There is a misconception that before the arrival of European colonists, only savages in loincloths lived in Africa, who had neither civilization nor states. IN different times there were strong state formations, which in their level of development sometimes surpassed the countries of medieval Europe.
Today little is known about them - the colonialists roughly destroyed all the beginnings of an independent, unique political culture black peoples, imposed their own orders on them and left no chance for independent development.
Traditions have died. The chaos and poverty that is now associated with black Africa did not arise on the green continent due to European violence. Therefore, the ancient traditions of the states of black Africa are known to us today only thanks to historians and archaeologists, as well as the epic of local peoples.
Three gold-bearing empires
Already in the 13th century BC. The Phoenicians (then masters of the Mediterranean) traded iron and exotic goods, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceroses, with tribes who lived in the territories of modern Mali, Mauritania and the greater Guinea region.
It is unknown whether there were full-fledged states in this region at that time. However, we can say with confidence that by the beginning of our era there were state formations on the territory of Mali, and the first undisputed regional dominant had emerged - the Empire of Ghana, which entered the legends of other peoples as the fabulous country of Vagadou.
Nothing concrete can be said about this power, except that it was strong state with all the necessary attributes - everything we know about that era, we know from archaeological finds. A person who owns writing first visited this country in 970.
It was the Arab traveler Ibn Haukal. He described Ghana as richest country, drowning in gold. In the 11th century, the Berbers destroyed this possibly thousand-year-old state, and it broke up into many small principalities.
The Empire of Mali soon became the new dominant of the region, ruled by the same Mansa Musa, who is considered the richest man in history. He created not only a strong and rich, but also a highly cultural state - in end of XIII century, a strong school of Islamic theology and science was developing in the Timbuktu madrasah. But the Mali Empire did not last long - from about the beginning of the 13th century. to the beginning of the 15th century. It was replaced by a new state - Songhai. He became the last empire of the region.
Songhai was not as rich and powerful as its predecessors, the great gold-bearing Mali and Ghana, which provided half of the Old World with gold, and was much more dependent on the Arab Maghreb. But, nevertheless, he was the continuer of that one and a half thousand-year tradition that puts these three states on a par.
In 1591, the Moroccan army, after a long war, finally destroyed the Songhai army, and with it the unity of the territories. The country splits into many small principalities, none of which could reunite the entire region.
East Africa: the cradle of Christianity
The ancient Egyptians dreamed of the semi-legendary country of Punt, which was located somewhere in the Horn of Africa. Punt was considered the ancestral home of the gods and Egyptian royal dynasties. In the understanding of the Egyptians, this country, which, apparently, actually existed and traded with later Egypt, was represented as something like Eden on earth. But little is known about Punt.
We know much more about the 2500-year history of Ethiopia. In the 8th century BC. The Sabaeans, immigrants from the countries of southern Arabia, settled on the Horn of Africa. The Queen of Sheba is precisely their ruler. They created the kingdom of Aksum and spread the rules of a highly civilized society.
The Sabaeans were familiar with both Greek and Mesopotamian culture and had a very developed writing system, on the basis of which the Aksumite letter appeared. This Semitic people spreads across the Ethiopian plateau and assimilates the inhabitants belonging to the Negroid race.
At the very beginning of our era, a very strong Aksumite kingdom appeared. In the 330s, Axum converted to Christianity and became the third oldest Christian country, after Armenia and the Roman Empire.
This state existed for more than a thousand years - until the 12th century, when it collapsed due to acute confrontation with Muslims. But already in the 14th century, the Christian tradition of Aksum was revived, but under a new name - Ethiopia.
South Africa: little-known but ancient traditions
States - namely states with all the attributes, and not tribes and chiefdoms - existed in southern Africa, and there were many of them. But they did not have writing and did not erect monumental buildings, so we know almost nothing about them.
Perhaps the hidden palaces of forgotten emperors await explorers in the jungles of the Congo. Only a few centers of political culture in Africa south of the Gulf of Guinea and the Horn of Africa that existed in the Middle Ages are known for certain.
At the end of the 1st millennium, a strong state of Monomotapa emerged in Zimbabwe, which fell into decline by the 16th century. Another center of active development of political institutions was the Atlantic coast of the Congo, where the Congo Empire took shape in the 13th century.
In the 15th century, its rulers converted to Christianity and submitted to the Portuguese crown. In this form, this Christian empire existed until 1914, when it was liquidated by the Portuguese colonial authorities.
On the shores of the great lakes, in the territory of Uganda and Congo in the 12th-16th centuries, there was the Kitara-Unyoro empire, which we know about from the epic of local peoples and a small number of archaeological finds. In the XVI-XIX centuries. In modern DR Congo there were two empires, Lunda and Luba.
Finally, in early XIX century, a Zulu tribal state emerges on the territory of modern South Africa. His chief Chaka reformed everything social institutions of this people and created a truly effective army, which in the 1870s spoiled a lot of blood for the British colonists. But, unfortunately, she was unable to oppose anything to the guns and cannons of the whites.
PART VI The Shaping of the Modern World (1750-2000)
Chapter 21. Europe and the world (1750-1900)
21.19. Africa
For more than three hundred years after 1500, direct European control over Africa was limited to a few forts and trading posts, along with a small group of settlements around the Cape of Good Hope. A major problem facing the continent, especially sub-Saharan Africa, was its very low population—in 1900, there were only about 100 million people living in Africa. This, combined with poor communications and a host of diseases, meant that the social and economic basis for building developed political structures did not exist here. When in late XIX century, Europeans began to exert more effective influence on Africa, it quickly destroyed all the structures that existed here. For the first time in world history, Africa, with the exception of the northern regions along the Mediterranean coast, found itself under the control of external powers.
In West Africa, the influence of the slave trade diminished during the 19th century, and gradually other goods, especially palm oil, began to be traded rather than people. The British controlled the area around the Gambia River, as well as the colony of Sierra Leone (where freed slaves were settled), as well as settlements on the Gold Coast and further east in Lagos. The Portuguese held several islands and the colony of Luanda on the mainland, while the French held Saint-Louis in Senegal and Libreville (founded in 1849). In 1822, the United States founded the colony of Liberia to accommodate free blacks because the Americans did not want them to live in America; Liberia became fully independent in 1847.
In the early seventies of the 19th century, the British moved inland from the Gold Coast and attacked the Ashanti kingdom, destroying its capital Kumasi, and then retreated back to the coast so as not to bind themselves to any obligations. The main power in this region during this period was the Sokoto Caliphate, founded in 1817 and representing a loose alliance of about thirty "states" that were governed by Islamic law and recognized the supremacy of a central ruler in Sokoto. It was the last major slave state in the world. Further to the east, Egyptian forces advanced south into Sudan, but it was soon captured by the British (nominally becoming Anglo-Egyptian territory).
IN South Africa At the beginning of the 19th century, there was almost constant fighting among the peoples of the Nguni linguistic group, which led to the rise of the previously insignificant leader Chaka in the Mthethwa tribe, who founded the Zulu kingdom. Although he was assassinated in 1828, the kingdom, dominated by military leaders, survived as a major regional power. Equally important was the creation of the Swazi kingdom to the north and west of the Zulu and the Ndebele kingdom in the southwest of modern Zimbabwe, where chiefs who fled north from the Zulus ruled the local Shona people from the 1940s.
The main pressure on these kingdoms came from the south - after the British captured the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1806. In 1838, before the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, the number of slaves living in this colony peaked at more than 40,000. Even after the abolition of slavery, black unskilled workers remained only half free, and from 1828 the British imposed strict national segregation in the regions east of the Cape of Good Hope. This proved unbearable for many poor whites, especially farmers of Dutch origin (Afrikaner). They began to move north to the Orange River region and, by the 1940s, to the Transvaal to escape what they considered "racial equality."
The Afrikaners successfully achieved independence, but their states remained very small: even by 1870, there were still only 45,000 whites living in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. Further to the east, the British colony of Natal grew slowly (the Zulus continued to pose a serious threat to it for decades), but in general there were no major changes in southern Africa until the discovery of huge diamond deposits in the Kimberley in 1867. The income from them was enough to finance the self-government of a small white community at the Cape of Good Hope.
In the late seventies of the 19th century, the British tried to bring the two Boer republics to the north under their control, but failed. In the 1990s, growing mineral wealth in the Transvaal prompted the British to take more decisive action. They were able to provoke a war - although it took them three years to crush the Boer resistance. The Boer republics were eventually incorporated into the white-controlled Union of South Africa, created in 1910.
In East Africa, significant changes occurred at the beginning of the 19th century, after the expulsion of the Portuguese and the establishment of the rule of the Islamic Omani dynasty. In 1785, Muslim rulers took control of Kilwa, and in 1800, the island of Zanzibar. Now all ports on the mainland coast were under the authority of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Trade routes were opened into the interior; the main items of trade were ivory and slaves. Approximately 50,000 slaves a year were sent to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia, and the island of Zanzibar itself had about 100,000 slaves—roughly half the population. They were mainly engaged in growing cloves for sale in Europe.
In the interior of Africa, the states that existed here stubbornly refused external contacts - by 1878, Rwanda allowed only one Arab merchant to settle in the country. Elsewhere, especially in the Great Lakes region, outside influences were much greater. The long-existing kingdom of Buganda collapsed, unable to withstand external pressure, the local economy was quickly transformed under the influence of active trade: cattle were driven about 600 miles to the coast for sale; Caravans carrying ivory and slaves were moving in the same direction; new products were brought from the coast to meet them.
As in the past, the kingdom of Ethiopia remained largely free from these influences. From about 1750 to 1850, it was hardly an organized political entity - it was ruled by local military leaders. It was reunited only in the early seventies of the 19th century during the reign of Johannes IV. He and his successor Menelik (who ruled until 1913) turned Ethiopia into a serious regional power. The new capital was the city of Addis Ababa, which reflected the continuation of the movement of the center of the state to the south, which had been going on for 1500 years.
In 1896, Ethiopia was strong enough to repel the Italians and won an unconditional victory at the Battle of Adwa. It also became an empire - and Italy recognized its complete independence. From 1880 to 1900, Ethiopia tripled in size, gaining control of Tigray, several parts of Somalia, the Ogaden, and Eritrea, where it controlled the vastly different populations that had previously formed the core of the old kingdom.
The division of Africa between European powers reflected internal pressures from Europe rather than the action of any factors existing within Africa itself. Until the seventies of the 19th century, coastal forts and trading posts of European powers merely controlled trade routes to the interior of the continent. Only a few regions were officially divided between the colonial countries, and with the exception of the Cape of Good Hope (which was climatically suitable for European settlement) they all lay along the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, an area of great importance to European states. France captured Algeria in 1830, and Tunisia in 1881, the British dominated Egypt (although the French could not come to terms with this until 1904).
The division of sub-Saharan Africa was the result of the common fear among European powers that if one of them did not achieve recognition of their own zones of control, these zones would be seized by rivals. Agreement on a significant part of these sections was achieved at a conference in Berlin in 1885-1886 (the Americans also participated in it and achieved the right to free trade in key areas). The French gained much of West Africa, but the British also expanded their colonies on the Gold Coast and Nigeria. South Africa became largely British, as did much of East Africa. Germany received its first large colonies - Cameroon, South-West Africa and East Africa (later Tanganyika). The Portuguese greatly expanded their empire, gaining Angola and Mozambique. The Congo was given to the Belgian monarch as his private domain, and it only became part of Belgium proper in 1908, after two decades of extraordinary mismanagement, plunder of resources and barbaric treatment of the population. During the reign of the Belgian monarch, about 8 million Africans died in the Congo.
Diplomats drew lines on the map and created colonies, but they completely ignored the real situation in Africa. People from close national groups found themselves separated, and tribes that were very different from each other were brought together. But in Africa, maps generally meant little, and colonial rule was still in its infancy, a process that included decades of war. Between 1871 and the outbreak of World War I, the French, British, Germans and Portuguese fought only in colonial wars. Despite this, they still could not completely control their colonies. The last major rebellion of the Ashanti people in West Africa was suppressed in 1900, but only three years earlier the British were forced to abandon much of the Somali interior and limit their influence to the coastal strip (this situation did not change until 1920). In Morocco, by 1911 the French controlled only the eastern regions and the Atlantic coast; it took them another three years to conquer Fez and the Atlas Mountains. In 1909, the Spanish were defeated when they tried to extend control beyond their coastal enclaves. Although the Italians took Libya from the Turks in 1912, they controlled little more than the coastal strip there.
Even when conquest and pacification (“pacification” was a favorite word of the Europeans) were completed, the European powers faced a serious problem: they were both strong and weak. They were strong because they could ultimately mobilize enormous military power - but weak because they usually had only limited armed forces and a scattered administration in any of their colonies.
Map 73. Africa at the beginning of the 20th century
In Nigeria, the British had 4,000 soldiers and an equal number of police, but in these forces all but 75 officers were Africans. In Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) - an area the size of Britain, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland and the Benelux countries combined - the British had only a poorly equipped battalion of 750 Africans under the command of 19 British officers and 8 sergeants. At the beginning of the 20th century, French forces in West Africa (which had a population of 16 million people living in an area fourteen times the size of France) consisted of 2,700 French sergeants and officers, 230 interpreters, 6,000 armed African gardes civiles, 14,000 African troops and one battalion, staffed exclusively by the French.
Gardes civiles - civil guard. (Approx. Transl.)
European administration in the colonies was similarly small: in 1909, the British in the Ashanti and Gold Coast regions each had five officials per half a million local population. With the exception of a few countries such as Algeria, South Africa, Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, European settlement was almost non-existent. In 1914, only ninety-six Europeans (including missionaries) lived in Rwanda. Thus, to govern these colonies, Europeans had to rely on collaborator groups to rule on their behalf at the local level. Sometimes, as in the case of Buganda, local rulers were given almost complete freedom of action. In Northern Nigeria, the Hausa (Fulani states) structures with a predominantly urban population, a developed bureaucracy, courts, fiscal system and educated elite were simply incorporated into the imperial structures.
At the beginning of the 19th century, as a result of the Fulani uprising under the leadership of Osman dan Fodio, power in most of the Hausa states passed to the Fulani family nobility. (Approx. Transl.)
Elsewhere the process was more difficult, and often nobles local residents were appointed paid "chiefs" to govern artificially created "tribes".
The entire history of Africa consists of mysteries. And although this continent is rightfully considered the cradle of human civilization, scientists know very little about the actual history of Africa and its population.
Many thousands of years ago, Africa looked completely different from what it does now. The territory of the Sahara Desert, for example, was a savannah, a quite favorable area for settlement and agriculture, and was inhabited by people.
Throughout the Sahara, which was then a fertile territory, many household items have been found. This suggests that people here were engaged in farming, hunting and fishing, and also had their own culture.
It was at that time that the first Africa was born.
Subsequently, when the savannah began to turn into a desert, tribes and peoples moved south from here.
In sub-Saharan Africa, remains of ancient civilizations are also found. There are several of them and they are all notable for their advanced metalworking. 
History of the peoples of Africa
Judging by the finds of archaeologists, they learned to mine and process metals here long before this craft was mastered by other cultures. And it is known that the neighbors willingly traded with the residents of these places, since they were interested in purchasing high-quality metal products.
The entire Ancient East, Egypt, India and Palestine brought iron and gold from Africa. Even the Roman Empire constantly traded with the country of Ophir, as they called these rich lands. Of course, when ancient merchants came to buy goods, they also brought their household items, customs and legends here, which ensured the mixing of other continents.
The history of Africa has some modern historical information that one of the first places in Tropical Africa where civilization developed and took shape was Ghana, around the 3rd century BC. e. To the south and around it, their own centers of culture also developed.
It must be said that the civilizations developing in were not similar to the civilizations of the Mediterranean or the East. The colonialists subsequently took advantage of this, declaring them underdeveloped and primitive.
History of the ancient exploration of Africa
Perhaps the most well studied and described of all Africa is the Egyptian civilization, but in its history there are still many mysteries of the pharaohs.
It is known that the main trade routes ran here, and there was constant communication with other neighboring and more distant peoples. Cairo still remains the largest city in Africa, a center of interaction and trade between the peoples of Africa, Asia and Europe.
Much less studied is the ancient mountain civilization of Abyssinia, the center of which in ancient times was the city of Aksum. This is the territory of the Greater Horn of Africa. Here lies the oldest tectonic fault, a reef zone, and the mountains here reach heights of over 4000 meters.
The country's geographic location allowed for sovereign development with little influence from other cultures. It is here, as shown historical research and archaeological finds, and the birth of human race, in the territory modern country Ethiopia.
Modern study reveals to us more and more details about the development of mankind.
The culture here is interesting because this territory has never been colonized by anyone and has retained many amazing features to this day.
In the Middle Ages, the Arabs came to northern Africa. They had a strong influence on the formation of cultures throughout northern, western and eastern Africa.
Under their influence, trade began to develop faster in the area, and new cities appeared in Nubia, Sudan and East Africa.
A single region of Sudanese civilization is formed, stretching from Senegal to the modern Republic of Sudan.
New Muslim empires began to form. To the south of the Sudanese regions, their own cities are formed from the peoples of the local population.
Most African civilizations known to historians experienced their rise before the end of the 16th century.
Since that time, with the penetration of Europeans into the mainland and the development of the transatlantic slave trade, African cultures have declined. By the beginning of the 18th century, all of northern Africa (except Morocco) became part of Ottoman Empire. Towards the end of the 19th century, with the final division of Africa between European states, the colonial period began.
Africa is forcibly introduced by the conquerors to the industrial European civilization.
There is an artificial planting of lifestyles, relationships and cultures that were not previously characteristic of the area; robbery natural resources, the enslavement of major peoples and the destruction of authentic cultures and historical heritage.
History of Asia and Africa in the Middle Ages
By 1900, almost the entire continent was divided between the main European powers.
Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain and Portugal all had their own colonies, the boundaries of which were constantly adjusted and revised.
After World War II, the reverse process of decolonization began quickly.
But previously, all boundaries of colonial territories were drawn artificially, without taking into account the differences in peoples and the settlement of tribes. After they were granted independence, civil wars immediately began in almost all countries. 
The power of dictators internecine wars, constant military coups and, as a consequence, economic crises and growing poverty - all this was and remains a profitable activity of the ruling circles of all kinds of civilized countries.
In general, upon closer examination we can see that the history of Africa and Russia are very similar to each other.
Both lands were and remain a rich storehouse of not only natural resources, but also the most interesting and necessary sources of knowledge of the authentic cultures of local peoples.
Unfortunately, at present, on both lands, it is increasingly difficult to find historical truth and valuable knowledge of the ancient great tribes among the remains of information about the local population.
In the 20th century, the history of African countries, as well as Russia, experienced the disastrous effect socialist ideas and management experiments various kinds dictators. This led to total poverty of peoples, to the impoverishment of the intellectual and spiritual heritage of countries.
However, both here and there there remains sufficient potential for revival and further development local peoples.
Africa, whose history is full of secrets, mysteries in the distant past and bloody political events in the present it is a continent called the cradle of humanity. The huge continent occupies one fifth of all the land on the planet, its lands are rich in diamonds and minerals. In the north there are lifeless, harsh and hot deserts, in the south - virgin tropical forests with many endemic species of plants and animals. It is impossible not to note the diversity of peoples and ethnic groups on the continent; their number fluctuates around several thousand. Small tribes numbering two villages and large nations- creators of the unique and inimitable culture of the “black” continent.
How many countries are on the continent, where they are located and the history of the study, countries - you will learn all this from the article.
From the history of the continent
The history of African development is one of the most current issues in archaeology. Moreover, if Ancient Egypt has attracted scientists since the ancient period, the rest of the mainland remained in the “shadow” until the 19th century. The continent's prehistoric era is the longest in human history. It was on it that the earliest traces of hominids living in the territory of modern Ethiopia were discovered. The history of Asia and Africa went in a special way, due to their geographical location, they were connected by trade and political relations even before the onset of the Bronze Age.
It is documented that the first trip around the continent was made by the Egyptian pharaoh Necho in 600 BC. In the Middle Ages, Europeans began to show interest in Africa and actively developed trade with eastern peoples. The first expeditions to the distant continent were organized by a Portuguese prince; it was then that Cape Boyador was discovered and the erroneous conclusion was made that it was the most southern point Africa. Years later, another Portuguese, Bartolomeo Dias, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487. After the success of his expedition, other major European powers flocked to Africa. As a result, by the beginning of the 16th century, all territories of the western sea coast were discovered by the Portuguese, British and Spaniards. At the same time, the colonial history of African countries and the active slave trade began.
Geographical position
Africa is the second largest continent, with an area of 30.3 million square meters. km. It stretches from south to north over a distance of 8000 km, and from east to west - 7500 km. The continent is characterized by a predominance of flat terrain. In the northwestern part there are the Atlas Mountains, and in the Sahara Desert - the Tibesti and Ahaggar highlands, in the east - the Ethiopian, in the south - the Drakensberg and Cape Mountains.
The geographical history of Africa is closely connected with the British. Having appeared on the mainland in the 19th century, they actively explored it, discovering natural objects stunning in their beauty and grandeur: Victoria Falls, Lakes Chad, Kivu, Edward, Albert, etc. In Africa there is one of the largest rivers in the world - the Nile, which the beginning of time was the cradle of Egyptian civilization.
The continent is the hottest on the planet, the reason for this is its geographical position. The entire territory of Africa is located in hot climatic zones and crossed by the equator.
The continent is exceptionally rich in mineral resources. The whole world knows the largest deposits of diamonds in Zimbabwe and South Africa, gold in Ghana, Congo and Mali, oil in Algeria and Nigeria, iron and lead-zinc ores on the northern coast.
Beginning of colonization
The colonial history of Asian and African countries has very deep roots, dating back to ancient times. The first attempts to subjugate these lands were made by Europeans back in the 7th-5th centuries. BC, when numerous Greek settlements appeared along the shores of the continent. This was followed by a long period of Hellenization of Egypt as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Then, under the pressure of numerous Roman troops, almost the entire northern coast of Africa was consolidated. However, it underwent very little Romanization; the indigenous Berber tribes simply went deeper into the desert.
Africa in the Middle Ages
During the period of the decline of the Byzantine Empire, the history of Asia and Africa made a sharp turn in the direction completely opposite to European civilization. The activated Berbers finally destroyed the centers of Christian culture in North Africa, “clearing” the territory for new conquerors - the Arabs, who brought Islam with them and pushed aside Byzantine Empire. By the seventh century, the presence of early European states in Africa was practically reduced to zero.
A radical turning point came only in the final stages of the Reconquista, when mainly the Portuguese and Spaniards reconquered the Iberian Peninsula and turned their gaze to the opposite shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. In the 15th and 16th centuries they pursued an active policy of conquest in Africa, capturing a number of strongholds. At the end of the 15th century. they were joined by the French, English and Dutch.
The new history of Asia and Africa, due to many factors, turned out to be closely interconnected. Trade south of the Sahara Desert, actively developed by the Arab states, led to the gradual colonization of the entire eastern part of the continent. West Africa survived. Arab neighborhoods appeared, but Moroccan attempts to subjugate this territory were unsuccessful.
Race for Africa
The colonial division of the continent in the period from the second half of the 19th century until the outbreak of the First World War was called the “race for Africa.” This time was characterized by fierce and intense competition between the leading imperialist powers of Europe for conducting military operations and research work in the region, which were ultimately aimed at capturing new lands. The process developed especially strongly after the adoption of the General Act at the Berlin Conference in 1885, which proclaimed the principle of effective occupation. The division of Africa culminated in the military conflict between France and Great Britain in 1898, which occurred in the Upper Nile.
By 1902, 90% of Africa was under European control. Only Liberia and Ethiopia managed to defend their independence and freedom. With the outbreak of the First World War, the colonial race ended, as a result of which almost all of Africa was divided. The history of the development of colonies followed different paths, depending on whose protectorate it was under. The largest possessions were in France and Great Britain, with slightly smaller ones in Portugal and Germany. For Europeans, Africa was an important source of raw materials, minerals and cheap labor.
Year of Independence
The year 1960 is considered a turning point, when one after another young African states began to emerge from the control of the metropolises. Of course, the process did not begin and end in such a short period. However, it was 1960 that was proclaimed “African”.
Africa, whose history did not develop in isolation from the rest of the world, found itself, one way or another, also drawn into the Second world war. The northern part of the continent was affected by hostilities, the colonies were struggling to provide the mother countries with raw materials and food, as well as people. Millions of Africans took part in the hostilities, many of them subsequently “settled” in Europe. Despite the global political situation for the “black” continent, the war years were marked by economic growth; this was the time when roads, ports, airfields and runways, enterprises and factories, etc. were built.
The history of African countries received a new turn after the adoption by England, which confirmed the right of peoples to self-determination. And although politicians tried to explain that they were talking about peoples occupied by Japan and Germany, the colonies interpreted the document in their favor as well. In matters of gaining independence, Africa was far ahead of the more developed Asia.
Despite the undisputed right to self-determination, the Europeans were in no hurry to “let” their colonies float freely, and in the first decade after the war, any protests for independence were brutally suppressed. A precedent-setting case was when the British in 1957 granted freedom to Ghana, the most economically developed state. By the end of 1960, half of Africa had achieved independence. However, as it turned out, this did not guarantee anything.
If you pay attention to the map, you will notice that Africa, whose history is very tragic, is divided into countries by clear and even lines. The Europeans did not delve into the ethnic and cultural realities of the continent, simply dividing the territory at their own discretion. As a result, many peoples were divided into several states, others united in one along with sworn enemies. After independence, all this gave rise to numerous ethnic conflicts, civil wars, military coups and genocide.
Freedom was gained, but no one knew what to do with it. The Europeans left, taking with them everything they could take. Almost all systems, including education and healthcare, had to be created from scratch. There were no personnel, no resources, no foreign policy connections.
Countries and dependent territories of Africa
As mentioned above, the history of the discovery of Africa began a very long time ago. However, the invasion of Europeans and centuries of colonialism led to the fact that modern independent states on the mainland were formed literally in the mid-second half of the twentieth century. It is difficult to say whether the right to self-determination has brought prosperity to these places. Africa is still considered the most backward continent in development, yet it has all the necessary resources for a normal life.
Currently, the continent is inhabited by 1,037,694,509 people - this is about 14% of the total population of the globe. The mainland is divided into 62 countries, but only 54 of them are recognized as independent by the world community. Of these, 10 are island states, 37 have wide access to the seas and oceans, and 16 are inland.
In theory, Africa is a continent, but in practice it is often joined by nearby islands. Some of them are still owned by Europeans. Including the French Reunion, Mayotte, Portuguese Madeira, Spanish Melilla, Ceuta, Canary Islands, English Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha and Ascension.
African countries are conventionally divided into 4 groups depending on southern and eastern. Sometimes the central region is also isolated separately.
North African countries
North Africa is a very vast region with an area of about 10 million m2, most of which is occupied by the Sahara Desert. It is here that the largest mainland countries by territory are located: Sudan, Libya, Egypt and Algeria. There are eight states in the northern part, so the SADR, Morocco, and Tunisia should be added to those listed.
The modern history of the countries of Asia and Africa (northern region) is closely interconnected. By the beginning of the 20th century, the territory was completely under the protectorate of European countries; they gained independence in the 50-60s. last century. Geographical proximity to another continent (Asia and Europe) and traditional long-standing trade and economic ties with it played a role. In terms of development, North Africa is in a much better position compared to South Africa. The only exception, perhaps, is Sudan. Tunisia has the most competitive economy on the entire continent, Libya and Algeria produce gas and oil that they export, Morocco mines phosphate rocks. The predominant share of the population is still employed in the agricultural sector. An important sector of the economy of Libya, Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco is developing tourism.
The largest city with more than 9 million inhabitants is Egyptian Cairo, the population of others does not exceed 2 million - Casablanca, Alexandria. Most of Northern Africans live in cities, are Muslim and speak Arabic. In some countries, one of the official ones is considered French. The territory of North Africa is rich in monuments ancient history and architecture, natural objects.
The development of the ambitious European Desertec project is also planned here - the construction of the largest system of solar power plants in the Sahara Desert.
West Africa
The territory of West Africa extends south of central Sahara, washed by the Atlantic Ocean, and bounded in the east by the Cameroon Mountains. There are savannas and tropical forests, as well as complete absence vegetation in the Sahel. Before the Europeans set foot on the shores, states such as Mali, Ghana and Songhai already existed in this part of Africa. Guinea region for a long time called “a grave for whites” because of dangerous diseases unusual for Europeans: fever, malaria, sleeping sickness, etc. Currently, the group of Western African countries includes: Cameroon, Ghana, Gambia, Burkina Faso, Benin, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Liberia, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Niger, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo, Senegal.
The recent history of African countries in the region is marred by military clashes. The territory is torn by numerous conflicts between English-speaking and French-speaking former European colonies. Contradictions lie not only in the language barrier, but also in worldviews and mentalities. There are hot spots in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
Road communications are very poorly developed and, in fact, are a legacy of the colonial period. West African countries are among the poorest in the world. While Nigeria, for example, has huge oil reserves.
East Africa
The geographic region that includes countries east of the Nile River (excluding Egypt) is called the Cradle of Humankind by anthropologists. This is where, in their opinion, our ancestors lived.
The region is extremely unstable, conflicts turn into wars, including very often civil ones. Almost all of them are formed on ethnic grounds. East Africa is inhabited by more than two hundred peoples belonging to four linguistic groups. During the colonial times, the territory was divided without taking this fact into account; as already mentioned, cultural and natural ethnic boundaries were not respected. The potential for conflict greatly hinders the development of the region.
The following countries belong to East Africa: Mauritius, Kenya, Burundi, Zambia, Djibouti, Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, Rwanda, Mozambique, Seychelles, Uganda, Tanzania, Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Eritrea.
South Africa
The Southern African region occupies an impressive part of the continent. It contains five countries. Namely: Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa. They all united in the South African Customs Union, which produces and trades mainly in oil and diamonds.
The recent history of Africa in the south is associated with the name of the famous politician Nelson Mandela (pictured), who dedicated his life to the fight for the freedom of the region from the metropolises.
South Africa, of which he was president for 5 years, is now the most developed country on the mainland and the only one that is not classified as a “third world”. Its developed economy allows it to take 30th place among all countries according to the IMF. It has very rich reserves of natural resources. Botswana's economy is also one of the most successful in terms of development in Africa. In the first place are livestock breeding and agriculture, and mining of diamonds and minerals is carried out on a large scale.
Ok, 4 million years ago - 1 million years ago
In Africa, Australopithecus (Australopithecus) - anthropoid primates - appears - remains in Ethiopia, Olduvai (Northern Tanzania in East Africa), near Lake. Chad, in Ubaidiya, Kenya
2 million years ago - 800 thousand years ago
Olduvai era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic).
OK. 1.7 million years ago
The appearance of the “handy man” - remains in Olduvai (Northern Tanzania)
1.2 million years ago
The appearance of Pithecanthropus - remains in Olduvai (Tanzania), Ternifin, Sidi Abdurrahman (North Africa)
OK. 800-60 thousand years ago
Acheulean era of the ancient stone age - improvement of stone tool processing techniques
OK. 100-40 thousand years ago
Paleolithic Sango culture in Central Africa
OK. 60-30 thousand years ago
Middle Paleolithic - Ater culture in North Africa. Neanderthal man in Africa
39 thousand years ago - 14th thousand BC
The oldest Upper Paleolithic culture in Africa is Dabba (Cyrenaica)
OK. 35 thousand years ago
Formation of a modern person
OK. 13th millennium - 10th millennium BC
Oran (Ibero-Moorish) culture of the late Upper Paleolithic in North Africa
10th millennium - 2nd millennium BC
Capsian culture in North Africa (Mesolithic - Middle Stone Age)
6th millennium BC
The emergence of ceramics and domesticated animals. Beginning of the Neolithic in North Africa
5th millennium BC
Cattle breeding and agriculture in Egypt, Sahara, Sudan
First half of the 4th millennium BC
The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations in Egypt. First predynastic period. Irrigated agriculture in the Nile Valley
XXXI-XXIX centuries BC.
Early Kingdom (1st-11th Dynasties)
OK. 3000 BC
Pharaoh Menes unites Upper and Lower Egypt, founds the capital in Memphis and the 1st dynasty
XXVIII century BC.
III dynasty. Construction of the first pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser in Giza
XXVII centuries BC.
IV dynasty. Construction of the largest pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Khefre) and Menkaure (Mykerin)
Mid-XXIII-mid-XXI century. BC.
Transitional period (VII-X dynasties).
The collapse of Egypt into separate nomes and the struggle of Heracleopolis and Thebes for hegemony
Mid-21st century XVIII century BC.
Middle Kingdom (XI-XIII Dynasties)
XXI century BC.
Unification of Egypt by the founder of the 11th Dynasty, Pharaoh Mentuhotep
XX-XVIII centuries BC.
The reign of the XII Dynasty, founded by Pharaoh Amenemhet. Rise of Egypt under Senusret III and Amenemhet III
End of the 18th century - 17th century BC.
I Transition period. Popular uprisings and the conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos. XV-XVI (Hyksos dynasties)
1680-1580 BC.
XVII dynasty in Egypt.
OK. 1580 BC
Expulsion of the Hyksos by Pharaoh Thmose I, founder of the 18th Dynasty
1580-1070 BC.
New Kingdom (XVIII-XX dynasties)
1580 - MIDDLE XIV CENTURY B.C.
XVIII dynasty in Egypt 1450s. BC.
Pharaoh's conquests Thutmose III to Nubia, Syria and Palestine
1372-1354 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)
354-1345 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Tutankhaten (Tutankhamun)
Mid-XIV century - end of XIII century. BC.
Reign of the 19th Dynasty
301-1235 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II. The heyday of the Egyptian state and culture. Hiking in Vostochnoye
Mediterranean. Creation of the Egyptian Empire
235-1215 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Merneptah. Exodus of Jews from Egypt
XIII C.-BEGINNING XII century BC
Invasion of Egypt by the Libyans of the “Sea Peoples” (Aegean)
III-XIII centuries BC.
Formation state entities in Libya
198-1166 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Ramesses III (XX Dynasty)
XII century BC
Liberation of Phenicia from Egyptian rule
II century BC.
Phoenicians founded trading colonies in North Africa
XI CENTURY B.C. - MID X CENTURY. BC.
Transitional period (XXI dynasty). The disintegration of Egypt into Lower and Upper. Capture of the Nile Delta by the Libyans
2nd THOUSAND BC.
State of Kush in Nubia with its capital in Napata (modern Sudan)
1050-950 BC.
Later Kingdom (Libyan-Sai and Persian period)
OK. 950-730 BC.
XXII-XXIII (Libyan) dynasties
OK. 950-930 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I (Susakim). Shoshenq's campaign in Judea, capture and plunder of Jerusalem
Mid-9th century BC.
The disintegration of Egypt into fiefs
825 or 814 BC
Founding of Carthage by Phoenicians, immigrants from Tire
715 BC
Conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopians
715-664 BC.
Unification of Egypt and Kush into one state
674 and 671 BC.
The campaigns of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in Egypt, the conquest of Egypt by the Assyrians
667-665 BC.
Liberation of Egypt
663-525 BC.
XXVI (Sais) dynasty, founded by Pharaoh Psammetichus I. Renaissance of Egypt
610-595 BC.
Reign of Pharaoh Necho II. Construction of a canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas
OK. 600 BC
Expedition of Phoenician sailors around Africa
525 BC
Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. XXVII (Persian) dynasty, founded by the Persian king Cambyses
525-404 BC.
Revolt against Persian rule
Liberation of Egypt from Persian rule
404-341 BC.
XXVI11-XXX dynasties in Egypt, founded by local leaders
OK. 400 BC
The beginning of the migration from west to east and south of Bantu tribes with metallurgical skills
343 BC
Secondary conquest of Egypt by the Persians, foundation of the XXXI (Persian) dynasty
332 BC
Conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great. Founding of Alexandria
305-283 BC.
Rule of Ptolemy I in Egypt. Formation of the Ptolemaic Empire!*
Con. IV.- beginning Ill in. BC.
Transfer of the capital of Ethiopia from Napata to Meroe. State of Meroe
III century BC.
The emergence of state formations in Numidia and Mauretania
274-217 BC.
Wars between Egypt and the Persian Seleucid power for control of Palestine
264-241 BC.
IPunic War of Rome and Carthage
256-250 BC.
Roman invasion North Africa, and their defeat by the Carthaginians
218-201 BC.
I Punic War of Rome and Carthage
202 BC
Roman commander Scipio Africanus defeats the Carthaginian commander Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, end of the Second Punic War
149-146 BC.
IIIPunic War
146 BC
Capture and destruction of Carthage by the Romans. Formation of the Roman province of Africa
111-105 BC.
The Jugurthine War between Rome and Numidia, which ended with the defeat of the Numidians and the dismemberment of Numidia
OK. 100 BC
Formation of the Kingdom of Aksum (in the territory of modern Eritrea and Ethiopia)
48 BC
The flight of the Roman general and politician Pompey to Egypt after its defeat by Julius Caesar. Assassination of Pompey by order of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar in Egypt. Exile of Cleopatra VII to Syria
32 BC
The breakup of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian with Mark Antony. Rome's war against Egypt, where Antony and Cleopatra VII were in power
31 BC
The defeat of Antony's fleet at Cape Actium, the flight of Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria
30 BC
Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra. Egypt becomes a Roman province
OK. 25 BC
Kushites from Meroe invade Egypt, Napata is captured and sacked by the Romans
Capture of Mauretania (modern Algeria and eastern regions of Morocco) by the Roman Emperor Caligula
Decline of the Kingdom of Meroe
Unrest in North Africa and Egypt against Roman rule
Egyptian missionaries convert King Ezan of Aksum to Christianity
Ezan conquers the kingdom of Meroe
St. Augustine Aurelius (354-430) - theologian, Church Father, bishop of Hippo (North Africa)
Sea Peoples from Indonesia begin resettlement in Madagascar
The Vandal invasion of North Africa, their capture of Carthage and the formation of the Vandal Kingdom
533-534 Byzantine armies under the command of the commander Belisarius conquer northern Africa from the Vandals
VII/VIII-XVI centuries.
State of Aloa (in the southern part of modern Sudan)
Conquest of Egypt by Sasanian king Khosrow II
Byzantine Emperor Heraclius I restores Byzantine power over Egypt
Arab conquest of Egypt
Arab invasion of Tunisia
Arab troops destroy the Byzantine city of Carthage. Arab conquest of North Africa
The Berber uprising against the Umayyads (Arab caliphs) and their creation of an independent state in the north of the Sahara
Aghlabid state in Tunisia and Algeria
The kingdom of Kanem is formed on the western shore of Lake Chad
Tulunid Dynasty in Egypt
Ikshidid Dynasty in Egypt
I Fatimid Caliphate in the Maghreb (Tunisia, Algeria)
Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimids
Almoravid rule in the Maghreb
Reign of the Barbary Almohad dynasty in northwest Africa
Overthrow of the Almoravids by the Almohads
The Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt, founded by the famous Turkic Sultan Salah ad-Din
The legendary state of Kitara in Central Africa
Capture of the Damietta fortress in the Nile Delta by the Crusaders during the 5th Crusade
7th crusade led by King Louis IX, defeat of the Crusaders by the Egyptians, capture of the king
In Egypt, the Mamluks (slave guards) seize power, the beginning of the dynasty of Mamluk sultans (until 1517)
8th Crusade. Death of Louis IX from fever in Tunisia. End of the Crusades
The state of Benin emerges on the west coast of Africa
Plague epidemic ("Black Death") in Egypt
Crusaders led by the King of Cyprus capture and plunder Alexandria, Egypt
The Kingdom of Songhai separates from the Empire of Mali
Portuguese expeditions to Africa to search for the "Country of Ophir"
The first batch of African slaves arrived in Lisbon
Portuguese sailors reach the Cape Verde Islands in West Africa
Wattasid Dynasty in Morocco
Songhai Empire conquers Timbuktu
The Spanish-Portuguese Treaty of Toledo gives Portugal exclusive rights in Africa
The ruler of the Congo converts to Christianity
Waskode Gama Expedition around Africa to India
Muslim conquest of the Christian state of Soba in Nubia
The Ottoman Turks under the leadership of Sultan Selim conquer Egypt, the end of the Mamluk dynasty
Beginning of the African slave trade in America
Ottoman Turks conquer Algeria
Saadian dynasty in Morocco
Portuguese expedition to the Zambezi River
Portuguese attempts to conquer the kingdom of Mwenemutapa
Morocco expands its territory to the south and west of the Sahara and conquers the city of Touath
Portuguese victory over the Turks near the city of Mambasa in eastern Africa
The Moroccans invade Songhai, inflict a crushing defeat on the empire's military forces at the Battle of Tondibi, and destroy the city of Gao. End of the Songhai Empire
The Dutch seize two islands off the west coast of Africa that belonged to the Portuguese for the slave trade.
France annexes Madagascar
Huguenots, refugees from France, arrive in southern Africa
Completion of the French conquest of Senegal
The Dutch move east through the Hottentot Dutch Mountains
France takes the island of Mauritius from the Dutch
The Dutch begin importing slaves to the Cape Colony in southern Africa.
Mazrui, Governor of Mombasa, declares his independence from the Sultan of Oman
In West Africa, Ashanti warriors defeat Dagomba warriors.
Mohammed XVI becomes ruler of Morocco
The British recapture Senegal from the French
In South Africa, Dutch farmers move north and cross the Orange River
Declaration of Egyptian independence from the Ottoman Empire by Mamluk ruler Ali Bey
Restoration of Turkish rule over Egypt
The first "inspection" war in South Africa between the local Xhosa tribes and Dutch farmers (Boers)
Foundation of the British Society for the Prohibition of the African Slave Trade
Second "inspection" war between the Boers and Xhosa people over land in South Africa
Egyptian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte
Turkish governor Muhammad Ali seizes power in Egypt
Prohibition of the slave trade throughout the British Empire
Boer rebellion in South Africa, suppressed by British troops
Prohibition of the slave trade in France
The beginning of the Mfecan Wars in southern Africa, associated with the expansion of the Zulu people
Annexation of Sierra Leone, Gold Coast (modern Ghana) and Gambia to British West Africa
The British war against the Ashanti people in West Africa
Expulsion of the French from Madagascar
The British leave Mombasa
French invasion of Algeria, occupation of the cities of Algiers and Oran
Mfecane Wars spread to northern Zimbabwe
The great migration of the Boers in South Africa to the north, caused by persecution by the British
Mfecane Wars Spread into Northern Zambia and Malawi
Turks overthrow local dynasty in Tripoli and establish direct rule
The Boers in Natal defeat the Zulu people
Anti-colonial Zulu revolt
Liberia becomes an independent republic
In Gabon, the French found the city of Libreville as a refuge for escaped slaves.
Boers create independent Transvaal Republic
British recognition of the Orange State created by the Boers
D. Livingston makes the first European expedition to cross Africa from east to west. Discovery of Victoria Falls
Transvaal becomes the Republic of South Africa with its capital Pretoria
The French found the city of Dakar in Senegal.
Conflict over the enclaves of Ceuta and Melil leads to the invasion of Morocco by Portuguese troops
Construction of the Suez Canal begins
The reign of Ismail Pasha in Egypt, the expansion of Egypt's autonomy, the implementation of reforms
Opening of the Suez Canal
Expedition to Central Africa of the American journalist Henry Stanley, his meeting with Livingston, who was considered missing
Zulu war against the British in South Africa
Boer revolt in the Transvaal against the British, proclamation of a republic
The journey of the Russian geographer V.V. Juncker, his description of the river basin. Uele and the identification of the part
Nile-Congo watershed
Conquest of Tunisia by the French
Liberation movement in Egypt under the leadership of Arab Pasha. Occupation of Egypt by England
Muhammad Ahmed declares himself the Mahdi (messiah) and starts a rebellion in Sudan.
French Colonial War in Madagascar
The beginning of German colonial conquests in Africa
Expulsion of Anglo-Egyptian troops from Sudan. Formation of the Mahdist government
"Ucciali" Italo-Ethiopian Treaty. Annexation by Italy of part of Somalia
The French defeat the Zulu people in West Africa
France captures Timbuktu and drives out the Tuaregs
French occupation of Madagascar
Italo-Ethiopian War. Peace Treaty in Addis Ababa Guaranteeing Ethiopian Independence
Anglo-French Convention on the Division of Colonial Possessions in Africa
Boer War
France seizes the main oases in the Sahara south of Morocco and Algeria
France and Italy enter into a secret agreement that gives France control
over Morocco, and Italy over Libya
French troops defeat the African leader Rabeh Zabeir in the Lake Chad region
The end of the Anglo-Boer War. Loss of independence by the Boers
Suppression of the uprising of the Herero people in German South-West Africa, extreme cruelty of the reprisal
Congo annexed by Belgium
The French completed the conquest of Mauritania
Britain gives the Union of South Africa dominion status
Occupation of the Moroccan capital Fetz by French troops. German military pressure forces France to cede part of the Congo, for which the French receive freedom of action in Morocco
Britain bombards Dar es Salaam, the administrative center of German East Africa. Defeat of British troops at Tanga (in Tanganyika)
Britain declares a protectorate over Egypt
South African and Portuguese troops capture Dar es Salaam
German troops invade Portuguese East Africa
German troops invade Rhodesia
Britain receives Tanganyika from Germany and shares Cameroon and Togo with France
According to an international agreement, the sale of alcohol and weapons is limited in Africa
The French create a colony in Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso)
Egypt becomes a self-governing monarchy
Slavery abolished in Ethiopia
International Convention assigns responsibility for the abolition of slavery to the League of Nations
The adoption by the English Parliament of the Statute of Westminster, which granted the dominions sovereign rights in the field of foreign and domestic policy. Transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations
B. Mussolini proclaims the transformation of Libya into an Italian colony
Constitution in Egypt
Italian annexation of Ethiopia
Anglo-Egyptian treaty of alliance, preservation of English occupation forces in Egypt
New electoral law in the Union of South Africa that disenfranchises indigenous people
Declaration of war on Germany by the Union of South Africa
The British defeat Italian troops and capture Torbruk and Benghazi in Libya. German troops enter North Africa and besiege the British at Torbruk
British and American troops land in Morocco and Algeria. British offensive in Egypt
German troops capture Torbruk. British units, having won the Battle of El Alamein, stop the German offensive on Cairo
American troops join British forces in Tunisia. German surrender in North Africa
Establishment of the apartheid regime in the Union of South Africa
British troops occupy the Suez Canal zone
Libyan independence
The beginning of the revolution in Egypt
Formation of a national government in the British colony of the Gold Coast
The Mau Mau secret society organizes terrorist attacks against British settlers in Kenya
Eritrea becomes part of Ethiopia
Proclamation of the Egyptian Republic (under 1956 President Gamal Abdel Nasser)
Nigeria becomes a self-governing federation
Declaration of independence of the Republic of Sudan.
Nationalization of the Suez Canal. Egypt's reflection of the aggression of England, France and Israel caused by this act
Independence of Sudan and Morocco
Formation of the General Union of Workers of Black Africa
Declaration of independence of Ghana (unification of the former colonies of the Gold Coast and Togoland)
Independence of the Republic of Guinea
Independence of Algeria, creation of the FLN - united government
Niger, Upper Volta, Coast Ivory, Dahomey, Senegal, Mauritania, Congo and Gabon
receive limited independence from France
“Year of Africa” - liberation from colonial dependence of Eastern Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the Republic of Dahomey, the Republic of Ghana, the Republic of Niger, the Republic of Upper Volta,
Republic of Chad, Republic of Ivory Coast, Republic of Togo, Gabonese Republic,
Nigeria, the Republic of Mali, the Central African Republic, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the Republic of Somalia and the Republic of Madagascar.
Mutiny and Belgian occupation in the Congo, removal of Prime Minister P. Lumumba from office
(killed in 1961) and the transfer of power to dictator General J. Mobutu
Revolt of French settlers against Algerian independence plans
South African troops shoot protesters in Sharpeville
Military coup in Congo (Zaire). Renaming the Union of South Africa to the Republic of South Africa and its withdrawal from the British Commonwealth
Unification of Eastern and Southern Cameroon, formation of the Federal Republic of Cameroon 1961-1968.
Declaration of independence of Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar, Zambia, Botswana, Madagascar and Mauritius
End of the Algerian War. Algeria seeks independence
Proclamation of Nigeria as a federal republic
In South Africa, the leader of the African National Congress (ANC) N. Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment
Establishment of the apartheid regime in Southern Rhodesia
Coup in Algeria, the rise to power in Algeria of H. Boumediene
Independence of the Republic of the Gambia
Establishment of a military dictatorship in Ghana. Military coup in Burkina Faso
Military coups and separatist insurgency in Nigeria
Bechuanaland becomes an independent state - Botswana
Basutoland becomes the independent state of Lesotho
Abolition of the monarchy in Uganda
The state of Biafra declares itself independent from Nigeria. Civil war begins
Military coup in Mali
Swaziland becomes an independent kingdom
Equatorial Guinea gains independence from Spain
Military coup in Somalia. The head of the regime, S. Barre, is heading towards building a Greater Somalia at the expense of the territories of neighboring states
Military coup in Sudan
Overthrow of the monarchy in Libya. Transfer of power in the country to the leader of the Revolutionary Command Council M. Gaddafi
Constitution in Morocco, restoration of parliament
Rhodesia becomes a republic
Military coup in Uganda. Sergeant Idi Amin - “the black Hitler of Africa” - comes to power
Egypt, Libya and Syria form the Federation of Arab Republics
Military coups in Ghana and Madagascar
Military coups in Burkina Faso and Niger
Revolution in Ethiopia, the deposition of the emperor and the proclamation of a republic. Start civil war
The third stage of decolonization of Africa. Declaration of independence of Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Comoros, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles and Western Sahara, Zimbabwe
The beginning of the civil war in Angola, which took on the character of an international conflict
Military coup in Nigeria
Transformation of the Central African Republic into the Central African Empire. President J. Bokassa is crowned with the imperial crown
The head of Ethiopia, M. Haile Mariam, is heading towards building a Marxist-socialist economic model in the country
Proclamation of Libya as Jamahiriya
War between Ethiopia and Somalia over the Ogaden. Defeat of Somalia
Military coups in Mauritania and the Seychelles
Military coups in Guinea and the Seychelles
Nigeria's military hands over power to civilian government
London Accords establishing the multiracial state of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)
Military coups in Burkina Faso and Liberia
Libya occupies the Republic of Chad
Zonal coup in the Central African Empire. Restoration of the Republic
Assassination of President A. Sadat in Egypt; Hosni Mubarak becomes president
Military coup in Nigeria
Restoration of the presidential republic in Guinea
Establishment of a military dictatorship in Guinea
South African President P. Botha gives limited political rights to "people of Asian descent and coloured"
Military coups in Nigeria, Uganda and Sudan
The US and EU countries impose economic sanctions against South Africa
Military coup in Burkina Faso
Troops of the Republic of Chad, with the help of the French Foreign Legion, expel Libyans from the northern regions
Withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola
Ethnic conflict in Rwanda, which involves Uganda, Burundi, Zaire
The release of N. Mandela from prison in South Africa
The collapse of the regimes of M. Haile Mariam in Ethiopia and S. Barre in Somalia
Victory of Islamic fundamentalists in elections in Algeria. The government is eliminating the election results and is committed to accelerating market reforms
Adoption of international sanctions against Libya due to the participation of its citizens in terrorist acts
Military coup in Sierra Leone. Beginning of the Somali Civil War
Algerian President M. Boudiaf was killed by an Islamic extremist
Proclamation of independence of the province of Eritrea! from Ethiopia
The presidents of Burundi and Rwanda die in a plane crash. Tribal conflicts erupt in Rwanda and civil war begins
In Khartoum (Sudan), the terrorist “Carlos” was arrested and transported to France, where there should be a trial
In South Africa, the African National Congress wins the elections. N. Mandela becomes president.
Cameroon and Mozambique join the British Commonwealth
In Zaire, rebel forces led by L. Kabila force President J. Mobutu to leave the country and go into exile
Ghanaian diplomat Kofi Annan becomes UN Secretary General
Military conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia
M. Gaddafi extradites Libyan terrorists to the international community. Easing international sanctions against Libya