destruction of the Great Horde.
We work with the map
1. Find on the map the states conquered by Timur.
States and territories conquered by Timur(marked on the map in burgundy letters): Armenia. Azerbaijan, State of Jelairids, State of Serbedars, Khorezm, State of Kurts, State of Mozafferids (Kerman), Mekran, Sistan, the territories of the Ottoman Turks, Maberannahr, Jab, India were also partially conquered.
2. Show on the map the states formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde split into states:
- Nogai Horde - the capital of Saraichik
- Kazan Khanate - the capital of Kazan
- Big Horde - the capital of New Saray
- Astrakhan kingdom - the capital of Hadji-Tarkhan (Astrakhan)
- Crimean Khanate - the capital of Bakhchisarai
- Siberian Khanate - the capital of Siberia
- Kazakh kingdom - the capital of Sygnak
also formed Kabarda, Tarkov shamkhalstvo, Avar Khanate, Uzbek Khanate and others
3. Using the map, explain why, of all the fragments of the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate was the most dangerous enemy for the Russian lands.
The Kazan Khanate was geographically located closest to the Russian principalities and was a fairly strong state from a military and economic point of view.
Examining the document
What conclusions about the peculiarities of political and economic ties between Moscow and Astrakhan can be drawn on the basis of this text?
The Astrakhan Khanate was the smallest and weakest fragment of the Golden Horde. Its armed forces were only 3 thousand soldiers. The khanate was in a state of dependence all the time, first from the Great Horde, then from the Nogai Horde and from the Crimean Khanate. In this situation, naturally, the khanate sought to enlist the support of a strong Moscow principality. Moreover, the Astrakhan Khanate had something to offer in exchange for friendship with Moscow - access to the Caspian Sea. Therefore, most likely the annual trips of the khan's envoys to Moscow testifies to the desire of the Astrakhan Khanate to understand whether everything remains the same, whether Moscow is faithful to friendship with the khanate.
Thinking, comparing, reflecting
1. Using the Internet and additional literature, compile in a notebook a chronological table showing the main stages in the development of relations between the Moscow principality and the Kazan and Crimean khanates until the middle of the 16th century.
Kazan Khanate
- 1439 - Khan Ulug-Muhammad approached Moscow and laid siege to it, but after eleven days he retreated, plundering Kolomna and several other Russian cities along the way.
- 1444 - Kazan Khan attacked the Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities.
- 1445 - the khan's army defeated the Russian troops near Suzdal, Grand Duke Vasily II was captured, tribute was imposed on the Moscow principality.
- 1467 - Russian troops made a campaign against Kazan in order to plant the friendly Tsarevich Kasim on the Kazan throne. The trip was unsuccessful. Ibrahim Khan prepared in advance for the "meeting".
- In the third quarter of the 15th century, there were pronounced contradictions between the states, expressed in the clash of interests of Moscow and Kazan in the lands of the Upper Volga region.
- In the 80s. In the 15th century, the Moscow government actively intervened in the struggle for the Kazan throne and often sent troops to Kazan with the aim of planting its protege on the Kazan throne.
- 1487 - the capture of Kazan by the Moscow troops and the approval of the loyal Moscow Khan Mohammed-Emin on the Kazan throne. The khan, unwanted by the Moscow government, was overthrown.
- 1506 - Moscow's major campaign against Kazan, the defeat of the Russians near Kazan, Khan Mohammed-Emin, who was enthroned with the military and political support of Moscow, freed himself from Moscow dependence.
- 1545-1552 - a series of military campaigns of Ivan the Terrible to Kazan. The first two were unsuccessful, and in 1552 the Grand Duke laid siege to the capital of the Khanate for the third time. After the explosion of the city walls with gunpowder laid in secret tunnels, Kazan was taken by storm, a significant part of the population was killed, and the city itself burned down. The Kazan Khanate ceased to exist, and the Middle Volga region in a significant part was annexed to Russia. In memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate, by order of Ivan the Terrible, the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed was built on Red Square in Moscow.
In total, the Kazan khans made about forty campaigns on Russian lands, mainly in areas near Nizhny Novgorod, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich and Murom.
Crimean Khanate
- 1480 - The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III appealed to the Crimean Khan Mengli I Gerai with a request to arrange a campaign in the Polish lands "to Kiev places." Mengli Giray took Kiev by storm, ravaged and severely destroyed the city. Of the rich booty, the khan sent to Ivan III in gratitude a golden chalice and a diskos from the Kiev Sophia Cathedral. In the same year, Ivan III entered into an alliance with Mengli Geray.
- The end of the 15th century - constant raids on Russia for the purpose of plunder.
- 1521 - the forces of the Kazan Khan Sahib Girey made a military campaign against the Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, Klin, Meshchera and Vladimir lands and joined the army of the Crimean Khan Mehmed Girey at Kolomna. Then they besieged Moscow and forced Vasily III to sign a humiliating treaty.
- 1571 - despite the agreement with Moscow, at the head of an army of 40 thousand horsemen, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray raided Moscow, burned the villages, took 50 thousand people prisoner. Ivan the Terrible was forced to give an obligation to pay tribute to the Crimea annually.
- 1572 - The Crimean army of Devlet Geray, united with Turkish and Nogai troops, suffered a crushing defeat from the Russian troops led by the princes Mikhail Vorotynsky and Dmitry Khvorostinin in the battle of Molody (50 versts south of Moscow).
2. Find out which descendants of the peoples who inhabited the territories of the states formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde are currently living in the Russian Federation.
Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean Tatars, Mordvinians, Chuvashs, Mari, Udmurts, Khanty, Mansi, Bashkirs, Nogais.
Possible additional questions in the lesson
Why did the Golden Horde break up?
Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Hush, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. Due to internal strife, a gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, and the state gradually began to lose its integrity. Until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began.
In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Kichi-Muhammad Khan in 1459, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
Create a psychological portrait of Timur (Tamerlane)
Timur was a very brave and reserved man. Possessing a sobriety of judgments, he was able to make the most correct decision in difficult situations. These character traits also attracted people to him. A visionary ruler and talented organizer. Timur had a phenomenal memory, was fluent in several languages, knew how to play chess perfectly, which undoubtedly testifies to his talent as a strategist. Also, Timur was a very erudite person, had extensive historical and philosophical knowledge, which he often used to inspire his troops.
The capital of which state is the city of Saraichik?
Saraichik was the capital of the Nogai Khanate.
What state was formed on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria?
The Kazan Khanate was formed on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria.
What was the name of the capital of the Great Horde?
The capital of the Great Horde was Saray-Berke (New Saray).
What territories became part of the Crimean Khanate?
In addition to the steppe and foothill parts of the Crimea, the Khanate occupied the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and most of the modern Krasnodar Territory of Russia.
Who and when finally defeated the Great Horde?
In 1502, the Crimean Khanate attacked the Big Horde and captured the Volga region. The Great Horde ceased to exist. The Trans-Volga lands became part of the Nogai Horde, and the lands between the Don and Volga were formally transferred to the Crimea, but soon, in 1556, they were annexed to the Russian state.
The capital of which khanate was the city of Hadji Tarkhan?
Khadzhi-Tarkhan (Astrakhan) was the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate.
What state formations took shape in the North Caucasus?
In the North Caucasus, after the collapse of the Great Horde, new state formations also began to take shape - Kabarda, Tarkov shamkhalstvo, Avar Khanate, etc.
What did the inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate call themselves?
The inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate called themselves Bulgars.
What did the Russians call them?
And the Russians called the inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate Tatars.
What is yasak?
Yasak is a tax in kind from the peoples of Siberia and the North, mainly furs.
What cities were in the Kazan Khanate?
There were not many cities in the Kazan Khanate - only two: Kazan and Arsk, as well as several fortresses
Who was turned into slaves in this state?
Russian prisoners captured during the raids were turned into slaves.
What was the state structure in the Siberian Khanate?
State foundations in the Siberian Khanate were intertwined with remnants of family relations. At the head of the state was the khan, who was elected by the nobility. The structure of the state was of a paramilitary nature, the khanate was divided into "hundreds" - volosts headed by Murza. The strongholds of the khan's power were fortified towns.
Give examples of military and peaceful relations between the new states and Russia
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Confrontation |
Convergence |
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The state of Tamerlane collapsed, because the state apparatus was imperfect, the functions of responsible persons were not clearly defined. after his death, disputes began between his descendants. One of the sons of Tamerlane, Shahrukh, managed to slightly strengthen the situation, but when he handed over his power to his son, the state finally collapsed.
Answer left by: Guest
Humanity owes almost everything to Ancient India as regards mathematics, the level of development of which in the time of the Guptas was much higher than that of other peoples of antiquity. The achievements of Indian mathematics are mainly due to the fact that Indians had a clear concept of abstract number, which they distinguished from the numerical quantity or spatial extent of objects.
Indian civilization gave the world chess and the decimal number system. The achievements of ancient and medieval India in the field of science, literature and art, various religious and philosophical systems that originated in India, influenced the development of many civilizations of the East, became an integral part of modern world culture
Medieval Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (VII century), Mahavira (IX century), Bhaskara (XII century), in turn, made discoveries that became known in Europe only during the Renaissance and later. They worked with positive and negative values, invented elegant ways to extract the square and cube roots, they knew how to solve quadratic equations and some types of indefinite equations. Ar-yabhata calculated the approximate value of the number l, which is still used today and which is an expression of the fraction 62832/20000, i.e. 3.1416. This value, much more accurate than that calculated by the Greeks, was brought by Indian mathematicians to the ninth decimal place. They made a number of discoveries in trigonometry, spherical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, mainly related to astronomy. Brahmagupta went beyond what Europe had learned by the eighteenth century in the study of indefinite equations. In medieval India, the mathematical interconnection of zero (shunya) and infinity was well understood. Bhaskara, refuting his predecessors who argued that x: 0 = x, proved that the result is infinity.
Clear material)
In the early Middle Ages, there was no equal to Indian doctors, who knew how to perform complex operations even on the skull. At the same time, an encyclopedia of medicinal herbs was compiled in India.
Answer left by: Guest
The development of industry and market relations in various areas of Austria-Hungary was uneven. The greatest industrial development was achieved by the Czech Republic and Austria, while Galicia, Bukovina, Transcarpathia, as well as Slovakia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and some other regions significantly lagged behind in their socio-economic development.Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina, Transcarpathia retained< strong>agricultural nature of the economy, most of the population was employed in agriculture. The development of the economy in the western Ukrainian lands was more and more determined by the interests of the large factory industry in the western and central provinces of the empire.The industry of Western Ukrainian lands under the rule of Austria-Hungary in the last third of the XIX century. was almost entirely in the hands of foreign capitalists (German, Austrian, Canadian). Throughout the 70s - 80s. XIX century. there was also an intensive process of the formation of the factory industry, mainly oil-extracting, flour-grinding, alcoholic beverage, timber processing industries. Steam engines began to be widely used at these enterprises.But in the economic structure of Austria-Hungary, the Western Ukrainian lands were assigned the role of a market for finished goods and a source of raw materials and labor in the industrially developed provinces. Western industry could not withstand the competition of cheap goods and began to decline. The imperial government actually did not take measures to develop industry in Western Ukraine. Western Ukrainian entrepreneurs were not provided with the tax breaks that they enjoyed in the western provinces. Access of Western Ukrainian goods to the markets of Austria-Hungary and neighboring countries was actually closed. At the same time, there were benefits for the export of raw materials and semi-finished products from the region.The peasant reform proclaimed in 1848, the main provision of which was the abolition of serfdom, was carried out in the 50s. The government did everything to ensure that the losses of the landowners were minimal and that they received everything they needed to adapt to the new economic conditions.After the reform, Western Ukraine remained the land of the landowners' latifundia. Large landowners, who had 5 and more thousand hectares, owned more than 40% of all land. Despite the large remnants of serfdom, agriculture in Western Ukraine in the second half of the XIX century. gradually developed in a market-like manner: civilian workers worked on landlord and rich peasant farms. By the end of the XIX century. in the western Ukrainian lands, there were over 400 thousand permanently employed and periodically hired workers. Agricultural machinery was used more and more widely, and the specialization of regions deepened.
The Huns are a people who suddenly appeared from the depths of Asia, swept a wave across Europe and left many legends about themselves. The most famous Hunnic leader was Attila, the great king of Atli of the Scandinavian sagas.
Many different peoples migrated from Asia at different times, but it was the Huns who left such a vivid mark in history, as if they had dissolved after the mysterious death of their greatest leader.
Such prominent scholars as I.P. Zasetskaya, B.V. Lunin, V.A.Korenyako, S.S. Minyaev, P.N.Savitsky, O. Menchen-Helfen, T. Hayashi were engaged in the issue of the culture and origin of the Huns. , T. Barfield, N.N. Kradin, P.B. Konovalov, L.N. Gumilev.
What does their research say?
Origin from the depths of Siberia
In the Mongolian steppes inhabited the Proto-Turkic people of the Huns, pressed from all sides by enemies. Power from the Huns was inherited according to the same principle as later from the Russian princes: from brother to brother, and only then to sons. In the third century BC, Tuman became a chanyu (ruler). He dreamed of getting rid of his eldest son Mode in order to hand over the throne to his youngest son from his beloved concubine. To implement this plan, Tuman sent Mode hostage to the Sogdim and attacked them in the expectation that they would kill his son and save him from further troubles. But Mode quickly assessed the situation, killed his guards, stole the horse and fled to his own. Under pressure from public opinion, Tuman allocated 10,000 warriors to his eldest son, whom Mode began to train according to a new scheme. To begin with, he introduced into use unusual arrows with a slot that whistled during flight. If the warriors heard the whistle of their prince's arrows, they were obliged to immediately shoot at the same target. And so Mode made a test: he shot at his magnificent argamak. He cut off the heads of those who lowered their bows. Then he shot his young wife. Those who eluded were also executed. The next target was the argamak of his father Tumany, and every last one was fired. After that Mode killed Tumany himself, his concubine, half-brother, and he himself became a Shanyu.
Mode ruled the Xiongnu empire for 40 years and raised it above all the surrounding peoples.
Several generations later, the situation in the steppe changed. The Huns were defeated and fragmented. Some of them fled to the west and joined the Trans-Ural Ugrians. For two hundred years, the two peoples lived side by side, and then a wave of their joint expansion followed. It was this mixed people who later became known as the Huns.
Huns - possible relatives of the Germanic peoples
Huns and Normans are two ethnic groups that used almost the same runic writing. We are talking about the very runes that, as the Elder Edda says, God Odin brought from Asia. Asian runes are several centuries older: they were found on the graves of Turkic heroes, for example, Kul-Tegin. Perhaps these ancient family ties were the reason that a number of Germanic peoples became allies of the Huns on the territory of Europe. King Atli is one of the favorite romantic characters of the Scandinavian sagas, for example, "Song of the Chlyoda", where the king is shown as a henpecked in some way. Indeed, Attila was in the bosom of his family a very gentle person who loves his children and numerous wives.
Religion from time immemorial
The religion of this nomadic people was Tengrianism - the worship of the Eternal Blue Sky. Mount Khan Tengri in the Tien Shan was considered the habitat of the supreme deity; there were also many temples with idols cast in silver. As a protective symbol, the Huns wore amulets made of precious metals with images of dragons. Among the ruling elite of the Huns there was a supreme shaman who asked the deity for advice for making important decisions. The elements were considered sacred: fire, water, earth.
There was also a cult of sacred trees, horses were sacrificed to them, the skins of which were removed and spread between the branches, and the blood was spilled around.
Calling on the help of the god of war, the Huns used a very ancient custom “tuom”: the shooting of a noble prisoner with “a thousand arrows”. It is logical to assume that the Huns performed the same rite.
An army that does not know how to storm fortresses
The Huns subjugated such powerful powers of that era as the Ostrogoth empire and the Alanian Khaganate. Even contemporaries tried to solve the riddle of the success of the "barbarian people": the Roman centurion Ammianus Marcellinus, the Byzantine philosopher Eunapius, the Gothic chroniclers Jordan and Priscus Pannius. All of them were hostile to the Huns and tried to denigrate them in front of their descendants, colorfully describing their ugly appearance and barbaric customs. However, how could the barbarians cope with the strongest states of that era?
The authors explained the successes of the Huns by their specific military tactics: "The Alans, although they were equal in battle ... subjugated them, weakening them with frequent skirmishes." This tactic was used by the Massagetae in the war against Alexander the Great: the partisan war of light cavalry against heavy infantry was indeed successful. However, the main military force of the Alans was not infantry, but powerful, well-trained heavy cavalry. They used proven Sarmatian melee tactics. The Alans had fortresses that the Huns did not know how to take, and left them undefeated in their rear, although the infrastructure of the kaganate was destroyed by them. Many Alans fled west and settled on the Loire.
How the Huns defeated the Crimean Goths: wade across the sea
After the submission of the Alanian Kaganate, the Huns, led by Balamber, went into direct conflict with the Ostrogoths of King Germanarich. The Goths occupied the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. The Huns could not take the peninsula from the side of the Don floodplain: they were not able to fight in the swampy area, which, moreover, was defended by the warlike Herul people. The Huns had no means of transporting the army by sea. Thus, the Goths on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula felt themselves safe. This killed them.
The ancient Slavs - Antes, were forcibly subordinated to the Goths and treated this situation without any enthusiasm. As soon as the Huns appeared on the political horizon, the Antes joined them. The Gothic chronicler Jordan calls the ants "treacherous" and considers the main reason for the fall of the Gothic state. Perhaps it was the Ants who provided the Huns with information that allowed the latter to wade the Crimean Peninsula from the side of the Kerch Strait.
According to the report of Jordan, in 371, the Hunnic horsemen, while hunting on the Taman Peninsula, chased the deer and drove her to the very cape. The deer entered the sea and, carefully stepping and groping for the bottom, crossed to the land of the Crimea, thereby indicating the ford: along this path the Hunnic army passed to the rear of its opponents and captured the Crimean peninsula. King Germanarich, who at that time was more than 110 years old, in despair, pierced himself with a sword.
The Huns did not destroy or expel the Goths, but only subordinated them to their power. Vinitarius became the successor of Germanarich. He was left with a fairly powerful army and power structure. He tried to deprive the Huns of their most important ally and attacked the Ants, took prisoner and crucified the King of God with his sons and 70 elders. The Huns, in turn, attacked Vinitarius and killed him in a battle on the Erak River (Dnieper). Some of the surviving Ostrogoths moved into the possession of the Romans, the rest submitted to the Hunnic leader.
The Huns are a people with a high level of diplomatic culture
If we consider the Huns as semi-savage barbarians, as did Jordan and Ammianus Marcellinus, it is impossible to understand the secret of their success. The main reason is the talent of their leaders, as well as the level of diplomacy, which was not inferior to the leading European states.
The Huns perfectly knew the whole “cuisine” of the relations of the neighboring peoples, knew how to obtain the necessary information and skillfully acted not only in battle, but also through negotiations. The empire of King Germanarich was based solely on submission to brute force. The leader of the Huns Balamber attracted to his side all the peoples, offended and oppressed by the Goths, and there were many of them.
Other Hunnic leaders adhered to a similar scheme and did not seek to fight where there was a chance to agree on an amicable basis. Rugila in 430 established diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire and even helped troops to suppress the Bagaud revolt in Gaul. Rome by this time was already in a state of disintegration, but many of its citizens joined the Huns, preferring their ordered power to the arbitrariness of their own officials.
In 447, Attila with his army reached the walls of Constantinople. He did not have a chance to take powerful fortifications, but he managed to conclude a humiliating peace with the emperor Theodosius with the payment of tribute and the transfer of part of the territory to the Huns.
The reason for the new trip to the west: look for a woman!
After 3 years, the Byzantine emperor Marcian terminated the peace treaty with the Huns, but Attila found it more tempting to go to Gaul: a part of the Alans, whom Attila wanted to defeat, went there, in addition, there was one more reason.
Princess Justa Grata Honoria was the sister of the emperor of the Western Roman Empire Valentinian III, her husband could lay claim to imperial power. To avoid possible competition, Valentinian was going to marry his sister to an elderly and trustworthy Senator Herculan, which she did not want at all. Honoria sent Attila her ring and a call for marriage. And as a result, the Hunnic horde passed the entire north of Italy, plundered the Po valley, simultaneously defeated the kingdom of the Burgundians, and reached Orleans, but the Huns could not take it. Valentinian did not allow Attila to marry Honoria, the princess herself escaped torture, and perhaps execution, only thanks to the intercession of her mother.
The orientalist Otto Mönchen-Helfen considers the outbreak of the plague to be the reason for the departure of the Huns from Italy.
Death of the leader and disintegration of the state
After leaving Italy, Attila decided to marry the beautiful Ildiko (Hilda), the daughter of the King of Burgundy, but died on their wedding night from nosebleeds. Jordan narrates that the leader of the Huns died of intemperance and drunkenness. But in the works of Germanic mythology, "Elder Edda" and other kings, Attila was killed by his wife Gudrun, who avenged the death of her brothers.
In the next year, 454, the state of the Huns ceased to exist. The most prominent sons of Attila, Ellak and Dengizikh, soon died in the battles. But the Huns and their famous leader became part of the history and mythology of many peoples.
What European peoples borrowed from the Huns
In the Roman army, the commander Fabius Aetius introduced the Hunnic compound short bows with a reverse bend, well adapted for shooting from a horse.
The ancestors of the Huns, the Huns, are the inventors of the stirrups: it was from them that this part of the harness spread among other peoples.
The names of the Hunnic leaders became fashionable in Europe and became common: Baltazar, Donat, and of course Attila: this name is especially popular in Hungary.