The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a system of protective measures in an emergency is to prepare in advance a series of measures of increasing efficiency and, depending on the current forecasts of the onset of an emergency, to choose one or another.

The protective measures include ongoing measures based on seismic zoning: restriction of land use (especially when placing new buildings); strengthening of structures and earthquake-resistant construction; dismantling of insufficiently earthquake-resistant structures, the strengthening of which is not economically feasible; restrictions on the placement of dangerous or easily damaged objects inside buildings; preparation of measures based on forecasting the moment of an earthquake: determining possible damage to specific objects, developing scenarios for necessary actions, preparing their financing, creating material reserves, training the population and personnel of rescue services, conducting training exercises, etc.

However, we are currently interested in events at the household level. Numerous human casualties in earthquakes occur during the destruction of buildings, when walls and ceilings collapse, bricks, chimneys, moldings, balconies, lighting installations fall. Glasses flying from the upper floors, broken electrical wires on the roadway and simply heavy objects in rooms are dangerous. As a rule, earthquakes are accompanied by fires caused by gas leakage from damaged pipes, short-circuiting of power lines. All this is aggravated by the lack of water. water lines break. The uncontrolled actions of people in panic are also dangerous.

It is possible to reduce the number of injuries and the death toll if you think over the rules of behavior in extreme situations in advance. For example, it is necessary to accurately determine the sequence of actions during an earthquake in the most common conditions - at home, at work, in public places, on the street. This will help you to continue to act calmly and rationally in emergency conditions.

How to behave during an earthquake

Do not panic and stay calm, encourage those present;

Take shelter under strong tables, near main walls or columns, because the main danger can come from falling internal walls, ceilings, chandeliers;

Extinguish any source of fire immediately;

Wake up and dress children, help take them and the elderly to a safe place;

Use the phone only in exceptional cases to call for help, send a message to law enforcement, firefighters, civil defense;

Constantly listen to information on the radio;

Open the doors in order to provide yourself with an exit if necessary;

Do not go to balconies;

Do not use the elevator;

Do not use matches as there may be a risk of gas leakage;

As soon as the first series of tremors is over, leave the house, but before leaving it (if it is still intact), close the water taps, turn off the gas and electricity;

Take out the essentials and values;

Leave the dwelling with your back against the wall, especially if you have to go down the stairs;

Close the door of the house;

Avoid narrow and cluttered streets.

Unblocking works are carried out in order to provide access to people in the rubble and confined spaces, to release them and organize subsequent evacuation routes.

First aid (PMP) is provided with the aim of saving the lives of victims and bringing them to a condition that allows transportation.

If possible, first aid is provided at the location of the victims after access and release have been secured.

In certain cases, the provision of PMP is carried out at the collection point for the victims after their evacuation outside the danger zones.

The evacuation of victims from the places of blocking is carried out after providing access to them, release and rendering first aid.

Victims are evacuated from the blockade in two stages: from the blockage to the working platform and from the working platform to the victim collection point.

When carrying out rescue operations in the course of eliminating the consequences of earthquakes, the distribution of forces and means should be carried out as far as possible over the entire destruction zone. With a lack of rescue units, first of all, it is necessary to perform work at those workplaces where work can be performed in the shortest possible time, and in this case, the life-saving of the victims is guaranteed. 6

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"Nizhny Novgorod State Agricultural Academy"

Department of Microbiology, Virology, Biotechnology and Radiobiology and Life Safety

on the topic: "Protection against earthquakes and volcanic eruptions"

Completed by: Baikova Julia

Checked by: assistant A.N. Fadeeva

Nizhny Novgorod, 2016

Introduction

Earthquakes are tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface. The most dangerous of them arise due to tectonic displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or the upper part of the Earth's mantle.

So, knowing that earthquakes tend to occur at the border of the intersection of lithospheric plates, the magnitude of the risk of becoming a victim of an earthquake can be estimated using a map of seismic zones.

In addition, it should be remembered that earthquakes that occur at the bottom of the oceans or seas can cause another equally destructive natural phenomenon - a tsunami.

Earthquake alert to the public

Despite the rapid development of information technology and science, a person still cannot know in advance where and when the next powerful earthquake will occur in order to warn the population, give time to thoroughly prepare, thereby significantly reducing the number of victims. Hundreds of seismic stations around the world are watching hundreds of tremors and excitations under the earth's crust, always ready to report a serious threat. Most often, a large earthquake is accompanied by a preliminary series of smaller ones, the strength of which gradually increases. Due to the fact that the planet shakes every day from tremors, it is almost impossible to predict the real threat to a particular area. Therefore, everyone who is in an earthquake hazardous zone should know about the rules of behavior in the event of an earthquake, always be ready for action in order to survive, help loved ones and people who need help and survive the cataclysm.

Tho do in case of an earthquake

When an alarm is received. Consider the following earthquake survival tips and tricks, depending on your situation and developments:

· Turn on the radio, television, any source of live broadcast, preferably from the headquarters of civil defense, in order to finally be convinced of a serious earthquake threat, as well as to receive recommendations for action and the latest information about the current situation;

· Inform relatives, relatives, neighbors, people on the street within reach of the threat of a disaster, while limiting yourself to short phrases without unnecessary emotions, saving time and not panicking others.

· Gather all members of your family with whom you live to assign responsibilities for collection and preparation for a possible evacuation;

What to do if evacuation is necessary

1. Collect essentials, passports, other important documents, money, valuables in a backpack or any capacity convenient for you.

2. Fill a container with water, prepare a small amount of canned food;

3. Prepare the premises for conservation (lock and latch all windows, balconies, shut off gas, water, turn off electrical appliances from the network), close the entrance doors;

4. Take, if available, personal protective equipment (respirators, gas masks, gauze bandages, etc.);

5. Take your clothes (always a warm set);

6. Provide assistance to the disabled in the neighborhood, the elderly and the sick, help other people who need help;

Deearthquake response

1. Cut off the electricity in the room, close all windows, doors, balconies.

2. Notify neighbors, if any, collect essential things, documents, money, valuables, water, food, portable receiver (depending on the situation and personal preferences, the list of the most important things can be supplemented or modified), close the doors with a lock, as you can go outside as soon as possible, taking with you children, loved ones and everyone who needs help and cannot cope with the evacuation on their own.

What to do in case of a suddenearthquakes

If you have come face to face with an earthquake, follow these further guidelines:

1. At the first shocks, try to leave the building as soon as possible. If you can go out into an open space for 15-20 seconds, don't hesitate, just run as fast as you can. Every second counts in such a situation.

2. On the way to the street, knock on all doors, dial friends and relatives, relatives, children, if they are not with you. In the event of a mass evacuation, grab small children in your arms and follow the same scenario into an open space. It is strongly discouraged to use the elevator - only up the stairs!

3. If you decide to stay in an apartment or house, in any building from which you cannot get out in half a minute, stand in the doorway or in the corner of the room (near the load-bearing wall).

4. After the main blow of the earthquake, if you and those who were near the trouble bypassed and you can move, try to leave the building as soon as possible, pressing your back against the wall, if they are still in place. On the way, someone may need help, depending on your physical condition, provide feasible first aid to the injured, help other people with the evacuation, if it is in your power.

5. If you decide to evacuate not immediately, but with the necessary set of the most important things, pack everything in a backpack or bag, take some water and food, an emergency first aid kit, turn off the gas, water, turn off electrical appliances, close all doors and windows. Of course, something from this list may suffer after an earthquake, so act on your own. Close the door with a key.

6. As you leave the building or after all things have been taken out, provide all possible help to everyone who needs it. If you hear screams, break down doors, provide first aid, call an ambulance, and keep looking for casualties. Try not to leave the disaster area - your assistance in case of legal capacity will provide a great service to the victims. Use any suitable tool to disassemble the rubble: shovels, crowbars, jacks, hammers, boards, etc. After removing the victims, provide first aid, in case of a threat to life, send the person to the hospital department as soon as possible using accessible transport, or wait for the arrival of doctors if the ambulance is already aware.

7. Be careful when seeking and providing help. There may be repeated earthquakes, so assess the situation soberly, do not give in to panic, make a decision - go to the rescue or stay on the street.

8. If an earthquake catches you at the wheel, stop, leave the car, motorcycle until the end of the tremors.

9. If an earthquake overtook you in the subway or on the railway, do not panic, in this case everything depends to a greater extent on the drivers and the work of specially trained people to prevent accidents. Grab the handrails, wait for notifications from the driver, follow everyone in an emergency evacuation, avoiding panic and crush.

10. If you are in the coastal area, keep an eye on the reports of information services and the emergency headquarters. In the event of a powerful earthquake, a tsunami may occur. In case of notification of a possible tsunami, move perpendicular to the coastline as soon as possible, if there is transport, sit down and step on the gas. Depending on the situation, you may have some time for evacuation, which you can spend on preparing the most necessary things, documents, clothes. Whenever possible, keep calm in any of the situations listed. Panic during an earthquake, as the deplorable experience shows, only hurts.

11. If after an earthquake your building is destroyed or unsuitable for further stay, follow the reports of the local government about the assistance to the victims and the general situation.

12. Constantly monitor the situation in your area after the disaster (radio, TV, Internet). After earthquakes, there is a threat of chemical and radiation pollution due to accidents at industries and factories. In such cases, you need to take action depending on the situation.

Earthquake. The nature of the phenomenon, causes, varieties

An earthquake is nothing more than tremors provoked by processes taking place inside our planet; it is a seismic phenomenon that occurs as a result of abrupt displacements of the earth's crust. This process can occur at great depths in the earth's interior, but most often on the surface (up to 100 km).

Earthquakes are the final stage in the movement of the Earth's rocks. The frictional force prevents the earth's crust from shifting, but when the stress reaches a critical level, a sharp displacement occurs with rupture of the rocks, the friction force energy finds a way out in motion, the vibrations from which propagate, like sound waves, in all directions. The place where the break or movement occurs is called the focus of the earthquake, and the point on the earth's surface above the focus is called the epicenter of the earthquake. With distance from the epicenter, the strength of the shock wave decreases. The speed of such waves can reach 7-8 km per second. The causes of earthquakes are tectonic processes (associated with natural movement or deformation of the earth's crust or mantle), volcanic and others, less serious, associated with collapses, landslides, filling of reservoirs, collapse of underground cavities of mine workings, explosions and other changes, most often provoked by human activity, which are called artificial pathogens.

Varieties of earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes occur as a result of high stress in the interior of a volcano, due to the movement of lava or volcanic gas. Such earthquakes do not pose a great threat to humans, but they continue for a long time and many times.

Man-made earthquakes are caused by human activities, for example, in the case of flooding during the construction of large reservoirs, during the extraction of oil or natural gas, coal, that is, in violation of the integrity of the earth's crust. Earthquakes in such cases do not have large magnitudes, but can be dangerous for a small area of \u200b\u200bthe Earth's surface, as well as provoke more serious tectonic changes, which entails an increase in the stress of rocks in the planet's crust. Landslide earthquakes are caused by landslides and large landslides, they are not so dangerous and have a local character. Artificial earthquakes occur in the case of the use of powerful weapons or the use of climate weapons (tectonic weapons). The severity of such earthquakes depends on the power of the explosion or the intensity of use (in the case of climatic weapons). Information about the use of tectonic weapons is most often classified for ordinary mortals and one can only guess what exactly led to the earthquake in this or that region of the planet. The intensity of an earthquake can be determined in points of one of the accepted seismological intensity scales, or by the maximum kinematic parameters of vibrations of the earth's surface. Let's see what these numbers mean, excluding the Japanese way of measuring:

3 points - minor fluctuations that are noticed by especially sensitive people who are indoors at the time of the earthquake.

5 points - there is a swaying of objects in the room, the shocks are felt by everyone who is conscious

6-7 points - destruction in buildings, cracks in the earth's crust are possible, tremors are felt in any area and in any room.

8-10 points - buildings of almost any structure begin to collapse, it is difficult for a person to stand on his feet, large cracks may appear in the earth's crust.

Volcanoes are a fairly popular phenomenon for our planet. Volcanologists who periodically disturb a person with their eruptions and countless other dead, who of course at any moment can rise from the dead. The trepidation and fear of people before volcanoes is understandable. A volcanic eruption is a devastating and rather serious phenomenon for the very fragile and vulnerable organism of Homo sapiens. Ash clouds, hot lava flows, flying stones, hot gases, water vapor - all this can be observed during an eruption. It is very important to know the rules of conduct during a nearby volcanic eruption, which we will discuss in this article. But first, let's study this natural phenomenon in more detail.

It turns out that this is a geological formation that appears above the channels, cracks in the earth's crust; through them, rocks tend to the surface of the Earth, most often in molten form (this is also called lava).

There are dormant volcanoes, active, extinct. Unfortunately, we cannot yet say how the first ones differ from the third ones. But let us inform you that in terms of shape, volcanoes are distinguished between central (the eruption occurs from the central crater, which is the highest point of the hill), and fissure (the slopes of these volcanoes are dotted with a mass of cracks, through which steam, lava, ash will rapidly puff out). Volcanoes, in other words, are rocks that are modified due to tectonic processes in the fractures of lithospheric plates. All this is accompanied by earthquakes, eruptions of lava, ash and other nonsense, which is a considerable danger to people.

We will tell about the rest of the interesting volcanic facts in another article, and here we will try to convey to the reader the basic rules of behavior during a volcanic eruption.

Rules of conduct for a volcanic eruption

Like other natural disasters, a volcanic eruption often happens unexpectedly and a person has no choice but to respond quickly to this incident. The danger posed by an active volcano is inversely proportional to the distance to the crater. That is, those who live close to the smoking mountain should worry most of all. Most powerful eruptions are accompanied by earthquakes, which, as it were, warn all living things around that danger is very likely in the near future. It is in such a situation that the emergency services alert the population of a potential volcanic eruption, thereby hinting to pack up and move out.

So, what are the basic rules of behavior during a volcanic eruption?

1. If you live in close proximity to a volcano, constantly monitor the messages about its condition, prepare a hot backpack with the most necessary things and documents. He must always be ready.

2. When you receive a warning about an eruption or possible subsequent complications (flood, mudflow), preserve your home, collect all the most necessary things and look for a shelter, preferably away from fire-breathing, ash-erupting, lava slopes until better times, while the danger of a volcanic eruption passes.

3. If you did not have time to fly to the other end of the world and the eruption took you by surprise, be sure to protect your body and head from ash and stones. The head will be protected by almost everything, from wooden structures to cardboard, a gauze bandage or a respirator will take care of breathing. Well, if you are 100% prepared, you can take out your trophy gas mask, but remember that it is very difficult to recognize you in this form.

4. Volcanic eruptions are often accompanied by floods, mudflows, flooding. Therefore, avoid river valleys, especially near a volcano, try to climb as high as possible so as not to become a victim of water flows or mudflows.

5. If during a volcanic eruption you leave the danger zone by transport, choose a route opposite to the direction of the wind. This will help you avoid an unpleasant date with ashes later on.

6. The average speed of lava movement is 40 km / h. It's quite possible to escape from this hot thing. As in the case of ash, it is worth choosing a direction of movement perpendicular to the flow.

7. If health is dear to you, wear as much warm clothes as possible. This will protect your body from acid, which will be produced in large quantities as a result of the SO2 reaction with the environment.

8. After the eruption, do not rush to return to your home. Messages of emergency services should serve as a signal. If possible, spend a few days away from the area affected by the volcanic eruption.

9. Upon returning to your home, try not to open the windows for as long as possible (2-3 weeks), until the ash has completely disappeared from the environment. Remember to protect your respiratory system.

The main parts of the volcanic apparatus:

Magma chamber (in the earth's crust or upper mantle); - vent - outlet channel through which magma rises to the surface; - cone - an elevation on the Earth's surface from the products of a volcanic ejection; - crater - a depression on the surface of the volcano's cone.

How to prepare for a volcanic eruption

earthquake evacuation alarm volcano

Watch out for the warning of a possible volcanic eruption. You will save your life if you leave dangerous territory in time. Close all windows, doors and smoke dampers when you receive an ash warning.

Put cars in garages. Place animals indoors. Stock up on self-powered lighting and heat sources, water, food for 3 - 5 days.

How to act during andvolcanic eruption

Protect your body and head from rocks and ash. Volcanic eruptions can be accompanied by violent floods, mudflows, flooding, so avoid river banks and valleys near volcanoes, try to stay in high places so as not to get into the flood or mudflow zone.

How to act after a volcanic eruption

Cover your mouth and nose with a gauze bandage to prevent inhalation of ash. Wear safety glasses and clothing to avoid burns. Do not try to drive the car after the ash has fallen out - it will damage it. Remove ash from the roof of the house to prevent overloading and destruction.

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It is very difficult to warn residents about the threat of an earthquake, since it is not yet possible to accurately predict its place and time. However, knowledge of indirect signs of its approximation can help to survive this situation with the least losses. Such signs include: seemingly unreasonable disturbance of birds and domestic animals (this is especially noticeable at night), as well as a massive exodus from reptile habitats. In winter, lizards and snakes crawl out into the snow in anticipation of danger. Notification of the population is carried out by transmitting messages over radio and television networks. . To attract attention in case of emergency, before the transmission of information, sirens and other signaling means are turned on. Sirens and intermittent beeps of enterprises and vehicles mean the civil defense signal “Attention to all”. According to the general assessment of the state of protection of the population and territories from emergencies, the protection of the population from seismic hazards within the existing capabilities is not properly ensured in modern times. The complex of measures aimed at counteracting earthquakes in earthquake-prone regions is being slowly improved. At the same time, the requirements for facilities located in seismically hazardous regions (according to new maps of general seismic zoning of the territory of the Russian Federation) have significantly increased in the last two decades. Proceeding from them, due to an increase in the magnitude of possible earthquakes by 2-3 units, in many cities and industrial enterprises the current system of engineering protection measures is not fully capable of withstanding destructive earthquakes. About 60-70% of the population of earthquake-prone regions still live in buildings that do not meet the design standards for engineering and technical measures. New teaching technologies and technical developments currently available in the world to mitigate the consequences of devastating earthquakes can reduce the risk of large-scale emergencies. A new network of 250 GPS stations being set up in California will provide a warning signal for a major earthquake. This will make it possible to stop the gas supply to the pipelines in advance, stop trains or reduce their speed to safe, prepare the nuclear power plant, and also warn the surgeons performing operations. A network of monitoring stations, located near Los Angeles, will allow you to feel the movements in the San Andreas tectonic fault and thereby give a signal about the imminent onset of an earthquake. The results of a survey in the seismic region of Kamchatka show that 60-70% of local residents consider themselves informed about the seismic threat. However, as it turned out, not all of them have the knowledge and skills necessary to take timely preventive measures to ensure their own safety at home, at work, in transport and in crowded places (stadiums, markets, parks, etc.). As before, there are accumulations of stocks of fuel and lubricants, public transport, orphanages in hazardous zones, personal "reserve airfields" and "emergency supplies" have not been created by citizens at their dachas or in earthquake-proof homes of their relatives. With the adoption of the Federal Law "On the Protection of the Population and Territories from Natural and Technogenic Emergencies", the legal formation of a unified state system for preparing the population of the Russian Federation to act in the face of threats and emergencies began. In the development of this law, in 1995, the implementation of the Federal Target Program "Creation and Development of the Russian System of Prevention and Action in Emergency Situations" began, an organic part of which was the subprogram "Education of the population, training of specialists, management bodies and emergency response forces". This program, as well as the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the procedure for training the population in the field of protection from emergencies" have formed a serious basis for training the population in protection from emergencies. The defining target setting in this training is to give people the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for intelligent action in the face of threat and occurrence of accidents, disasters and dangerous natural phenomena, including seismic in nature. Training should be early, organized, evidence-based and delivered on a regular basis. This is the most important component of solving the problem of security of the population and territories. The information obtained during the registration of earthquakes is very important, it gives information about both the source of the earthquake and the structure of the earth's crust in individual regions and the Earth as a whole. About 20 minutes after a strong earthquake, seismologists around the globe will learn about it. This requires no radio or telegraph. Seismic zoning is a means of protection against earthquakes. The protective measures that have been developed by the competent authorities in seismically hazardous areas are of immense scope and are precisely phased in. They provide for everything - from architectural and construction standards to protection against dam damage, suspension of hazardous industries. In earthquake-prone areas, constant work should be carried out to reduce the possible consequences of earthquakes. For this purpose it is necessary:

- to organize and conduct continuous seismic monitoring, i.e. constant monitoring of the current seismic situation, based on the data of which to forecast possible earthquakes;
- to plan and conduct construction of objects for various purposes, taking into account seismic zoning, to control the quality of this construction;
- to plan measures for the protection and life support of the population in case of an earthquake, to prepare them;
- to prepare the population for action in case of earthquakes, control bodies and rescue forces to carry out search and rescue and other urgent operations. In the event of earthquakes, it is necessary to provide a firm and skillful leadership of the forces and means to eliminate their consequences.

The earthquake forecast is not perfect enough. It only allows us to guess where a major earthquake should be expected, and with some probability to determine when it will occur. In this regard, measures to protect against damage caused by earthquakes are urgently needed, which essentially boil down to two recommendations.
First, obviously dangerous areas should be avoided. Since full evacuation from places such as cities on the California coast is not possible, zoning is required on a large enough scale to minimize risk.
Secondly, it is necessary to ensure the highest reliability of buildings in earthquake-prone areas. There are no completely seismic buildings. But it is quite possible to design and build a building that is sufficiently resistant to earthquakes.
The antiseismic properties of buildings can be identified based on the experience of past earthquakes. Perhaps the most unsuccessful buildings for the seismic region are the adobe and wooden houses with heavy stone roofs, which are so widespread in Asia and South America. Avoid significant decorative loads on the top of buildings, including parapets on upper floors. During the recent California earthquake, it was found that double garages on the ground floor also significantly reduce the strength of the home. Modern reinforced concrete buildings usually do well with earthquakes, but there are still no engineering calculations for those cases where the horizontal acceleration can be commensurate with the acceleration of gravity, as was observed during the California earthquake in 1971.
When erecting bold modern concrete structures in seismic areas, architects seem to have to bring a healthy dose of conservatism to them and not forget about the material, the poor quality of which can play a fatal role in earthquakes. During the 1930 earthquake in Italy, the cause of the destruction was mainly the use of heavy, rounded pebbles in the construction, and in the Skopje earthquake in 1963, many collapses were caused by poor bonding of the concrete with unwashed aggregate. The fact that the buildings in Skopje were “flattened” also testifies to the weak reinforced concrete floors that lay on the unreinforced brick walls. A poor foundation is a guarantee of possible destruction, be it insufficiently densely laid masonry or loose soil under buildings, as in Niigata in 1964.
If a building is constructed of good-quality reinforced concrete, has a steel frame, a deep foundation, a light roof and short chimneys, it will always show anti-seismic properties. Many examples have confirmed that, if you do not take into account the possibility of fires, the safest in an earthquake are wooden buildings - log huts and houses with a wooden frame. The Japanese have come to the conclusion that corrugated steel or bitumen-impregnated cardboard rolls are a much better roofing material than conventional shingles.
The Hotel Imperial, built in Tokyo just before the earthquake of 1923, was for that time a building, classical but its earthquake-resistant design: the building had a deep foundation, tapered upwards and ended with a roof of light copper; a decorative pond was built in the center of the hotel, which saved it from the fire that broke out after the earthquake.
Old buildings are especially troublesome during earthquakes. New homes are usually built to certain standards, although this increases their value. Demolishing old buildings and replacing them with new ones to ensure safety is too costly and requires a preliminary assessment of the amount of damage that a large earthquake can cause to a densely populated city. Even with highly qualified design, it is difficult to exclude the possibility of resonance in high-rise buildings, and slow seismic waves can accidentally coincide in period with the natural oscillations of the building.
Seismographs are installed in the high-speed railway track in Hokkaido, Japan, and the train will automatically stop if the ground shaking exceeds a certain level. Even vaguely formulated earthquake forecasts can be used, for example, to make a decision to lower the water level in reservoirs and thereby increase the seismic stability of the site.
Unfortunately, many people neglect such forecasts. Perhaps this is not the case in a controlled society. But in California, for example, recent studies have shown that an earthquake warning will only lead to the fact that half of the few who pay attention to it will do nothing at all, and most will simply start praying.
Taking into account all of the above, the best protection against earthquakes should be considered the zoning of the territory and the identification of zones of different seismic hazard. In this case, the study of the geological specifics of a given area is of paramount importance. Although in most earthquakes the greatest destruction is caused by ground motion rather than general displacement, the most important thing is to find active faults that present zones of obvious danger. Thus, the primary task in zoning seismic zones is to trace all existing faults. This task is complicated by the fact that faults usually form wide enough bands with branches; in addition, over time, new faults may arise, and old, "persistent" faults may shift.
The 1971 earthquake in San Fernando originated on a fault that was considered inactive. Consequently, during geological mapping, it is necessary to register all faults, regardless of their activity, and then, when populating the territory, to stay away from them. California currently prohibits the construction of new buildings within 35 meters of known faults, with the exception of small single-family homes that may be built within 15 meters of the fault. If the position of the fault is not precisely determined, try to move the boundaries of the building as far as possible beyond the proposed fault zone. If, nevertheless, it is necessary to carry out construction in the zone of an active fault, they resort to various constructive tricks. For example, aqueducts supplying water to Los Angeles, which cross the San Andreas Fault, have mobile connections. It was gratifying to learn that plans to build a nuclear power plant on this fault (in the Bodega Head area) have recently been abandoned, although this required considerable pressure from environmentalists.
Undoubtedly, the most important criterion for zoning seismic zones for predicting earthquakes and preventing their consequences is taking into account the building properties of soils. The best in this respect are bedrocks, and the worst are unconsolidated, water-saturated young sediments. The stronger the rock, the less potential earthquake damage. This relationship, although difficult to quantify, serves as the best guide for identifying areas of relative safety. In unconsolidated strata, the weak ones are most susceptible to liquefaction of silts and sands with grains of the same size, especially if these loose rocks are saturated with water and are shallow. It has been established that the greatest amplification of seismic waves is observed in those areas where loose sediments occur directly on hard bedrocks. Therefore, when planning the expansion of cities such as Tokyo and San Francisco, the area distribution of different types of sediment should be considered.
Zoning criteria can also be an assessment of the possibility of flooding under the influence of a tsunami and taking into account the risk of occurrence and extent of landslides associated with movements of the earth's crust.
As already noted, the San Andreas Fault in California can be subdivided into active and fairly calm areas. San Francisco and Los Angeles are located in potentially hazardous areas. But today we cannot talk about the transfer of buildings, and even more so cities, to another place. The available information can only be used when planning new developments. The city of Valdez, destroyed in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, was rebuilt on bedrock, whereas it used to be on loose deltaic sediments. But in Managua (Nicaragua), it turned out to be practically impossible to avoid the development of "weak soils" that contributed to the destruction of the city during the 1972 earthquake. The city was rebuilt in its original place. The only concession to nature was that areas along the five faults that became active in 1972 were not built up.

Future
If the same earthquake that struck San Francisco in 1906 is repeated, it could claim from two to one hundred thousand (or even more) human lives. This number will largely depend on the time of day, as well as the number of dams that have collapsed. There can be no doubt that at least one more earthquake will occur in San Francisco: this city is located on one of the most active faults in the world, which will undoubtedly begin to move in the near future.
What is being done to prevent this threat? My answer is: depressingly little. This is due to the scale of the problem, which is difficult to control, as well as the indifference of the authorities. The material damage that could be caused to the city of San Francisco by a future earthquake will amount to many billions of dollars, even if we do not take into account the huge additional losses that will certainly be in the production sector. Yet correct planning and calculations could greatly reduce these gigantic numbers. Recent research has shown that $ 38 billion in property losses could be reduced in California by spending $ 6 billion on renovation and relocation now. Is it worth investing such funds to minimize damage from some problematic natural disaster, which, moreover, does not know when it will happen? If we put the priceless treasure of human lives on the scales, we would get a clear answer.
The geology of the San Andreas Fault System is well understood and we are able to pinpoint the hazardous areas along the fault lines. But no one wants to take responsibility for taking appropriate action. There is a huge gap between expert knowledge and public assessment of the hazard and cost-effectiveness of planning activities. The active fault line is undoubtedly the most immediate danger zone in the event of any earthquake. California law currently prohibits construction along discharge lines; it is recognized that parks, golf courses, or even highways should be built in these areas (without building large bridges on them). But this was not always the case, and the mistakes of past years have not been corrected. Why are many buildings that are well known to be built on active faults continue to operate? Why are suburban areas west of San Francisco still housing estates at two sites within the San Andreas Fault?
The situation is even worse in Oakland, on the inner side of the San Francisco Bay. Auckland is located on the Hayward Fault, a very active offshoot of the San Andreas system, where noticeable movements were observed during the great earthquake of 1868. It is dangerous to build residential buildings on the rift, but it is even more dangerous to build public buildings there. Despite this, Oakland has fourteen schools, two hospitals, and the University of California campus football stadium on the Hayward Fault; Berkeley. The danger is well known, but due to inertia, carelessness and a number of other reasons, they do not pay attention to it. The same is true for Anchorage, Alaska. A 1959 USGS report indicated the potential for earthquake instability of the Bootlegger Cove Clay. Nevertheless, houses were built on these clays within the Ternegain Heights Plateau, and a school was erected on the Government Hill Plateau. During the earthquake, it all collapsed. How many then there was talk about the tragedy that happened!
What will be the reaction of the population if the Hayward Fault begins to move again near Oakland and hundreds of people die under the rubble of two hospitals, fourteen schools and stadium stands?

For some reason, humanity believes that it has conquered nature, but this is only an illusion. First, people know more about space than about the world's oceans. Secondly, until now scientists cannot be predicted in advance. The consequences of earthquakes are also terrible. Photos from the crash sites fly around the world every few years. It is terrifying how insignificant a person is before nature.

Earthquakes - causes and essence

We are accustomed to the fact that the ground under our feet is something immovable and unshakable, but this is not at all the case. located in the earth's crust, are in constant motion, collide, diverge, crawl over each other and rub. In addition, mining in the bowels of the planet, explosions, landslides, filling of reservoirs and many other artificial processes can also provoke large earthquakes. In fact, they are tremors and occur quite often - about once every 2 weeks.

However, most of them fall on the ocean floor and are not too thick, so that they are practically invisible. But if the epicenter is close enough to the surface and populated areas, and the intensity is high, the consequences can be catastrophic.

Seismologists' predictions

Protecting the population from the effects of an earthquake begins with predicting its likelihood and calculating when it will occur. Here one cannot do without the achievements of seismology, which managed to develop some methods for predicting earthquakes of sufficient strength to affect the lives of people.

The earthquake itself is preceded by some processes in the lithosphere, which can be traced and analyzed, which is what this science does. There are special instruments - seismographs, which register the movements of tectonic plates. Their help in predicting strong earthquakes is invaluable, because they provide an opportunity to prepare for a disaster, gain several hours so that evacuation can begin and alert the population of danger, which will reduce the number of victims.

The most earthquake-prone areas

The places where earthquakes occur are most often known, this is clear from the reasons for their occurrence. These are the joints of tectonic plates, which on the surface can look like young high mountains, for example, the Himalayas, Andes, Cordillera. In addition, there is a fault in the Far East, it runs from Kamchatka along Japan and stretches further - to the islands of Indonesia and New Zealand. The plate boundary also extends from Greece to the southeast, which is a potential hazard. And all this is not just curious knowledge. This allows the construction of cities, large buildings, etc., taking into account such important information. And not only to use special technologies, but also to be constantly on the alert, to be ready to cope with the elements. And this is not always easy, because the protection of the population from the consequences of an earthquake must be comprehensive. Ultimately, much depends on the scale of the disaster.

Effects

If we take into account only strong and large earthquakes, the damage is obvious in their example. The shift of parts of the earth's crust in different directions provokes damage and destruction of buildings, roads and other objects. This can cause injury and death. That is why, first of all, immediately after the disaster, all the rescuers are directed to such an event as protecting the population from the consequences of an earthquake.

The main damaging factors for this type are seismic waves of various types:

Hypocentral longitudinal. They spread from the focus in all directions with alternate formation of compression and tension zones. Ground displacement occurs along the direction of the waves. The speed is about 8 km / s.
Hypocentral transverse. They also propagate in all directions at a speed of 5 km / s and form shear zones. The soil moves perpendicular to the direction.
Rayleigh and Love waves. They spread from the epicenter in the upper layer of the earth's crust. There is a displacement in the vertical and horizontal direction perpendicular to the waves. The speed is between 0.5 and 2 km / s.

In addition, the consequences of earthquakes for humans depend on the area in which they occur. They can be accompanied by avalanches, mudflows, floods, etc., depending on which natural and man-made objects suffered from damage. Finally, the number of victims is also influenced by the actions of the population during the earthquake. If people know how to behave correctly, they will not only survive on their own, but also help others.

Qualitative characteristics

Naturally, the magnitude and intensity of the impact also matters. For their assessment, respectively, several point systems used in different countries are used. There are 12 levels in Russia:

1 point. It is registered only with the help of special devices.
2 points. May be felt by empathetic animals and people on the top floors
3 points. Felt inside some buildings. The vibration is comparable to a ride in a truck.
4 points. Felt by many people, wobble of doors and windows can be observed.
5 points. Minor damage: swaying hanging objects, shedding whitewash, rattling glass.
6 points. Small cracks in plaster, brickwork may be observed.
7 points. It is characterized by severe damage to buildings, the appearance of cracks in damp soils.
8 points. Serious damage to buildings, destruction of their elements.
9 points. Collapses in some buildings and landslides.
10 points. Destruction of many buildings. Cracks in the ground up to 1 meter wide.
11 points. Complete destruction of all buildings, numerous faults in the ground.
12 points. Catastrophic destruction and changes in the lithosphere. Deviations along rivers.

Obviously, at an intensity of about 4-5 points and below, protection of the population from the consequences of earthquakes is not required, since they are minimal. However, it is still worth knowing how to deal with these kinds of disasters.

What to do?

Now that the causes and consequences of earthquakes have become clear, it is worth talking about how to behave if the earth is literally slipping from under your feet.

First of all, you need to try to pull yourself together and calm down - you need to act rationally and soberly, not succumbing to panic. If a disaster is caught on the street, you need to find a place away from buildings and If the tremors began while staying in any room, the actions of the population during an earthquake depend on what kind of structure it is. It is better to get out of a 2-3-storey building as quickly as possible, otherwise, if time permits, you need to open the door, which can then jam, and then find shelter. A place next to the main wall away from windows is well suited; often a table, under which you can hide, or a bath, will be an excellent option. The main thing is to stay away from unsecured heavy objects, windows, etc. Of course, if we are talking about transport, in case of jolts, it must be abandoned immediately.

Following actions

First of all, the protection of the population from the consequences of the earthquake consists in its emergency evacuation and the beginning of work to rescue those who may be under the rubble. It must be remembered that tremors can be repeated, exacerbating destruction or causing new ones.

Russia, like any other rescue service, in such a disaster - to protect people. Rescuers provide first aid, manage the evacuation, and clear debris. This applies not only to earthquakes, but also to any other emergencies.

Preventive action

Measures that are taken even before the earthquake play a significant role. This includes not only government funding for research and the work of seismologists, but also the construction of buildings, dams, protective structures using special technologies.

It is highly recommended for people living in the danger zone to have a supply of food, water and medicine at home, to study the dwelling in advance for the most suitable place for shelter, and also to organize the possibility in any conditions, including in the absence of electricity, to receive information, for example, through battery-powered radio. It is also worth making sure that all furniture, especially heavy ones, is in a stable condition. It should be remembered that protecting the population from the consequences of an earthquake primarily depends on the people themselves and their readiness to act quickly and correctly. So it will not be superfluous to conduct training events and trainings from time to time.

Major earthquakes in recent years

In the XXI century, there are 7 destructive disasters associated with the movement of tectonic plates. All of them were quite powerful and intense, had a significant magnitude and caused many thousands of victims and victims:

26.12.2003, Iran. Magnitude - 6.3. The death toll is estimated at 50-60 thousand people.
26.12.2004, Indian Ocean. Magnitude - 9.3. About 200-250 thousand victims.
05/12/2008, China, Sichuan province. Magnitude - 8.0. Up to 70 thousand dead.
01/12/2010, Haiti. Magnitude - 7.0. About 220 thousand people died, another 300 thousand were injured, over 1 million lost their homes and property.
02/27/2010, Chile. Magnitude - 8.8. It was accompanied by a tsunami. Fewer than 1,000 were killed and about 1.5 million homes damaged.
11.03.2011, Japan. Magnitude - 9.0. Less than 15 thousand people died, about the same number were missing. The earthquake was accompanied by serious destruction, tsunami.
25-26.04.2015, Nepal. The magnitude is 4.2-7.8. A series of earthquakes, as a result of which about 5 thousand died, 7 more were injured.

The number of victims does not always directly depend on the scale of the disaster. Often times, the intelligent actions of the population during an earthquake can save many lives. That is why informing people about how to behave in an emergency must be constant and complete. The main tasks of the EMERCOM of Russia also include this item, but earthquakes on the territory of the Russian Federation are quite rare. Perhaps neglecting this duty could one day be worth great sacrifices.